Introduction

Research means different things to different people; some believe research is reading
around a topic, whereas others believe that research is collecting and analyzing new
data. While both of these answers are correct, you must be familiar with the different
types of research that you can use. Research is used to develop performance.
There are different definitions of research. However, one definition that encompasses
many of the various aspects of research is ‘A systematic process of discovery and
advancement of human knowledge’(Gratton and Jones 2004). This is used by sports
psychologists, nutritionists, strength and conditioning coaches, and athletes. Advancing
human knowledge is important for humans to develop.
For research to be published it needs to go through a specific step-by-step process.
This is known as a systematic process. Systematic means to do something according to
a fixed plan or system.
The first step of the research process is to decide upon a phenomenon(research idea).
There is no point in researching something that is already known unless there is a small
amount of research around the specific topic and it is not proven. A phenomenon is
simply a fact or an event that can be observed with the senses, either directly or by
using equipment like a telescope or a microscope.
The second step is literature searching, this is when someone searches to find any
differences in opinion or any hot topics within a subject area. At this step, the
researchers decide on a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a testable statement about the
relationship between two or more variables or a proposed explanation for an observed
phenomenon. This is usually seen in the title of a research paper/article.
The third step is creating a plan. When the plan is created for how you are going to
research the phenomenon it will need to be approved. This is when a research proposal
is sent out to be finalized and approved by the government.
This leads to the fourth step, Ethical clearance. This is when the proposal is approved
and the researchers gain permission to go ahead with the research.
The next step is participant recruitment. This is an important step because researchers
need people to test the hypothesis.
The sixth step is data collection. Data is needed to be collected from the participants to
prove if the hypothesis is correct or not. It can also be collected from external sources
like research papers. This is when secondary data can be useful. Data can be put into
three categories:
- Quantitative research/data is known as the most scientific type of research.
Quantitative research is when a researcher gathers numerical data and statistics.
This cannot be argued with.
- Qualitative research/data is known as subjective(opinion based). Qualitative
research is when the researcher gathers a person's feelings, opinions, and
emotions.
 - Mixed methods are the collection of quantitative and qualitative research. This
can be known as putting the what and why together.
The seventh step is data/research analysis. Data analysis is when the data that has
been collected is converted into useful information that can be used to create a
conclusion.
The final step is report compilation. This is when the researchers create a conclusion
and send the research they have made to be peer-reviewed and then eventually
published. This will then turn from primary to secondary research. This written report will
include the types of research (primary and secondary), a literature review/literature
search, how research is used to develop knowledge, the use of evidence-based
practice, validity, reliability, accuracy, precision, ethics, and The Code of Conduct.

Primary research
-Primary research collects original data specific to a particular project. For example, if
you want to investigate the effects of sports massage on hamstring flexibility, you could
measure flexibility pre- and post-sports massage and record the results if there is any
difference. Simply put, primary research is research that you have found by yourself.
Primary research can be done through experiments, questionnaires, interviews, and
observations of behavior. Primary research is beneficial to researchers because it
allows new studies to be created on studies with less information or no information.
Creating new studies is important because after ten years research articles are seen as
not useful, this is because they are so old and may become irrelevant. More research
must be created for studies with less or no information because the more research
found the more clarity can be seen on the subject. The negative of using primary
research is that it takes a lot of time. Time could be wasted on researching subjects that
do not need any more research.

Secondary research
-Secondary data uses previously published data found in books, journals, government
publications, websites, and other forms of media. Secondary research is used to
support or counter-argue your research findings. This links to the literature search
further in the assignment because published data(secondary data) is used to create a
literature review on a specific topic. An example of secondary research that will be used
in the literature searching task is "The effect of resistance weight training in
prepubescents (BH Jacobson, FA Kulling- Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports physical)".
The benefit of secondary research is that there is a large amount of it. This is important
because, without a large amount of secondary research, nothing that can be researched
will be proven. Another benefit of secondary research is that it answers certain
questions and tests some hypotheses. A major disadvantage of using secondary
research is that it may not answer the researcher's specific research question or contain
specific information that the researcher would like to have. Secondary research can be
seen as either having a positive or negative effect or can be seen as inconclusive or not
having any data to prove the hypothesis. Positive secondary research is when the
research proves the hypothesis/title correct. Negative secondary research will have an
opposite effect than positive secondary research. Inconclusive secondary research is
research that doesn't say whether the research proves the hypothesis right or wrong.
secondary research with no data will not tell you whether the hypothesis was proven
right, wrong, or inconclusive. Another negative of secondary research is that it is seen
as invalid research after ten years, this is because, after ten years, they’re more
detailed and new research that will have been developed, which means that the
research from ten years will be outdated and may not be relevant.

Interrelationship
means when two or more elements strongly influence each other or are closely linked to
each other. Primary and secondary research is seen as interrelated because they are
closely linked to each other. This is because secondary research is primary research
but published, and primary research needs secondary research to prove the hypothesis
correct or not. Just relying on primary research will allow new research to be made but it
will not be proven because no secondary research is being used. Just relying on
secondary research would mean that no new research will be made, meaning nothing
that hasn't been questioned already will be questioned or proven. Primary and
secondary research can also be seen as interrelated because after ten years secondary
research is seen as invalid, this means that new primary research is needed to replace
old research.

Literature Searching/ Literature Review

Literature searching is defined as "Literature searching and reading appropriate sources
of information to inform the development of sport and science based-practice."
The sources suggested in the definition can be found in books, journal articles,
websites, and many more.
A literature review is a piece of academic writing demonstrating knowledge and
understanding of the academic literature on a specific topic placed in context.
The specific topic I have chosen to perform a literature review on is the effect of
weight/resistance training on children/adolescents.

The source “Strength training for children and adolescents: what can physicians
recommend?” by Holly J Benjamin (2003) suggests that strength training for children
and adolescents is safe and effective. This is only the case with adult supervision,
proper equipment, and reasonable expectations. The criticism of this paper is that it
doesn’t show where the physicians get these results from. It explains that this study
became an issue because multiple parents of children wanted to know the effects of
weight training on children, for their children. Parents wanted to know this because they
either wanted their children to lose weight or wanted to improve their performance in a
specific sport.

In the study “Effects and mechanisms of strength training in children” by Urs Granacher
(2011) they study the effect of high-intensity strength training on knee extensor/flexor
strength, counter movement, jump height, lean muscle, and muscle cross-sectional area
of the dominant leg prepubescent children.
The amount of participants taking part in the experiment is 32. 17 from an intervention
and 15 from a control class. The main test will be a 10-week weight and mechanical-
based high-intensity strength training integrated in physical education.
Before the main test, there was a post-test, which included peak torque of the knee
extensor/flexor at 60 to 180/s, soft lean muscle of the leg by bioelectrical impedance
analysis, and jump height. High-intensity strength training resulted in significant
increases in peak knee torque. High-intensity strength training did not have a significant
effect on jump height, posture sway, soft lean mass, and muscle cross-sectional area. It
was also unable to affect muscle size. This study concludes that it appears that
neurological factors rather than muscle hypertrophy affect adolescent strength.

In the study “Weight training in youth-growth, maturation, and safety: an evidence-

based review” by Robert (2006) the objective is to review the effects of resistance
training programs on pre- and early-pubertal youth in the context of response, potential
influence on growth and maturation, and occurrence of injury. The method used to test
the hypothesis was an analysis of twenty-two reports on resistance training with pre-
and early-pubertal adolescents. The results showed that if done correctly then
resistance training has minimal negative effects on pre- and early-pubertal adolescents.
In conclusion, resistance training does not affect growth and maturation in adolescents.

In the study “The effects of progressive resistance training for children with cerebral
palsy” by Jan F Morton (2005) the objective was to investigate the effects of progressive
resistance training in the quadriceps and hamstrings in children with cerebral palsy.
The study used eight children between the ages of six and twelve and this was
conducted within the physiotherapy department of two special schools in Glasgow. The
subjects participated three times a week for six weeks with a progressive free-weight
strengthening program. They measured the subjects by using a myometer to see the
maximum isometric muscle strength and resistance to passive stretch. The Gross Motor
Function Measure and a 10-meter timed walking test were used to assess function and
gait parameters respectively. The results of the tests were that the quadriceps and the
hamstring strength increased and were moving towards a normal level of strength.
Walking speed and step rate increased.
Overall a future large-scale randomized controlled study would be valuable to
substantiate the findings as the small convenience sample and the lack of a control
group limits the study. However, the findings did show that there was no adverse effect
and that it did improve strength and function. This may encourage clinicians to consider
resistance training as well as standard therapeutic interventions.

The study “Choosing a strength training program for Kids” by Holly J Benjamin (2003)
suggests that strength training can improve athletic performance and reduce the risk of
on-field injuries in sports. It also suggests that strength training will also increase social
skills alongside muscle strength. It states that good strength training can improve bone
health and help overweight children lose weight. Unfortunately, this study can be seen
as invalid because there is nothing that is backing up the claims that they make. No
experiments took place to prove the claims that they made.
In conclusion, the study is not useful for the topic at hand.

The study “Efficacy of strength training in prepubescent to early postpubescent males

and females: effects of gender and maturity” by Wade A Lillegard ( 1997) considers the
safety/efficiency of weight training. The participants taking part in this study are fifty-two
experimental and thirty-nine control subjects. ANOVA was used to examine pre- to post-
test differences in six strength measures, eight anthropometric measures, five motor
performance measures, and one flexibility measure associated with participation in a
12-week progressive resistance program. In addition, the safety of the weight training
program was taken into account. For strength differences, there were two significant
main effects favoring strength gains in males and the experimental group. For
anthropometric changes, 3-way interactions occurred that were not easily explained.
However, the predominant main effect was treatment. The experimental group generally
experienced gains in body segment girths with decreases in skinfold thickness. For
motor performance, the experimental group had greater improvements in three of five
parameters. The experimental group also had significantly greater gains in flexibility.
The weight training program was associated with only one injury. The findings that the
study found support the general observation that a weight training program has
beneficial effects if trained properly.

From all of the studies that have been examined, it is concluded that weight/resistance
training is beneficial for children, but only if it is trained properly. This is because there is
a high risk of injury in a child who is not observed and is not taking part in the correct
exercise. Weight/resistance training has been seen (in the studies above) to improve
strength, and function, and improve neurological functioning. It does not affect growth
and is seen as very useful for athletes to progress in their sport. It can also help
overweight children lose weight. Overall, it is recommended that children take part in
strength/resistance training two to four times a week.

Using research to develop knowledge and understanding

Research is key for all people working in sports and exercise science to remain current
and up-to-date. There are many examples of research developing knowledge and
understanding. The two studies demonstrate how you can refine and develop subject
knowledge through research to benefit the people you are working with.
Holt and Dunn (2004) produced a theory associated with talent development in elite
youth football that made predictions about qualities that would give players the best
chance of reaching an elite level. However, as this theory was based mainly on the
players who had been successful in their youth football career, it was not known if less
successful football players did not contain these same qualities.
As a result, Holt and Mitchell (2006) examined the experience of less successful and
lower-level youth players and provided a revised theory. However, both of these studies
had the limitation that it was not known if any of the players studied had successfully
achieved and maintained a professional career.
M. Clarkson & S.Thompson (2012) created a study on the different types of drugs and
how they affect athletes the paper, reveals the literature on three categories of drugs:
those that enhance performance as stimulants (amphetamines, ephedrine), those are
used to reduce tremor and heart rate (B-blockers), and those involved in body weight
gain or loss (anabolic-androgenic steroids, growth hormone, diuretics). The study also
covered the limitations of research on these drugs as they relate to performance
enhancement.
The study states that numerous studies that have assessed the effects of
amphetamines on performance reports show inconclusive results. This may be due to
the large individual variation in the response to the drug and the small sample sizes are
used. More studies, however, showed that more individuals do improve exercise
performance when taking amphetamines, which may be attributed to the role of
masking fatigue. As a stimulant, ephedrine has not been found to improve performance
in the few studies available. More recently, ephedrine has been seen to be effective as
a fat burner, and used by athletes to maintain or improve muscle mass. B-blockers have
been found to reduce heart rate and tremors and to improve performance in sports that
are not physiologically challenging but require accuracy. Several studies have reported
that anabolic-androgenic steroids increase muscle size and strength. However, Mo
studies are not well controlled and use insufficient drug doses. One recent well-
controlled study did find an increase in muscle mass and strength with
supraphysiological doses, and the improvements were greater in participants who were
also in resistance training. There is little information available on the effects of growth
hormones on muscle mass or performance in athletes. Although data suggests that
growth hormone administration does not increase muscle protein synthesis. In
conclusion, the study states that there is not enough research on the drugs because of
the lack of consistency and that more studies of drug affectedness have not been used
on athletes. This study was used to develop knowledge and understanding by stating
the current effects of the drugs and stating that there is room for further improvement.
The use of Evidence-based practice(EVB) within sports
When you work within sports and exercise science, you should always use research to
plan and review your work. This is called evidence-based practice(EBP). This does not
mean you have to read article after article every time you plan a session, but rather that,
as a professional, a good working knowledge of the research in a specific area is
needed, and know how to apply it to the people that are being worked with. It also
means that knowledge should be updated regularly by keeping up to date with the latest
developments. For example, if a strength and conditioning coach or a sports therapist is
responsible for the post-event recovery of athletes, they should ensure that they are
familiar with the different recovery strategies available for those athletes, as well as the
physiological and psychological benefits of those strategies.
As a sports and exercise specialist, the welfare and safety of the participants are always
the main concern. In research and practice environments, this means that there should
not be any undue physiological or psychological stress on the participants. EBP is
important in this context, as the available evidence will help to stay within the normal
working limits for participants, or levels of work that will not significantly pose an
increased risk to a participant's well-being. This is supported by S Reynolds (2008).

Validity.
Validity is a term used to describe the degree to which a measure or method accurately
measures what it is intended to measure. It is a fundamental concept in research
methodology and refers to the extent to which the results of a study or experiment are
logically and justifiably correct. D Borsboom & ET AL (2004). For a study or experiment
to have validity, it must be designed in a way that ensures that the results obtained are
a true reflection of the phenomenon being studied. In other words, validity refers to the
degree to which a study accurately represents the real world and is free from bias or
other errors that may affect the accuracy of the results.

There are different types of validity, including internal validity, external validity,
ecological validity, and face validity.
Internal validity concerns the degree to which a research study can rule out alternative
explanations for the observed results and any changes in the dependent variable to the
manipulation of the independent variable. A study with high internal validity is one in
which the researcher has controlled external variables and has ensured that the
changes observed in the dependent variable can be attributed to the independent
variable alone. Achieving high internal validity is important for ensuring that the
conclusions drawn from a study accurately reflect the true relationship between the
variables being studied. “In sports science, internal validity is commonly achieved by
controlling variables, such as exercise, and warm protocols, prior training, nutritional
intake, prior to testing, ambient temperature, timer for testing, I was asleep, age, and
gender.” Israel Halperin & ET AL 2015.
External validity is the extent to which the findings of a research study can be
generalized or applied to populations, settings, and conditions beyond the specific
context of the study. It refers to the degree to which the results obtained from a study
can be extended to other situations and populations. External validity is an important
consideration in research because if the findings are not generalizable, they may have
limited practical significance. Factors that can impact external validity include the
characteristics of the study sample, the way the study is conducted, and the particular
context or environment in which the study takes place. Researchers must carefully
consider external validity when designing their studies to ensure that their findings can
be applied to a wider population or setting. This can involve using appropriate sampling
methods, carefully selecting study conditions and settings, and considering the broader
implications of the research for real-world situations. For example, a study performed on
the effects of striking power in boxing could not be generalized towards football because
they are using different parts in the body, but it could be generalized towards other
martial arts like kickboxing.

Ecological validity refers to the extent to which the study's results can be generalized to
real-life situations that are representative of the phenomenon being studied. For
example, a study conducted in a laboratory setting may have high internal validity (the
study is well-controlled and designed to establish a cause-and-effect relationship), but
low ecological validity because the laboratory setting may not reflect the complexity and
variability of the real world. Ecological validity is important because it helps ensure that
the findings of a research study have practical significance and can be applied to real-
world situations. Researchers can enhance the ecological validity of their studies by
using measures and methods that are relevant to real-world situations, and by
conducting research in naturalistic settings that more closely approximate the real-world
conditions of the phenomenon being studied. In a study by S.A.Jabson 2008 about
comparing the physical demands of laboratory and road-based time-trial cycling, the
laboratory time-trial does not show geological validity because it is not in a real world
environment.

Face validity refers to the extent to which a test or assessment appears to measure the
construct or variable that it is designed to measure, simply by looking at it or considering
its content. For example, a test designed to measure knowledge of algebra should
contain questions that appear to be about algebra when looked at superficially. While
face validity can be an important aspect of test development, it is important to note that
face validity alone does not guarantee that a test or measure is valid or reliable. It is
often used as an initial step in test development to indicate whether a measure seems
appropriate for the construct or trait being assessed, but further testing and analysis are
required to establish the true validity and reliability of the measure. For example, if a
study is showing the effect of B-blockers on 100-meter sprinters, and is using random
people on the street who are not 100-meter sprinters will not show face validity because
it is not testing what it should be testing.

Ethics can have a significant impact on the validity of a study or experiment. For a study
to be considered valid, it must be conducted in a way that adheres to ethical principles,
such as respect for human dignity, informed consent, confidentiality,
and protection from harm. If ethical considerations are not taken into account during the
design and execution of a study, the validity of the results may be compromised. For
example, if participants are coerced or deceived into participating in a study, the results
may not accurately reflect their true attitudes or behaviors. Additionally, if participants
are not fully informed about the purpose and procedures of the study, they may not be
able to give truly informed consent, which can also affect the validity of the results. In
some cases, ethical considerations may also limit the scope of a study, which can
impact its external validity. For example, if a study cannot be conducted with certain
populations due to ethical concerns, the results may not be generalizable to those
populations.
Overall, ethics and validity are closely intertwined, and researchers must carefully
consider ethical principles to ensure that their studies are valid and reliable.

Reliability.
Reliability in research is the degree to which the results of a study can be
replicated or repeated with the same or similar results. A study is considered
reliable if it produces consistent and accurate results, free from measurement
errors, inconsistencies, or other sources of variation that may affect the validity of
the research findings.
Reliability can be assessed using various methods, such as test-retest reliability,
inter-researcher reliability, and internal consistency reliability. These methods
evaluate the extent to which the research data and results are consistent and
stable over time, across different raters or observers, or within the same study.
Reliability is an important aspect of research quality and validity, as it ensures
that the research findings are dependable, trustworthy, and relevant for making
informed decisions and drawing valid conclusions.

Test-retest reliability is an important aspect of research, particularly when using

self-report measures, questionnaires, or scales. It is a way to ensure that the
results obtained from these measures are consistent over time and can be
considered reliable. The advantage of using test-retest reliability is that it allows
researchers to evaluate the stability of the measure over time, and assess
whether changes in the scores are due to changes in the construct being
measured, or due to measurement error. However, there are also some
limitations to using test-retest reliability. For example, it assumes that the
construct being measured is stable over time and that participants do not change
between the two administrations of the measure. Additionally, it can be affected
by factors such as practice effects, memory effects, or changes in the
participants' environment or circumstances. To overcome these limitations,
researchers may use other types of reliability measures, such as inter-rater
reliability or internal consistency reliability, in addition to test-retest reliability.
In a study assessing the test-retest reliability of a global positioning system(GPS)
to asses sprint performance by Mark Waldron & ET AL 2011, the GPS
measurements were seen as reliable but with a 1.6% to 2.3% variation. This
suggests that the GPS may not have been test-retest reliable because there is
still a variation when the distance and speed were the same each time.
Inter-researcher reliability refers to the degree of agreement or consistency
between two or more researchers in their interpretation of data or their judgments
of research findings. It is a measure of the degree to which different researchers
would arrive at the same conclusions if they independently analyzed the same
data.
Inter-researcher reliability is important in research because it helps to ensure that
the findings are valid and reliable. If different researchers arrive at different
conclusions or interpretations, it can call into question the accuracy and reliability
of the findings. By assessing inter-researcher reliability, researchers can identify
and address any issues or inconsistencies in the research process, leading to
higher-quality research. High levels of inter-researcher reliability make it easier
for other researchers to replicate the study and confirm the findings. However,
ensuring high levels of inter-researcher reliability can be time-consuming,
requiring extensive planning, training, and coordination among researchers.
Achieving high levels of inter-researcher reliability may require additional
resources, such as specialized training or equipment, which can increase the
cost of the research. For example, if a researcher performs a study of the effects
of anabolic steroids on the strength of a weightlifter, then another researcher
does the same study with the same equipment but does not get the same results
then Inter-research reliability is not shown because there is no consistency
between the two researchers and the studies.
Internal consistency reliability is an important concept in research because it
provides a measure of how consistently a set of items within a measurement tool
(such as a questionnaire or test) measures the same underlying construct or trait.
Internal consistency reliability is typically assessed using Cronbach's alpha, a
coefficient that ranges from 0 to 1, with higher values indicating greater internal
consistency reliability. In research, internal consistency reliability is important
because it ensures that the measurement tool is measuring the same construct
consistently across all items. This is important for ensuring that the results of the
study are accurate and reliable, as inconsistent or unreliable measurement tools
can lead to inaccurate or inconsistent results. For example, if a researcher is
studying the relationship between two variables and is using a questionnaire to
measure each variable, they need to ensure that each item within the
questionnaire is measuring the same construct consistently. If there is low
internal consistency reliability, it may indicate that some of the items are not
measuring the same construct as the others, leading to inaccurate results.
Assessing internal consistency reliability can also help researchers identify which
items within a measurement tool may need to be revised or removed. If an item
has low internal consistency reliability compared to other items in the tool, it may
indicate that the item is not effectively measuring the same construct as the other
items and should be revised or removed from the tool. For example, if a study is
finding which shoes are the most effective to increase the speed of a 100-meter
runner then all the shoes must be tested to see if all the shoes are able to
increase performance.

Ethics play a crucial role in ensuring research reliability. Ethical considerations

provide a framework for conducting research in a manner that ensures the
safety, well-being, and dignity of participants. When researchers fail to adhere to
ethical standards, it can compromise the validity and reliability of their research
findings. Researchers who follow ethical guidelines are more likely to produce
reliable research because their methods are transparent, and their findings are
more likely to be replicable.

Accuracy
The accuracy in research refers to the degree to which the results of a study
reflect the true values of the variables being measured. In other words, accuracy
refers to the extent to which the data collected accurately represents the real-
world phenomenon under study. The accuracy of research can be influenced by
several factors, including the design of the study, the methods used to collect
and analyze data, the sample size and characteristics of the participants, and the
presence of any biases or errors in the study. Researchers strive to maximize the
accuracy of their findings by using rigorous research methods, carefully selecting
participants and sampling methods, using reliable and valid measures, and
minimizing any potential sources of bias or error in their study. By doing so,
researchers aim to produce findings that are as accurate and reliable as
possible.

For a study to be valid, it must first be accurate. In other words, if the

measurements taken are inaccurate, then the study cannot be valid. However,
even if a study is accurate, it may not be valid if it fails to measure what it claims
to measure.
For example, if a study is measuring the effects of a new sports performance-
enhancing drug on a rugby player, accuracy requires that the drugs are
administered correctly and that the data collected on the patient's responses to
the drugs are precise and accurate. However, validity also requires that the study
is measuring the effects of the medication on the medical condition and not some
other factor, such as the patient's psychological state or the placebo effect.
Accuracy is a necessary but not sufficient condition for validity. To ensure
validity, researchers must use accurate measurements and methods that
measure what they claim to measure.

Accuracy and reliability are two important concepts in research, and they are
closely related. If a study is accurate, it is more likely to be reliable. This is
because inaccurate measurements will produce inconsistent and unreliable
results. For example, if a measuring instrument used in a study is not accurate, it
will produce inconsistent results, leading to low reliability. To ensure that a study
is both accurate and reliable, researchers must use rigorous research methods
and carefully selected measures. Researchers should use established and
validated measures, carefully select participants and sampling methods, and
control for any potential sources of bias or error in their study. By doing so,
researchers can ensure that their study is both accurate and reliable, which will
enhance the quality and credibility of their research findings.

Accuracy in research is closely linked to ethical considerations in research. If

research is not accurate, then the conclusions drawn from it may be flawed or
incorrect, leading to potentially harmful consequences for participants and the
wider population. Research ethics requires that researchers strive to conduct
accurate research to minimize any potential harm or negative consequences for
participants. Inaccurate research may result in misleading findings, which could
result in participants being exposed to unnecessary risks or harm. This violates
the principle of non-maleficence, which requires that researchers do not harm
participants. Furthermore, inaccurate research could lead to the misallocation of
resources, where resources are wasted on interventions that do not work or are
not effective. This could be considered a violation of the principle of justice, which
requires that research is conducted fairly and equitably and that benefits and
risks are distributed fairly. Therefore, researchers need to ensure the accuracy of
their research to maintain ethical standards in research. This involves using
reliable and valid measures, carefully selecting participants, using appropriate
sampling methods, and minimizing any potential sources of bias or error in their
study. By doing so, researchers can ensure that their research is accurate,
reliable, and ethical.

Precision.
Precision in research refers to the degree to which measurements or data
collected in a study are consistent and reproducible. In other words, precision
refers to how close the repeated measurements of a variable are to each other.A
precise measure will produce consistent results even if the measurements are
taken multiple times, and it will have a small margin of error or variability. On the
other hand, an imprecise measure will produce inconsistent results, even if the
measurements are taken multiple times, and it will have a large margin of error or
variability. Precision is important in research because it allows for the detection of
small changes or differences in variables over time or between groups. Precise
measurements increase the power of statistical analyses and can help
researchers to identify significant effects. To ensure precision in research,
researchers should use reliable and valid measures, carefully select participants
and sampling methods, and control for any potential sources of bias or error in
their study. They should also use appropriate statistical analyses to assess the
degree of variability in their measurements and to determine the level of
precision of their findings.

Precision and validity are two important concepts in research, and they are
closely related. If a study is precise, it is more likely to be valid. This is because
precise measures are more reliable and consistent, and they are less likely to
produce random or erroneous results. On the other hand, imprecise measures
can introduce errors and inconsistencies in a study, which can affect its validity.
However, precision alone is not sufficient for validity. A study can be precise but
still be measuring the wrong thing or use invalid measures. For example, if a
study is measuring depression using a scale that is not validated for that
purpose, it may produce precise results but still not measure accurately. In this
case, the study may be precise but not valid. To ensure validity, researchers
must use measures that are both precise and valid. This involves using reliable
and valid measures, carefully selecting participants and sampling methods, and
controlling for any potential sources of bias or error in their study. By doing so,
researchers can ensure that their study is both precise and valid, which will
enhance the quality and credibility of their research findings.

Precision and reliability are closely related concepts in research. If a study is

precise, it is more likely to be reliable. This is because precise measures are
consistent and reproducible, and they are less likely to produce random or
spontaneous results. If a study produces consistent results, it is more likely to be
reliable and to produce the same results when repeated under similar conditions.
On the other hand, imprecise measures can introduce errors and inconsistencies
in a study, which can affect its reliability. If a measurement is not precise, it may
produce inconsistent results, which can reduce the reliability of the measure.
Therefore, to ensure reliability, researchers must use measures that are both
precise and valid. This involves using reliable and valid measures, carefully
selecting participants and sampling methods, and controlling for any potential
sources of bias or error in their study. By doing so, researchers can ensure that
their study is both precise and reliable, which will enhance the quality and
credibility of their research findings.

While precision does not directly relate to ethics in research, it can indirectly
impact ethical considerations in research. If a study is imprecise, it may require
more participants or larger sample size to obtain reliable and meaningful results.
This can result in increased risk to participants in the study, as they may be
exposed to greater risks or discomfort associated with participating in the study.
Additionally, if a study is imprecise, it may require more data collection or
additional data points, which can result in additional burdens for participants.
However, if a study is precise, it may require fewer participants or a smaller
sample size to obtain reliable and meaningful results. This can reduce the risks
and burdens associated with participating in the study, which can have ethical
benefits for the participants. Additionally, precise studies may be more efficient,
which can reduce the time and costs associated with the research, and this can
result in greater benefits for participants, as resources can be used more
effectively. Overall, while precision in research does not directly relate to ethics, it
can indirectly impact ethical considerations in research, particularly about the
risks and burdens associated with participant involvement. Therefore,
researchers should strive to ensure that their studies are both precise and
ethical, by using reliable and valid measures, carefully selecting participants and
sampling methods, and controlling for any potential sources of bias or error in
their study.

Ethics.
Ethics in research refers to the moral principles and guidelines that researchers
must follow to ensure that their studies are conducted in a responsible,
respectful, and trustworthy manner. The purpose of ethics in research is to
protect the welfare, rights, and dignity of the research participants, as well as to
promote scientific integrity and transparency. Some key ethical considerations in
research include obtaining informed consent from participants, maintaining
confidentiality and privacy, ensuring that risks are minimized and benefits are
maximized, avoiding any form of coercion or undue influence, and ensuring that
the research is conducted fairly and equitably. In Addition, researchers must
adhere to relevant laws and regulations, and obtain approval from institutional
review boards or ethics committees before conducting their studies. They must
also be transparent about their sources of funding and potential conflicts of
interest.

The British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences (BASES) is a

professional body that represents sport and exercise scientists in the UK. The
BASES Code of Conduct is a set of ethical principles and standards that BASES
members are expected to follow in their professional practice. The Code of
Conduct sets out the expectations and responsibilities of BASES members
regarding their conduct, behavior, and ethical decision-making. The BASES
Code of Conduct sets out the ethical standards that BASES members are
expected to adhere to, and it provides a framework for ethical decision-making in
sports and exercise science. BASES members who violate the Code of Conduct
may be subject to disciplinary action, including suspension or expulsion from the
association.

Ethical clearance is a crucial part of the research process that involves obtaining
approval from an ethics review board or committee to conduct research with
human subjects, animals, or sensitive data. The primary purpose of ethical
clearance is to ensure that research is conducted ethically and responsibly,
concerning the rights and welfare of participants. The process of obtaining ethical
clearance typically involves the submission of a detailed research proposal that
outlines the study design, methods, and intended participants. The proposal is
then reviewed by the ethics review board or committee, which may request
revisions or additional information before approval. An example of when ethical
clearance was not met was in Ethical and Legal Issues Scenario 1, this is where
researcher A fails to inform the research supervisor at BASES and the
participants that the test can cause muscle fatigue. The researcher would not
have been given ethical clearance if they did not inform the participants of the
content of the study. This would not show internal consistency reliability because
it cannot be repeated in the same way due to the test not informing the
participants of the risks.

Informed consent is a critical ethical principle in research involving human

subjects. It refers to the process of providing potential research participants with
information about the research project so that they can make an informed
decision about whether or not to participate. Informed consent involves both the
communication of information and the understanding of that information by the
participant. The process of obtaining informed consent typically involves the
following elements:
Disclosure: The researcher must provide potential participants with information
about the research project, including the purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits
of participation.
Comprehension: The researcher must ensure that the participant understands
the information provided, including any technical or specialized terminology.
Voluntariness: The participant must be free to decide whether or not to
participate without coercion, undue influence, or pressure.
Consent: The participant must provide explicit consent to participate in the
research project, and this consent must be documented in writing.
Informed consent is a critical component of ethical research because it respects
the autonomy and dignity of research participants. It helps to ensure that
participants are fully informed about the nature and purpose of the research and
that they have given voluntary and informed consent to participate. Failure to
obtain an informed consent or to provide participants with adequate information
can have serious consequences for the researcher, including damage to their
professional reputation, legal and financial liabilities, and ethical violations.
During the study “Doping for Gold” informed consent was not given because the
participants were not told that they would be taking performance-enhancement
drugs. This will affect the internal consistency reliability because the same
research will not be allowed to take place without consent.

Any data you collect is protected under the terms of the Data Protection Act
(1998).
Data protection in research refers to the measures taken to ensure that the
privacy, confidentiality, and security of research data are maintained throughout
the research process. This is important to protect the rights and welfare of
research participants and to ensure the integrity and quality of the research
results. Data collected should be stored in a locked filing cabinet or on a
password-protected computer, accessible only by you and your research
supervisor. Identifiable personal information should be removed or masked to
protect the confidentiality of research participants. This includes removing
names, addresses, and other identifying information. Researchers should only
retain data for as long as necessary to achieve the research objectives, and
should securely dispose of the data after the research is completed. Researchers
should comply with applicable laws and regulations related to data protection,
such as data protection laws, ethics guidelines, and institutional policies. Data
protection was shown in the Jay Rodriguez study as it wasn’t published because
it does not show confidentiality due to its name and the use of the clubs’ name
that was used in the study.

Competence in research refers to the knowledge, skills, and abilities necessary

to conduct high-quality and ethical research. Researchers must possess a range
of competencies to design and conduct studies, collect and analyze data, and
communicate results effectively. Researchers must have a thorough
understanding of research methods and be able to design studies that are
appropriate for the research question. Researchers must understand and follow
ethical principles and guidelines, such as obtaining informed consent from
participants, protecting participant confidentiality, and ensuring that the risks of
harm to participants are minimized. Researchers must be able to effectively
communicate their research findings to a variety of audiences, including peers,
policymakers, and the general public. Competence was not shown in Scenario 2
in the Legal and Ethical Issue Scenarios because the researcher did not have
any understanding of how to take a participant’s blood, therefore putting the
participants in danger because of their lack of competency.

When conducting research, the safety of the participants is the key concern. The
researcher must maintain the highest professional standards so as not to
endanger participants or themselves. This is especially important if the research
involves participants exerting themselves towards the maximum effort. The
researcher should treat all participants equally and only work within their area of
competence. In the study “Doping for Gold” the participants aren’t taken into
account. The participants are given drugs that can cause health issues such as
kidney failure and liver damage. In the study, a participant died due to the drugs
that were given.

Acting with due regard for equality and impartiality is to preserve the reputation of
sports and exercise science. You must remain unbiased in your actions and
practices. This means you cannot let factors such as race, age, or gender.
Affects your work with participants or your interpretation of results. You must not
exploit personal relationships for personal gain. Any decisions must be
completely based on facts rather than opinions. During the study “Doping for
Gold “ equality was not shown because the scientists and coaches mainly
focused on two specific participants who showed great promise in the swimming
industry. They gave these two participants more drugs than the other participants
because they believed that they would gain more gold medals in the Olympics.

BASES Code of Conduct

Code of Conduct - GOV.UK

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