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Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

TERM: I
NAME: _______________________ REF: 2024-25/ BIO/ T1/ STD 9/ HO-01

CLASS: ___________________ SUBJECT: Biological Science

DATE: 19/04/24 TOPIC: Cell - Fundamental-Unit of life

The smallest functional unit of life is cell, discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665. A cell can
independently perform all necessary activities to sustain life. Hence cell is the basic unit of
life. There are two types of cells → plant cell and animal cell.

Discovery of Cells: Robert Hooke (1665)

He observed thin slice of cork under a microscope. They looked similar to cellula or small
rooms which monks inhabited, thus the name.He saw dead plant cells of cork, which were
empty.

Fig 1: Robert Hooke’s drawing of cork cells

In 1839, Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann formulated the Cell theory. The theory
was further expanded by Robert Virchow in 1855 by suggesting all cells arise from pre-
existing cells.

With the discovery of the Electron microscope in 1940, it was possible to observe and
understand the complex structure of the cell and its various organelles.

The Modern Cell Theory is as follows:

1. All living things are composed of one or more cells.

2. Cell is the basic unit of life.

3. All new cells arise from pre-existing cells.

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4. Cells carry genetic material which is passed to daughter cells during cellular division.

5. All cells are essentially the same in chemical composition.

6. All metabolic activities needed for existence of life occurs in cells.

Cells
A cell is the smallest unit of a living thing and is the basic building block of all organisms.

• A living thing can be composed of either one cell or many cells.

• Unicellular organism, a single cell may constitute a whole organism. Example-
Amoeba, Paramecium and bacteria.
• In Multicellular organism, many cells group together in a single body and assume
different functions in it to form various body parts. Example- some fungi, plants and
animals.
• Shape and Size of Cells: 1. Cells vary in shape and size. They may be oval, spherical,
rectangular, spindle shaped, or totally irregular like the nerve cell.
2. The size of cell also varies in different organisms. Most of the cells are microscopic
in size like red blood cells (RBC) while some cells are fairly large like nerve cells.
• There are two broad categories of cells: prokaryotic (pro = primitive; karyon =
nucleus) and eukaryotic (eu = true; karyon = nucleus) cells.

Prokaryotic cells

• The cells having nuclear material without a nuclear membrane around it.
• Organisms made of prokaryotic cells are called prokaryotes.
• Small cells of Bacteria and blue green algae that do not contain a membrane-bound
nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles. The nuclear material in a bacterium is

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 in direct contact with the cytoplasm. Such an undefined nuclear region containing only
nucleic acids is called a nucleoid
• They were probably the first living things to evolve on the earth!

Fig 2: Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cell

Eukaryotic cells

• The cells having nuclear material enclosed by a nuclear membrane.

• Organisms made of eukaryotic cells are called eukaryotes.
• Plants, animals, fungi and protozoa are all eukaryotes.

STRUCTURE OF AN ANIMAL CELL

Fig 3: ANIMAL CELL

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 STRUCTURE OF A PLANT CELL

Fig 4: PLANT CELL

The different cell organelles and their functions are as follows:

Plasma/Cell membrane: This is the outermost covering of the cell that separates the
contents of the cell from its external environment. It is composed of phospholipid bilayer,
cholesterol along with proteins attached on the surface and also passing through the cell
membrane.

The plasma membrane allows or permits the entry and exit of some materials in and out
of the cell so the cell membrane is called a selectively permeable membrane. Diffusion,
osmosis and active transport are three methods by which single molecules or very small
structures are moved across membranes, often within or between cells. Some substances
like CO2 or O2 gases can move across the cell membrane by a process called diffusion.

The movement of water molecules (liquid) through such a selectively permeable

membrane is called osmosis. Osmosis is the passage of water from a region of high
water concentration through a semi-permeable membrane to a region of low water
concentration.

If the medium surrounding the cell has a higher water concentration than the cell, the cell
will gain water by osmosis. Such a solution is known as hypotonic solution.

If the medium has exactly the same water concentration as the cell, there will be no
net movement of water across the cell membrane. Such a solution is known as isotonic

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solution. If the medium has a lower water concentration then the cell will lose water by
osmosis. Such a solution is known as hypertonic solution.

The plasma membrane is flexible and is made up of bilayer of lipids and proteins that
encloses the cytoplasm and the organelles of the cell. The flexibility of cell membrane
also enables the cell to engulf in food and other material from its external environment.
Such process is known as endocytosis. It is observed in Amoeba.

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[Note: Diffusion- Diffusion is the movement of substances from a region in which they are
in higher concentration to regions of lower concentration. It continues until the
concentration of substances is uniform throughout.]

Unicellular fresh water organisms and most plant cells tend to gain water through
osmosis. Absorption of water by plant roots is also an example of osmosis.

[Note: Osmosis- Movement of water molecules from a higher concentration to a lower

concentration across a semipermeable membrane.]

[ Extra information: Cell membrane facts:

The Fluid-Mosaic Model of the Cell Membrane (Proposed by Singer and Nicolson in
1972)

The cell membrane is a fluid, semi-permeable barrier which not only protects the interior
of the cell but controls the movement of substances in and out of it. Substances are
transported into or out of plasma membrane by osmosis, diffusion, sometimes facilitated
diffusion and by active transport.]

2. Cell wall (Protective wall): Plants cells, in addition to the plasma membrane have
another rigid outer covering called cell wall. The cell wall lies outside the plasma
membrane. The plant cell wall is mainly composed of cellulose. It is a complex substance
and provides structural strength to plant cells. When a living plant loses water through
osmosis there is shrinkage or contraction of contents of the cell away from cell wall. This
phenomenon is known as plasmolysis as seen in figure above on Osmosis in Plant

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Cells. Cell walls permit the cells of plants, fungi and bacteria to withstand very dilute
(hypotonic) external media without bursting like animal cells.

Plant cell is not a closed entity because of the rigid cell wall. Exchange of materials from
one plant cell to another can happen by plasmodesmatal connections between adjacent
cells in a plant tissue. The plasmodesmata is a microscopic cytoplasmic canal, which
can pass through the plant cell walls and allows the molecules to directly communicate
with the adjacent plant cells.

Cytoplasm: The cytoplasm is the fluid content inside the plasma membrane. Most of the
chemical reactions which keep the cell alive take place in the cytoplasm. Most of the cell
components (cell organelles are suspended in this jelly like material).

Nucleus (Control centre of a cell)

It is a large spherical double membrane bound organelle present in all cells.

The nuclear membrane contain tiny pore called nuclear pores for the exchange of
materials with cytoplasm. Nucleus controls all the activities of the cell.

It contains threadlike structures called chromatin (chromosomes can be seen as rod-

shaped structures only when cell divides). Chromatin material is visible as entangled
mass of thread like structures in a cell which is not dividing.

Chromosomes contain information for inheritance of features from parents to next

generation in form of DNA [Deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules. Chromosomes are
composed of DNA and protein. DNA molecules contain the necessary information for
constructing and organizing cells. Functional segments of DNA are called genes. The
function of the chromosome is to transfer the characteristics from the parents to the
offspring through the genes. Genes carry the information that determines your traits,
which are features or characteristics that are passed on to you or inherited from your
parents.

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Nucleus also has a dark dense region known as nucleolus, which is active region of the
nucleus. The nucleus plays a central role in cellular reproduction.

Mitochondria

They are tiny, rod shaped or spherical double membrane bound organelles which are
found in large numbers in all the cells. They are known as powerhouse of the cell.
The energy required for various chemical activities needed for life is released by
mitochondria in the form of ATP [Adenosine Triphosphate] molecules. ATP is known
as energy currency of the cell. Mitochondria have two membrane coverings instead of
just one. The outer membrane is very porous while the inner membrane is deeply
folded. These folds create a large surface area for ATP generating chemical reactions.
Mitochondria have their own DNA and ribosomes. Therefore they are able to make
some of their own proteins.

Plastids: Plastids are present only in plant cells. There are two types of plastids
chromoplasts and leucoplasts.
Chromoplasts are the coloured plastids present in leaves, flowers and fruits. Plastids
containing the pigment chlorophyll are known as chloroplasts. They are important for
photosynthesis in plants.

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Chloroplasts also contain various yellow or orange pigments in addition to
chlorophyll.
Leucoplasts are found primarily in organelles in which materials such as starch, oils
and protein granules are stored. Colourless plastids occur in the storage parts of the
plant. Like amyloplast store starch in potato cells.
The internal organization of the plastids consists of numerous membrane layers
embedded in a material called stroma. Plastids are similar to mitochondria in external
structure. Plastids have their own DNA and ribosomes.
[Note: Both mitochondria and chloroplast are semiautonomous organelles as both
have their own DNA to synthesize their own proteins ]

Fig 6: ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) (Channels, Network for transport): The ER is a large

network of membrane-bound tubes and sheets. It looks like long tubules or round or
oblong bags.
There are two types of ER-Rough endoplasmic reticulum [RER] and smooth
endoplasmic reticulum [SER].
RER has particles called ribosomes attached to its surface. The ribosomes are the
sites of protein manufacture.
SER helps in the manufacture of fat molecules or lipids for cell function. Some of these
proteins and lipids help in building the cell membrane. This process is known as
membrane biogenesis.

Golgi Apparatus (Packaging): The Golgi apparatus, first described by Camillo Golgi,
consists of a system of membrane-bound vesicles arranged approximately, parallel to
each other in stacks called cisterns.
The material synthesized in the ER is packaged and dispatched to various targets
inside and outside the cell through the Golgi apparatus. Their functions include the
storage, modification and packaging of products in vesicles. In some cases complex

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 sugar may be made from simple sugar in the Golgi apparatus. It is also involved in the
formation of lysosomes.

Fig 7: Golgi Apparatus

Lysosomes [Suicidal bags]: Lysosomes are a kind of waste dispatch and disposal
system of the cell. Lysosome help to keep the cell clean by digesting any foreign
material as well as worn-out cell organelles. Foreign materials entering the cells such
as bacteria or food, as well as old organelles, end up in the lysosome, which break
them up into small pieces. They are able to do this because they contain powerful
digestive enzymes capable of breaking down all organic material. Under abnormal
condition, when the cell gets damaged, lysosomes may burst, and the enzymes digest
their own cell. Therefore, they are also known as “suicidal bags.”

Central Vacuole
A vacuole is a sac like structure in plant cells that stores food or nutrients, water and
also waste.
Vacuoles (Storage): Vacuoles are storage sacs for solid or liquid contents. Vacuoles
are small-sized in animal cells or absent. While plant cells have very large central
vacuoles. [occupy 50% to 90% cell volume].
In plant cells, vacuoles are full of cell sap and provide turgidity and rigidity to the cell.
In Amoeba, the food vacuole contains the food items that are consumed by it and
contractile vacuole expels excess water and some wastes from the cell.

Ribosomes
They are responsible for protein synthesis. They are made up of RNA and proteins.
Ribosomes can be found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes because the synthesis

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 of proteins is important in both of them.
Note: Prokaryotes have 70S ribosomes whereas eukaryotes have 80S ribosomes
In prokaryotes, the ribosomes float freely in the cytoplasm.
In eukaryotes, they can be found floating in the cytoplasm or they are often attached
to the endoplasmic reticulum.
The ribosomes attached to the ER synthesise proteins that are to be exported out
of the cell while the ribosomes floating inside the cell synthesise proteins that are
used inside the cell.

Cell Division
The process by which new cells are made is called cell division. There are two main types
of cell division, that is, mitosis and meiosis.

Mitosis

• The process of cell division by which most cells divide for growth is called
mitosis. This is also known as equational cell division.
• In this process, each cell, called the mother cell, divides to form two identical
daughter cells.
• The daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes as the mother cells.
• Mitosis helps in the growth and repair of tissues in organisms.

Meiosis

• The process of cell division by which specific cells of reproductive organs or tissues
in animals and plants divide to form gametes is called meiosis. This is also known as
reductional cell division.

• When a cell divides by meiosis, it produces four new cells instead of just two.
• The new cells only have half the number of chromosomes as the mother cells.
• Meiosis helps in the production of gametes—sex cells, sperm, and eggs.

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 Video Links: https://youtu.be/TJyOQmdwHhE (History of microscope and cell
discovery)
https://youtu.be/0xe1s65IH0w?si=GpSa2b2aFxzemMHh (Overview of cell)

https://youtu.be/RKmaq7jPnYM (cell organelles)

https://youtu.be/XKZhcYetvsc?si=eyCCNxzApLFXS9Y4 (Cell Division)

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