International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 57 (2024) 1302–1315

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International Journal of Hydrogen Energy

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/he

Review on the key technologies and future development of insulation

structure for liquid hydrogen storage tanks
Liang Yin a, Haonan Yang b, Yonglin Ju b, *
a
Research Institute of Carbon Neutrality, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200030, China
b
School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: Dr M Djukic Liquid hydrogen (LH2) storage holds considerable prominence due to its advantageous attributes in terms of
hydrogen storage density and energy density. This study aims to comprehensively review the recent progresses in
Keywords: passive thermal protection technologies employed in the insulation structure of LH2 storage tanks. The realm of
Insulation structure passive thermal protection primarily encompasses the utilization of composite materials, multilayer insulation
Liquid hydrogen storage tank
materials (MLI) and vapor-cooled shields (VCS) with vacuum extraction. On the other hand, active thermal
Passive thermal protection
transfer technologies are predominantly applied for scenarios like zero boil-off (ZBO) or reduced boil-off storage
Tank applications
of LH2, notably in the aerospace domain. Based on the materials selection and tank applications of LH2 storage
tanks, the advantages, disadvantages, and applications of different insulation methods are summarized, as well as
the stationary and mobile LH2 storage tanks in the existing industrial field. At the same time, potential avenues
and challenges for the future development of LH2 storage tanks are also anticipated.

1. Introduction of 0.08342 kg/m3 [9]. Even if the gaseous hydrogen is compressed to 15

MPa, or even 35 MPa or 70 MPa, the volumetric storage density is not as
Hydrogen is a versatile energy carrier and efficient storage medium, high as that of liquid storage [10]. Although chemical hydrogen storage
holding immense potential for addressing the global energy challenges, has shown great potential, it is still at the laboratory stage and further
while being the most abundant element on the planet, hydrogen can be research is needed in terms of charging and discharging efficiency,
produced from almost any energy source [1,2]. Since the global climate hydrogen purity, etc. [11]. At the same time, the cost of hydrogen
change issue has been given attention, the energy boom to promote liquefaction is decreasing with the development of hydrogen liquefac­
energy science and technology innovation and to accelerate the tion technology [12]. Therefore, among these methods, LH2 storage
restructuring of the energy industry has been set off rapidly. As a clean offers highest energy density, making it well-suited for long-distance
and green renewable energy source, hydrogen energy plays a huge role and long-duration transportation.
in ensuring its widespread utilization, especially in recent years LH2 is generally stored in the highly insulated cryogenic tanks at 20
hydrogen energy has gained more and more attention in fuel cells [3], K, but the large temperature difference with the ambient temperature
renewable synthetic fuels [4], electricity, industry and other areas. Ac­ leads to irreversible heat leakage through the tanks [13]. Due to the
cording to International Energy Agency (IEA) report, global demand for small latent heat of the LH2, the heat leakage allows the LH2 to partially
hydrogen energy reach as high as 94 million tons in 2021, 5% higher evaporated, producing boil-off gas (BOG) and causing a complex series
compared to 2020 [5], and will exceed 200 million tons by 2030 [6]. For of thermal phenomena in the storage tank, including pressure rise [14],
the growing demand of hydrogen energy, hydrogen storage and trans­ thermal stratification [15] and thermal expansion [16]. Therefore, a key
portation are crucial segments in the hydrogen energy market [7]. focus area in LH2 storage is the design of effective insulation systems to
Various methods have been explored for hydrogen storage and trans­ ensure the thermal integrity of the storage tanks. To address this chal­
portation, including gaseous storage, liquid storage, and chemical forms lenge, extensive researches have been conducted to develop advanced
storage [8]. The density of liquid hydrogen (LH2) is 70.9 kg/m3, which insulation materials and innovative design techniques for LH2 storage
is nearly 850 times higher than the standard gaseous hydrogen density tanks. These efforts aim to minimize heat transfer, enhance insulation

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (Y. Ju).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.01.093
Received 10 September 2023; Received in revised form 4 December 2023; Accepted 8 January 2024
Available online 18 January 2024
0360-3199/© 2024 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
L. Yin et al. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 57 (2024) 1302–1315

efficiency, and improve the overall performance and safety of the stor­ future development direction of large-scale storage and long-distance
age systems. Several studies have investigated the thermal properties of transportation of LH2. Section 7 is a summary of the original article.
insulation materials to optimize the insulation design. Furthermore,
numerical simulations and experimental studies have been carried out to 2. Cryogenic insulation technology
evaluate the heat transfer characteristics within the storage tanks and
assess the performance of insulation systems under different operating 2.1. Traditional technology
conditions. These studies have provided valuable insights into the
design and optimization of insulation systems for LH2 storage. Regarding commonly used liquid nitrogen, liquid oxygen, and LNG
Over the past few years there have been a number of excellent re­ storage tanks, traditional methods of cryogenic insulation include
views of academic literature focusing on LH2. These include compre­ techniques such as stacked insulation, high-vacuum insulation, vacuum
hensive reviews related to the entire LH2 supply chain, from powder insulation, vacuum multilayer insulation, and vacuum multi-
liquefaction at the production to regasification at the user end [17–20], shield insulation. Stacked insulation is to wrap materials with low
as well as reviews focusing on the development of hydrogen liquefaction thermal conductivity on the surface of the insulation object to achieve
processes [13,21–23], and also the use of LH2 as a fuel in the transport thermal insulation effect. It is mainly divided into fiber, powder and
sector [24]. However, there are few reviews dedicated to LH2 storage, foam. The apparent thermal conductivity of commonly used stacked
especially for the insulation design in cryogenic storage. Ref. [25] insulation materials is shown in Table 1.
addressed the main cryogenic materials for storage and transport of LH2 High-vacuum insulation is the process of pumping an insulated space
and Ref. [26] addressed high-power locomotives. Therefore, in this re­ to a vacuum degree below 1 mPa to reduce gas convection heat transfer
view, we will comprehensively discuss the key technological aspects and the majority of gas heat conduction in the insulated space. The
related to the insulation design of LH2 storage tanks. We will present apparent thermal conductivity is generally 10− 2–10− 3 W/(m⋅K). Vac­
state-of-the-art developments in insulation materials and designs. uum powder insulation is the filling of porous insulation materials
Additionally, we will highlight the importance of integrating insulation (powder or fiber) in the insulation space, and then pumping the insu­
systems with other critical components to prevent the generation of lation space to a certain vacuum degree (1–0.1 Pa). The apparent ther­
parasitic heat leaks in order to ensure reliable and efficient operation of mal conductivity of commonly used vacuum powder insulation
the LH2 storage system. By critically examining the existing literature materials is shown in Table 2, with cold and hot boundary temperatures
and research advancements, this review aims to provide a comprehen­ of 77 K and 300 K, respectively and residual gas pressure less than 0.1
sive overview of the key technical considerations in the insulation Pa.
design of LH2 storage tanks. The insights gained from this review will Vacuum multilayer insulation refers to the alternating installation of
contribute to the development of innovative solutions and strategies for several high reflective radiation shields and low thermal conductivity
enhancing the efficiency, safety, and performance of LH2 storage spacers in a high vacuum insulated space. The apparent thermal con­
systems. ductivity is generally 10− 4–10− 5 W/(m⋅K). Vacuum multi-shield insu­
Parallel document searches were captured through the search en­ lation is an insulation structure that combines multilayer radiation
gines Scopus, Web of Science, and CNKI to search English and Chinese protection shields with vapor cooling shields, suitable for liquid
language publications. In order to obtain relevant literature, research hydrogen and liquid helium storage tanks.
queries were conducted on the titles, abstracts, and keywords of
“hydrogen storage”, “liquid hydrogen storage”, “liquid hydrogen”, 2.2. LH2 insulation technology
“hydrogen liquefaction”, “cryogenic storage”, “cryogenic insulation”,
“insulation system” and “cryogenic storage tanks” in three databases. Cryogenic insulation technology plays a critical role in the storage
From these initial search queries, irrelevant sources were further dis­ and transportation of LH2. It can be categorized into two major ap­
carded based on factors such as scope, availability, and language. Then, proaches based on whether external energy is actively supplied: passive
forward and reverse references were made in the document to retrieve thermal protection insulation and active thermal transfer insulation.
more publications deemed suitable for inclusion. At the same time, Passive thermal protection insulation technology utilizes high-
relevant official websites such as NASA and Kawasaki were searched for performance materials, such as porous foam, spray on foam insulation
the above keywords to further obtain relevant information on industrial (SOFI), fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP), aerogel, glass bubble and hollow
applications. We adopt the “hybrid review” theoretical type, which in­ glass microsphere (HGM) in combination with vacuum multilayer
cludes both descriptive and critical reviews. Approximately 130 publi­ insulation (MLI) to minimize heat transfer and maintain cryogenic
cations have been ultimately selected for this manuscript. The structure environment [26]. These insulation materials possess excellent thermal
of this article consists of seven parts. Section 1 introduces the research resistance properties. By proper configuration and installation, heat
background, namely the significance of LH2 storage and transportation
in the entire hydrogen energy system, the necessity of this review, and Table 1
the literature review method and structure of this article. Then there are Thermal conductivity of commonly used stacked insulation materials.
five main parts (Sections 2–6). Section 2 introduces cryogenic insulation
Insulation material Density (kg/ Thermal conductivity
technology, including traditional insulation technology and LH2 insu­ m3) (W/(m⋅K))
lation technology, leading to passive thermal protection technology.
Cold and hot boundary temperature: Atmosphere
Section 3, passive thermal protection technology closely follows the 77 K and 300 K
theme of the article, with a focus on the research of insulation structures. Polyurethane 11 0.033
Section 4 briefly introduces the active thermal transfer technology for Polystyrene 39, 46 0.026–0.033
two reasons: 1) active thermal transfer is not the theme of this article, Rubber 80 0.036
Silicon 160 0.055
but rather one of the ways to reduce heat leakage, so it is proposed
Glass 140 0.035
through a simple description in the article; 2) the review of the active
thermal transfer technology is already comprehensive and not suitable Cold and hot boundary temperature: Atmosphere
90 K and 300 K
for extensive elaboration. Section 5 mainly focuses on the material se­ Perlite 50, 210 0.026–0.044
lection and the application of LH2 storage tanks in the industrial field. It Aerogel 80 0.019
summarizes the advantages, disadvantages, and applications of different Vermiculite 120 0.052
insulation materials, as well as the capacity and insulation methods of Glass fibre 110 0.025
Mineral wool 160 0.035
existing stationary and mobile LH2 storage tanks. Section 6 discusses the

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Table 2
Thermal conductivity of commonly used vacuum powder insulation materials.
Insulation material Density (kg/m3) Thermal conductivity (W/(m⋅K))

Perlite 64, 180 0.95 × 10− 3–1.9 × 10− 3

Aerogel 80 1.6 × 10− 3

Calcium silicate 210 0.59 × 10− 3
Glass fibre 50 1.7 × 10− 3

leakage into the system can be significantly reduced to maintain the

cryogenic conditions required for LH2 storage. Passive insulation pro­
vides a relatively simple and cost-effective solution for achieving
adequate insulation performance in a wide range of applications.
On the other hand, active thermal transfer technology uses a cryo­
genic chiller, for example, to cool down the LH2 in the storage tank by
consuming electrical energy and other input energy. With the pre­
requisites of passive thermal protection technology, it offers superior
insulation performance and the potential for zero boil-off (ZBO) storage Fig. 1. Schematic of SOFI-MLI for LH2 tank.
of LH2, which eliminates the vaporization and loss of LH2 during stor­
age. Currently this technology is mainly applied to the storage of pro­
flow between the radiation screens [32]. Based on this, the concept of
pellants for long term in-orbit spacecraft [27]. However, it also presents
variable density multilayer insulation (VDMLI) was developed by NASA
certain challenges, such as additional auxiliary equipment, increased
to vary the density of reflective and spacer layers in MLI for the same
system size, weight and complexity, lower refrigeration efficiency,
number of reflective and spacer layers [33,34]. It means to reduce the
higher energy consumption and higher overall costs. In conclusion,
spacing between reflective layers to block more heat radiation at the hot
cryogenic insulation technology is a crucial aspect of LH2 storage and
boundary near the ambient environment, and to increase the spacing
transportation. Passive thermal protection insulation provides a
between reflective layers to reduce the heat flux at the cold boundary
cost-effective and reliable solution for maintaining the desired cryogenic
near the walls of LH2 storage tank. Since then, many scholars have
conditions, while active thermal transfer insulation offers the potential
conducted thermodynamic optimization and simulation experiments for
for ZBO storage but comes with additional complexities and higher
VDMLI and the schematic of SOFI-VDMLI for LH2 tank is shown in
costs.
Fig. 2.

3. Passive thermal protection technology 3.1.1. SOFI+VDMLI

Hedayat et al. [35] (2000) discussed two one-dimensional analytical
For LH2 storage tanks, the largest source of heat leakage is the heat models for the performance of SOFI and VDMLI systems. Based on the
flow from the outer wall surface close to the ambient temperature, so the results of large-scale Multipurpose Hydrogen Test Bed (MHTB) testing
main reliance is on composite insulation for thermal protection. The MLI and analytical modelling, assuming a LH2 propellant mass of 3499 kg,
consists of a low emissivity reflector and a low thermal conductivity the multilayer insulation system had a boil-off rate of 4.6% for the
spacer arranged in alternating layers under high vacuum conditions VDMLI system and 11% for the standard MLI over 45 days, assuming the
[28]. Under high vacuum conditions, the MLI exhibited effective ther­ same mass and number of layers. It was shown that VDMLI contributed
mal insulation and Hastings et al. [29] found through experimental to weight reduction and performance improvement, with VDMLI saving
studies for LH2 storage that the heat flux of the tested LH2 canister was 43% in weight and 58% in evaporation, respectively, compared to
0.22 W/m2 under high vacuum conditions and at an ambient tempera­ standard MLI in LH2 orbital storage applications. Wang et al. [36] car­
ture of 305 K. Later, Johnson [28,30] tested several MLI systems by ried out theoretical and experimental studies on the thermal perfor­
boil-off calorimetry at Kennedy Space Center using a cylindrical mance of VDMLI with different configurations and spacers. The results
Cryostat-100 device, and the main variables tested in these tests were showed that the insulation performance of the VDMLI could be
layer density, thermal boundary temperature, vacuum level and number improved by 45.5% compared with the conventional uniform structure
of layers. The test data suggested that solid conduction should be more by an optimized variable density structure. For the same optimized
important than in most equations. For boundary temperatures of 77 K
and 305 K, the optimum layer density was shown to be approximately
2.6 layers/mm, almost twice as high as the analytical predictions be­
tween 1.0 and 1.5 layers/mm. However, during the long-term storage of
LH2, the ambient vacuum level was gradually deteriorated, resulting in
vacuum deterioration or even vacuum failure, where the insulation
performance of MLI would be affected. In order to solve this problem,
Fesmire [31] concluded from tests that SOFI had a low thermal con­
ductivity in atmospheric conditions and that vacuum had less influence
on it. Therefore, usually for LH2 storage tanks, the outer surface of the
tank is first covered with SOFI, and then the SOFI is covered with MLI, as
shown in Fig. 1.

3.1. Variable density multilayer insulation (VDMLI)

Studies of conventional MLI have shown that the heat flux consists
mainly of solid conduction, gas conduction and radiation. On the high
temperature side, the radiative heat flow is dominant, while on the
cryogenic side there is a significant increase in the solid conduction heat Fig. 2. Schematic of SOFI-VDMLI for LH2 tank.

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configuration, the performance was further improved by 54% by 35 mm Foam and 45-layer VDMLI systems, the 20 mm HGMs and
changing the spacer material from non-woven fibre cloth to Dacron net. 45-layer VDMLI systems had 11.97% lower heat flux or 9.91% lower
It was also found that for in-orbit thermal environments, the effective weight for the same heat flux [42]. To further illustrate the relationship
heat transfer coefficient was much less sensitive to MLI thickness when between internal material and MLI/VDMLI, Wang et al. [43] used HGMs
the MLI thickness exceeds 30 mm. Huang et al. [37] measured the to gradually replace the foam as a 5 mm unit, forming a series of
temperature distribution and apparent thermal conductivity of com­ HGMs-Foam-MLI/VDML insulation systems until the foam was exhaus­
bined Foam-VDMLI samples over a wide vacuum level range (10− 3–105 ted. It was shown that as the thickness of the HGMs increased, the heat
Pa). It was shown that when the vacuum level was reduced from 10− 3 flux gradually decreased and the insulation performance increased.
Pa–105 Pa, the apparent thermal conductivity of the polyurethane foam After the foam was completely replaced by HGMs, the performance of
and VDMLI increased from 2.13 to 16.32 mW/(m⋅K) and from 0.05 to the MLI and VDMLI systems improved by 33% and 13% respectively.
26.16 mW/(m⋅K), respectively. The pressure has a significant effect on
the performance of VDMLI, but not on the performance of the solid
3.2. Other MLI
insulating material. Also, for the Foam-VDMLI model, VDMLI plays a
dominant role in thermal protection and reduction of heat leakage from
While the continuous development of VDMLI has raised the thermal
the surrounding environment at high vacuum, while at atmospheric
performance of vacuum multilayer materials to a higher level, several
pressure, the foam accounts for the main responsibility of insulation.
experts are turning their research into MLI materials to improve material
Zheng et al. [38] conducted theoretical analysis and experimental test
reliability and stability. In 2012, Quest Product Development and Ball
on SOFI and MLI/VDMLI systems using liquid nitrogen as the cryogenic
Aerospace develop, installed and tested load responsive multilayer
fluid. The test results showed that the thermal resistance of SOFI was
insulation (LRMLI) under contract to NASA [44]. The insulation had a
only 0.12% of the total thermal resistance under high vacuum condi­
lightweight integrated vacuum shell that provided high thermal per­
tions, and 45.37% under atmospheric pressure conditions. In the case of
formance both in air and in orbit. In air, LRMLI used low thermal con­
a 50-layer reflector, the measured thermal leakage of the VDMLI was
ductivity micromolded polymer spacers that dynamically responded to
13.57% lower than that of the MLI, and the heat flux was 17.49% lower.
external atmospheric load to support the thin and lightweight vacuum
shell. In orbit conditions, the LRMLI was disconnected from the spacers
3.1.2. HGM+VDMLI
to provide lower solid conduction, thereby reducing thermal leakage
As described in Section 2, in addition to SOFI, HGM is also commonly
and providing higher thermal performance. An image of the LRMLI
used as an excellent cryogenic temperature insulation material [39]. A
concept applied to a cryogenic storage tank is shown in Fig. 4. The
number of scholars have also conducted research on HGMs. Sass et al.
spacers are connected to each Mylar layer and aligned to transfer the
[40] compared the insulation performance of HGMs with perlite during
load from the vacuum shell to the tank wall. The test results are 6.6
testing of a 1000 L LH2 tank, resulting in a 34% reduction in LH2 boil-off
W/m2 and 40.6 W/m2 for the thermal leakage of the three LRMLI
at 0.13 Pa and a 46% reduction at 13.3 Pa for the HGMs system. Wang
blankets (0.63 cm thick, 77 K cold, 295 K hot) measured in vacuum and
et al. [41] measured and calculated the thermal conductivity of HGMs at
in air at 1 atm respectively, a performance superior to that of SOFI and
cryogenic temperatures and proved that HGMs were a kind of superior
aerogel materials under the same conditions.
powder insulation material in vacuum. Optical micrographs are also
In 2014, with support from NASA SBIR, the two companies devel­
given of HGMs, which are spherical and have different sizes of 10–120
oped a novel load bearing multilayer insulation (LBMLI). The discrete
μm and wall thicknesses of 0.5–2 μm, as shown in Fig. 3. In the following
polymer spacers were used to maintain layer density, structurally sup­
two years, Wang et al. carried out more in-depth research on HGMs
port the heat shields and reduce heat leakage through the insulation
insulation systems. The HGMs-MLI and HGMs-VDMLI systems were
system, as shown in the structural diagram in Fig. 5 [45]. The final NASA
proposed and optimized. Predictions were also made for the insulation
test specific results include: LBMLI at cryogenic temperatures (20–90 K)
performance and weight of the HGMs-VDMLI system. Compared to the
has 51% less heat leakage per layer and 38% less mass compared to

Fig. 3. Optical micrographs of HGMs (a), scanning electron micrographs (b), (c), and (d) [40].

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the upper pressure limit, it is necessary to discharge the accumulated

cryogenic hydrogen vapor inside the tank, and the temperature of this
hydrogen vapor is only slightly higher than the saturation temperature
under storage pressure. Therefore, by utilizing the sensible heat of
cryogenic hydrogen vapor and without consuming external energy, a
vapor cooled shield (VCS) is installed around the storage tank to allow
the exhaust gas to cool the VCS to a certain extent, the performance of
the passive insulation system can be further improved. The schematic
diagram of the insulation structure combined with VCS is shown in
Fig. 6.
Table 3 gives the main thermophysical parameters for hydrogen,
nitrogen, oxygen and methane. It can be seen that the sensible heat of
hydrogen from saturation temperature to 300 K is 3509.6 kJ/kg, which
is 15, 18, and 9 times than that of nitrogen, oxygen, and methane,
respectively. It means that with the same mass of gas, hydrogen can
Fig. 4. An image of the LRMLI concept integrated vacuum shell [44].

Fig. 5. An image of load bearing multilayer insulation [45].

previously tested conventional MLI with tank supports, and is struc­

turally capable of supporting 8.6 kg broad area cooled shield (1.23
kg/m2) and 6 kg (0.86 kg/m2) of external MLI. The use of cryogenic
spacecraft propulsion systems is limited by the fact that cryogenic pro­
pellant transfer lines, used as ground support equipment during vehicle
launch, lost approximately 50% of LH2 during transfer, chill down and
ground retention. In the same year, the two companies collaborated to
develop an advanced insulation system for cryogenic transfer lines
called Wrapped MLI (WMLI) [46]. WMLI used discrete spacers to control
layer spacing and reduce heat leakage, providing high performance
insulation for cryogenic pipelines and industrial vacuum jacketed
tubing. Compared to conventional MLI installed on cryogenic pipelines,
WMLI offered superior performance with a heat flux of 2.2 W/m2 and
26.6 W/m2 for conventional spiral-wrapped MLI (5 layers, 77–295 K).

3.3. Vapor cooled shield

Although the different types of multilayer composite insulation

materials in sections 3.1 and 3.2 can reduce the heat leakage of LH2 in
storage tanks caused by the environment, heat leakage is still inevitable Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of the insulation structure combined with VCS: (a)
and can lead to continuous boil-off of LH2. When the LH2 tank reaches MLI+VCS, (b) VDMLI+VCS.

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Table 3
Thermophysical parameters of hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and methane.
Thermophysical parameter Helium Hydrogen Nitrogen Oxygen Methane

Normal boiling point, K 4.2 20.4 77.4 90.2 111.7

Liquid density, kg/m3 125.2 70.8 806.1 1141.2 422.4
Latent heat of vaporization, kJ/kg 20.4 448.7 199.2 213.1 510.8
Sensible heat of steam from boiling point to 300 K, kJ/kg 1541.5 3509.6 234.0 193.0 403.3
Ratio of sensible heat to latent heat 75.6 7.8 1.2 0.9 0.8

release the coldest energy. According to the conservation of energy, Scott [47] used conservation of mass and energy to first theorize the
almost all of the heat leaked into the cryogenic storage tank is converted advantages of recycling cryogenic vapor sensible heat and proposed a
into the latent heat vaporization of fluid and carried away from the tank perlite-VCS insulation structure. The results demonstrated that for LH2
along with the discharge of steam. The insulation principle of VCS is to tank insulated with perlite, the best insulation was achieved when the
use cryogenic steam sensible heat, so the effect of VCS in reducing VCS was positioned at approximately 35% from the outer wall surface of
evaporation rate of the liquid can be roughly judged by the ratio of the tank. With the help of the VCS, the daily boil-off rate of the LH2 tank
sensible heat to latent heat. The sensible and latent heat ratios of helium was reduced by 61.3%. Cunnington [48] argued through the second law
and hydrogen are both relatively high, with the other three ratios of thermodynamics that the boil-off rate of the cryogenic fluid was
around 1, indicating that the sensible and latent heat are equivalent. proportional to the rate of overall entropy production within the system.
Therefore, using VCS for helium and hydrogen has the most significant The author used this method for MLI-VCS structure to minimize entropy
effect. Fig. 7 shows latent heat vaporization and sensible heat of production and boil-off by optimizing the location, temperature and
hydrogen under different pressures. As the LH2 storage pressure in­ number of cooling shields in the system, thus achieving a design with a
creases and the sensible heat becomes a higher proportion of the total minimum boil-off rate. In addition, the author stated that two VCSs were
cooling energy, the role or potential of VCS becomes more significant. more effective than one VCS, but not as effective as continuous cooling.
Most of the studies in the literature for VCS have combined various Similarly, Chato and Khodadadi [49] adopted the same method to
composite insulation materials, including theoretical simulation calcu­ analyze the location, temperature and heat dissipation rate of each VCS
lations and experimental studies. In terms of theoretical simulations, within the MLI-VCS structure. The authors obtained from their analysis

Fig. 7. Latent heat vaporization and sensible heat of hydrogen under different pressures.

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that the maximum number of VCSs to be used in most practical appli­ processes inside the multilayer composite heat insulation structure are
cations was three. In addition, the cooling shields are only useful at low simplified as heat conduction, which cannot truly reflect the coupled
values of the overall cold wall to hot wall absolute temperature ratio. heat transfer processes inside the insulation structure, including radia­
Nast et al. [50] believed that the use of one or more VCSs was very tion, solid heat conduction and residual gas heat transfer, and cannot
beneficial for the long-term storage of in orbit LH2, as it could reduce give the accurate temperature distribution inside the insulation struc­
boil-off gas by about twice. They also concluded that the use of a thin ture. In order to more realistically reflect the heat transfer process within
gage flexible aluminum foil shields supported by MLI layers and an the composite insulation structure consisting of SOFI/HGM, MLI/VDMLI
aluminum honeycomb structure would make the structure more robust and VCS, several scholars have developed thermodynamic simulation
and able to withstand the launch loads to address the complexity and models capable of handling multiple heat transfer modes
weight of the in-orbit VCS. Kim and Kang [51] considered and analyzed simultaneously.
three types of combined insulation solutions: fully filled MLI and Jiang et al. [54] established a Foam-VCS-VDMLI thermodynamic
serial-type double VCS; fully filled MLI and parallel-type double VCS; simulation model that could simultaneously handle multiple heat
partially filled MLI and single VCS. The simulation results were that for transfer modes. The model was able to perform coupled calculations of
the serial-type double VCS, an internal VCS located at approximately gas conduction and forced convection in the VCS, conduction in the
30% and an external VCS located at approximately 60% from the in­ Foam, radiation, spacer and residual gas heat conduction in the VDMLI.
ternal vessel to the external vessel produced the least boil off losses. The It was found that the best thermal insulation performance of the tank
performance of the serial-type double VCS was 16% higher than that of was achieved when the VCS was located at the center of the thickness of
the parallel-type double VCS. Therefore, it was recommended that the the VDMLI, where the heat leakage of the LH2 tank was reduced by
serial-type double VCS was used for LH2 vessels. Babac et al. [52] 59.6%. Afterwards, Jiang et al. [55] proposed a transient model for
extended the thermal model for serial-type double VCS [51] to 2D predicting the thermal behavior and insulation performance of MLI
conduction and convection heat transfer and considered the tempera­ coupled to VCS, which was validated by experimental data. At the same
ture dependence of heat capacity and thermal conductivity as well as time, the influence of transient temperature distribution, heat flux
heat leakage due to the tank base area in their calculations. The simu­ variation and pressure control band on the VCS insulation performance
lation results showed that the difference of heat leakage calculation was also studied. The results showed that under intermittent transient
between the two methods was as high as 20% by using the constant and gas emission conditions, the VCS could greatly recover the cold energy
temperature-dependence values of hydrogen thermal conductivity and carried by the cryogenic vapor.
heat capacity, especially the temperature dependence of hydrogen Zheng et al. [56] optimized the insulation performance of single-VCS
thermal conductivity had a considerable impact on the prediction. In and double-VCS systems in LH2 storage tanks with MLI, and determine
addition, the authors compared the adiabatic performance between the that the optimal installation position for single-VCS in MLI is 50%, while
single VCS and double VCS options and found that there appear to be no for double-VCS is 30% and 60%, as shown in Fig. 8. Compared with heat
difference due to the high thermal conductivity of hydrogen inside the leakage without VCS, the maximum reduction was 50.16% for
VCS, with excess hydrogen replacing the MLI material in the case of the single-VCS and 59.44% for double-VCS. However, if the numbers of VCS
double VCS option. Liu et al. [53] also carried out a heat transfer continued to increase, the improvement in insulation performance
analysis of the MLI-VCS insulation structure, and for different cryogenic would not be significant. In the event of vacuum failure, the VCS could
working fluids, significant benefits can be obtained with VCS when the play a positive role in the early stages and when the ambient pressure
ratio of sensible and latent heat is relatively large. exceeded 10 Pa, the reduction in heat leakage would stabilize at 45.97%
In the above heat transfer calculation process, all the heat transfer for single-VCS and 54.00% for double-VCS. In the same year, Zheng et al.

Fig. 8. Schematic diagram of heat transfer process for single-VCS and double-VCS [56].

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[57] conducted another study in the same way on the optimum instal­
lation position of VCS in VDMLI and indicated that the optimal location
of VCS in VDMLI (30%) was significantly closer to the cold boundary
than that in MLI (50%). With the optimum VCS installation position,
66.32% of the heat flux could be reduced by VDMLI and 58.05% by MLI.
Due to the low apparent thermal conductivity, fast installation, the
ability to be injected in a short period of time, and easy maintenance of
HGMs, Zheng et al. [58] proposed a new LH2 storage insulation system
consisting of HGMs and VCS, which was particularly suitable for
large-scale and long-term storage of LH2. It was found that the optimal
position of VCS in the HGMs was about 30% from the inside to the
outside of the storage tank, which was similar to the results obtained in
VDMLI. As the number of VCS increased from 1 to 3, the minimum heat
flux through the HGMs was reduced by 57.36%, 65.29% and 68.21%
respectively.

3.4. Experimental study

Considering the safety, economy and other factors, most scholars

have conducted research on the insulation structure of liquid nitrogen
storage tanks, while there is limited information on the experimental
research of the composite insulation structure of LH2 storage tanks.
Liggett [59] of General Dynamics Space Systems Division, USA,
designed and built a small-scale test article of the LH2 tank for
steady-state and transient thermal testing. The tank insulation consisted
of 30 layers of MLI and two copper VCS with vacuum chamber, where
the VCSs were cooled with either LH2 boil-off gas through an optional
para-ortho hydrogen converter or refrigerated helium gas (GHe), as
shown in Fig. 9. For the converter, the conversion of para to ortho
hydrogen is an endothermic process that promotes the occurrence of the
reaction through a converter, further reducing heat leakage. The test
results showed that the boil-off reductions with a single VCS at outer
surface temperatures of 111 K, 187 K and 287 K were 0%, 25% and 35%
respectively, which were lower than the boil-off reductions obtained
from simulations at the same outer surface temperatures: 38%, 53% and
66% respectively. When the author used the dual VCS and a para-ortho
hydrogen converter to absorb heat leakage, boil-off rate was reduced by
only 26%, while simulations predicted a 78% reduction at an outer
surface temperature of 286 K. It was stated in the text that the reason for
the measured value lower than simulated values was mainly due to
parasitic heat leakage from the upper vacuum chamber lid to the
para-ortho hydrogen converter body, including heat transfer along the
steel and copper vent and bypass tubes.
Adam [60] at Washington State University, designed and fabricated
a LH2 fuel tank using filled nylon 11, metallic permeation barriers and
selective laser sintering 3D technology. The structure of the LH2 is
shown in Fig. 10. The tank insulation structure was divided into a total
of four inter-layers, and from the inside out, the first and third
inter-layers were cryogel insulation. The second and fourth mezzanine Fig. 9. Test platform of LH2 tank: (a) system diagram, (b) outer VCS diagram
before soldering and installation MLI [59].
layers were VCSs. In addition, 0.312 g of ruthenium was placed inside
the second inter-layer vapor flow channel as catalyst for the para-ortho
hydrogen conversion. The entire insulation structure was exposed to the compared with the atmospheric conditions, there are many restrictions
atmosphere without vacuum and was designed to achieve a storage time on the emission of cryogenic fluids in the space environment, such as (1)
of up to 1 day for LH2. Before wrapping the tank in carbon fibre, the the microgravity environment, which makes the gas-liquid interface
author completed a liquid nitrogen boil-off test. The lowest boil-off rate uncertain, and if there are no gas-liquid separation measures, the
measured was 280 g/h, which was more consistent with the 245 g/h exhaust process will inevitably be accompanied by a large amount of
boil-off rate predicted in the CFD analysis. However, the subsequent LH2 liquids to be discharged, which will result in a huge loss; (2) even if the
boil-off test did not yield data due to tank breakage. gas propellant is discharged, due to the influence of microgravity, it will
be diffused around the spacecraft, and it is flammable and explosive,
4. Active thermal transfer technology which will seriously endanger the safety of the astronauts and the
spacecraft; (3) moreover, if the necessary propellant dosage is to be
Passive thermal protection is designed to minimize ambient heat guaranteed, the regular discharge means that the initial carrying ca­
leakage, and active thermal transfer techniques need to be introduced to pacity of the propellant has to take into consideration the portion of the
achieve reduced or zero boil-off or lossless storage of LH2. At present, prop [61].
the research on active thermal transfer technology is mainly applied to Hu et al. [62] investigated the research in detail on zero boil-off
space on-orbit LH2 storage, mainly due to the following reasons: technology for cryogenic propellant storage in space conducted by

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5.2. Industrial applications

Depending on the field of industrial application of hydrogen, com­

mon international storage methods for LH2 can be broadly classified
into two main categories: stationary storage and mobile storage. Sta­
tionary storage means that the location of the tanks does not normally
move, while mobile storage usually involves the transport of LH2 by
truck, rail or ship.

5.2.1. Stationary LH2 storage tank

The LH2 produced at the Linde German liquefaction plant in Ingol­
stadt was stored in vacuum-insulated horizontal tank with a diameter of
4.2 m, a length of 25 m, a volume of 270 m3 and a capacity of 19 t of
LH2. Due to its insulation loss of only 0.3%/d, this LH2 tank allowed for
intermediate buffering of LH2 production without significant boil-off
losses [66]. There were two spherical vessels with an outer diameter
of 12.6 m and a capacity of 540 m3 each operated at the Tanegashima
space center in Japan [67].
The world’s largest LH2 storage tank was located at the NASA Ken­
nedy Space Centre in Florida, USA, and was used in the space shuttle
program. The tank was a 3800 m3 double-walled, vacuum perlite
powder insulated spherical tank, as illustrated in Fig. 12 [63]. The outer
sphere was made of carbon steel with an inner diameter of 21.34 m and
the inner sphere was made of austenitic stainless steel with an inner
diameter of 18.75 m [68]. The actual volume of LH2 was 3218 m3 and
the boil-off rate of the tank operating at a pressure of 620 kPa was
0.025%/d. The construction of NASA’s new 4700 m3 spherical tank,
capable of storing 334 t of LH2, began in 2019 to support the Artemis
mission to the moon [69]. The inner vessel is constructed from SA240
Grade 304 stainless steel and the outer sphere is fabricated from SA516
Grade 70 carbon steel [70]. In addition, the new storage tank includes
Fig. 10. LH2 tank cutaway by Adam [60].
two new energy-saving technologies: a glass bubble insulation system
that replaces perlite powder and an integrated refrigeration and storage
European and American space agencies, and summarized the main (IRAS) heat exchanger. The vacuum glass bubble insulation system has
technological methods for zero boil-off in space, including condenser been developed based on research over the past two decades, and
embedded inside tank, cryogenic heat pipe & heat exchanger, spray bar compared to perlite, it can reduce LH2 boil-off by 46% [70]. The core of
& circulating pump, and broad area cooling shield & circulating gas IRAS functionality is a heat exchanger system built into internal con­
pump, as shown in Fig. 11. tainers, which removes heat from bulk liquids through future imple­
The authors concluded that parasitic heat leakage was generated mentation of external helium cryocooler, achieving zero boil-off [70].
when the refrigeration system was integrated onto the storage tank. The In 2020, Japan built a 2500 m3 LH2 spherical tank with a storage
evolutionary trend of several generations of zero boil-off technology capacity of 2250 m3, which was used in the world’s first LH2 operation
solutions has been to keep the refrigerator as far away from the storage terminal in Hytouch Kobe, to load and unload LH2 transported back to
tank as possible and the cooling capacity produced by the refrigerator is Japan from Australia and provided it for use in the hydrogen energy
efficiently directed into the storage fluid. Among the four approaches to chain, as shown in Fig. 13 [71]. LH2 storage tanks were insulated with
zero boil-off storage, the authors believed that the solution of the broad perlite vacuum insulation system, which was enhanced by filling the
area cooling shield & circulating gas pump was particularly suitable for space between the inner and outer spherical tank with the insulation
large-volume storage tanks because of the advantages of low parasitic material perlite, and then creating a vacuum, as shown in Fig. 14 [64]. In
heat leakage, low power consumption of the refrigerator, and good the same year, Kawasaki Heavy Industries announced that the basic
elimination of thermal stratification for the cryogenic fluid in the tank, design of a 11,200 m3 spherical tank with an operating capacity of 10,
which made it a kind of promising technological solution. 000 m3, about 710 t, had been completed and the boil-off rate of less
than 0.1%/d [71]. The design parameters of the relevant LH2 storage
5. LH2 storage tank applications tanks are given in Table 5.

5.1. Insulation materials selection 5.2.2. Mobile LH2 storage tank

For road transport over medium distances, the key piece of equip­
When insulation materials selection for LH2 storage in practical ment is the LH2 tanker, which is typically a horizontally positioned
applications, it is also necessary to consider issues such as weight and cylindrical cryogenic insulated storage tank. Currently, commercial LH2
operability. For example, in mobile tanks, the weight of the tank design tankers have a capacity of 25–65 m3 and can hold about 1.5–4 t of LH2
needs to be minimized. In addition, for large-scale tanks, the energy with a daily boil-off rate of 0.5% [20]. The special large capacity tanker
consumption required for vacuuming is high, so low-vacuum (<1 Pa) for railway can even reach 85–120 m3, which is suitable for
insulation is usually used. Table 4 lists the advantages and disadvan­ long-distance transport with good economy. At present, there are only a
tages of commonly used insulation methods for LH2 storage in industry few special lines for LH2 railway transport at home and abroad. The 85
filed. m3 LH2 rail car in China adopts high vacuum multilayer winding insu­
lation method, with the outer surface of the inner tank being alternately
wrapped with aluminum foil and glass-fibre-cloth, and then tied up
firmly with non-alkali glass cloth tape, and the boil-off rate is lower than

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Fig. 11. Zero boil-off technology for cryogenic propellant storage in space: (a) diagram of condenser embedded inside tank, (b) diagram of cryogenic heat pipe &
heat exchanger, (c) diagram of spray bar & circulating pump, (d) diagram of broad area cooling shield & circulating gas pump [62].

0.4%/d [65]. Frontier, the new design uses LH2 boil-off gas as the ship fuel. South
For long-distance and high-capacity LH2 transportation in the ocean, Korea, France, the Netherlands and other countries have also announced
ships are generally used for transportation. In late 2019, the construc­ the development of large-scale LH2 ships, mastering the original tech­
tion of Suiso Frontier, the world’s first LH2 transport ship, was nology of LH2 liquid cargo tanks and seizing the global technical
completed by Kawasaki Heavy Industries at Kobe shipyard, as shown in standards.
Fig. 15. A cylindrical 1250 m3 vacuum-insulated, double-walled LH2 In terms of mobile LH2 storage tanks, it is expected that in the future,
storage tank was installed on board [69]. Glass-fibre-reinforced plastic international trade will be transported by LH2 ocean shipping, domestic
was used as support structure to minimize heat transfer [19]. The nodes between cities will be transported by LH2 tanker trucks or rail­
boil-off rate was reported to be less than 0.4% per day, and the boil-off roads, and intra-city hydrogen refueling stations can be transported by
gas was re-stored without being released to the atmosphere [19]. In hydrogen bundled trucks.
early 2022, the ship successfully delivered the first 75 t of LH2 from
Australia to Japan, marking the world’s first completion of a 6. Future directions
long-distance sea transportation of LH2. Based on the Suiso Frontier
design, Kawasaki will develop a 160,000 m3 ship, which is designed to For existing stationary and mobile LH2 storage tanks, most of the
use four tanks of 40,000 m3 each and is expected to be commercially insulation structures are double-walled and vacuum insulated. The
available by the mid-2020s [69]. Kawasaki developed a new distinctive vacuum is designed to reduce the heat losses due to conduction and
cargo containment system, CC61H type, for large-scale liquefied convection, and radiation heat losses can be further reduced by adding
hydrogen carriers. Unlike the diesel propulsion system used by Suiso MLI or SOFI, HGM, aluminum, silica or perlite particles in the vacuum

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Table 4
Advantages and disadvantages of insulation methods for LH2 storage.
Insulation method Advantages Disadvantages Applications in LH2 storage

Foam – outside Easy established, lightweight, low cost, good High thermal conductivity, low resistance to Short term storage [19]
insulation under non-vacuum conditions thermal radiation, easy to degrade in the
environment
Foam – inside Low cost, reduction of microcracks Larger structural tank wall required, resulting in Usually combined with MLI to form
increased mass, possible loss of structural wall composite insulation materials for long-
integrity due to fluid infiltration term storage in small tanks [19]
Aerogel-between Extremely low thermal conductivity and density, High cost, limited mechanical properties Not well established for large vessels [19]
walls (Bulk fill or excellent insulation under non-vacuum conditions
blanket
Perlite-between Low cost, low density, good insulation under vacuum High demand for vacuum, compaction can happen Stationary medium storage tanks, long term
walls (Bulk fill) conditions with certain tank geometries under thermal cycling storage [63,64]
and/or dynamic loads
Glass Bubbles- Extremely low density, simplified installation, High cost, high demand for vacuum Not well established for large vessels [19]
between walls excellent insulation under vacuum conditions/good
(Bulk fill) insulation under non-vacuum conditions
MLI-between walls Low density and radiation heat transfer, superior Costly to implement and maintain, near- Long term storage in high vacuum
(Blanket) insulation under high vacuum, easy established, catastrophic failure upon loss of vacuum, difficult environment [28,31]
to execute for certain tank geometries
VCS-between walls Excellent insulation Complex structure, difficult established Small storage tanks [54,55]
Fibre reinforced Lightweight, high strength, good insulation, good Easy to degrade in the environment Mobile storage tanks [19,65]
plastic-between designability
walls

Fig. 13. 2500 m3 LH2 storage tank of Kawasaki [71].

Fig. 12. 3800 m3 LH2 storage tank at NASA [63].

space. On the other hand, for stationary LH2 storage tanks and tanks on
large LH2 ships both are spherical, due to the fact that spherical tanks
have the smallest ratio of exposed surface-to-volume and the smallest
heat loss. For small mobile LH2 storage tanks, such as transportation
tankers, cylindrical tanks are used because they are cheaper to manu­
facture and easier to fix.
To conclude, in the future, passive thermal protection will be the
main insulation method for onshore and offshore LH2 storage tanks,
with active thermal transfer as a supplement to reduce LH2 boil-off gas
losses. The pressure and insulation structure of onshore storage tanks
need to be designed based on the amount of heat leakage and expected
storage time. As for LH2 storage tanks for aerospace applications, since
the special characteristics of the operating environment, two types of
insulation, active thermal transfer and passive thermal protection, are
required in order to realize zero boil-off.
At present, large-scale onshore LH2 storage and long-distance
offshore LH2 transportation are the main development directions. The
Fig. 14. Conceptual diagram of vacuum thermal insulation structure for 2500
most important way to improve the opportunities for large-scale storage
m3 LH2 storage tank of Kawasaki [64].
and long-distance transportation and to achieve cost advantages is to

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Table 5
Design parameters of the relevant LH2 storage tanks.
Ingolstadt Tanegashima space Kawasaki Heavy NASA NASA Kawasaki Heavy
center Industries Industries

Volume (m3) 270 540 2500 3800 4700 11,200

Diameter (m) 4.2 12.6 – 21.34 25.3 30
Mass (t) 19 38 159.5 227 334 710
Shape of tank Horizontal Spherical Spherical Spherical Spherical Spherical
Boil-off rate 0.3 – – 0.025 0.048 <0.1%
(%/d)
Insulation vacuum- vacuum-insulated vacuum perlite vacuum perlite vacuum glass bubble and IRAS heat vacuum insulated
method insulated powder insulated powder insulated exchanger by helium cryocooler

resolution systems are needed to detect and suppress leaks or fires

in various environments (liquefaction plants, ships, domestic gas
stations). Necessary leakage emergency measures need to be drew up
based on different application scenarios.
4) Due to the long transportation time and large capacity of maritime
LH2 ships and the inevitability of LH2 evaporation, in addition to the
use of MLI and vacuum insulated methods, a reasonable choice of
boil-off gas treatment is crucial for the normal operation of the
equipment and the ship, as well as for the economy. Unlike the re-
liquefaction of boil-off gas for LNG carriers, the boil-off gas from
LH2 storage can be used as fuel to drive engines or fuel cells due to
the high cost and energy consumption of hydrogen liquefaction at
present and the fact that hydrogen itself is a zero-carbon energy
source. For small and medium LH2 ships, it is suitable to use
hydrogen as the main propulsion power and configure hydrogen fuel
cells or generators according to the evaporation volume to make full
use of the boil-off gas. For large LH2 ships, hydrogen-doped low-
Fig. 15. Suiso Frontier, the world’s first LH2 transport ship [66]. speed engines can be used, assisted by hydrogen fuel generators or
conventional generators. However, the currently reported maximum
achieve high hydrogen liquefaction efficiency, low boil-off rate, appro­ power of fuel cells is about 2 MW, which is far less than the minimum
priate cryogenic energy recovery measures, and adequate production power requirement of about 5 MW for commercial LH2 ships.
scale. At the same time, in the future hydrogen economy, the large-scale Therefore, supporting facilities and technologies related to maritime
storage and long-distance transportation of LH2 need to first address transport also need to be vigorously developed, including bunkering
some challenges. facilities, transportation equipment to and from ports, piping mani­
folds and loading arms.
1) Search for innovative insulation solutions and materials to minimize
boil-off losses in future large-scale storage and long-distance trans­ 7. Conclusions
portation. The biggest issue in future plans for large-scale and long-
distance LH2 storage and transportation may be how to properly This article reviews the progress of insulation structures for LH2
insulate the tanks. Traditional vacuum jackets may have difficulties storage tanks from the perspectives of research and industrial applica­
on this scale due to high energy consumption. New insulation tions, including cryogenic insulation technology, passive thermal pro­
schemes and materials are needed, which have thermal performance tection technology, active thermal transfer technology, and LH2 storage
requirements such as low thermal conductivity, lightweight, high tank applications. On this basis, the development direction of LH2 in
strength, and which do not degrade over time. As shown in Table 4, future large-scale storage and long-distance transportation is discussed.
each existing insulation method has its advantages and disadvan­ Research has found that the main methods of passive thermal pro­
tages. Research should be conducted to improve the performance of tection include the use of different types of composite materials, MLI
insulation methods through the combination of different technolo­ materials, VCS, vacuum, and combinations between these methods.
gies and materials. Active thermal transfer is generally used for LH2 storage in the aero­
2) Develop a comprehensive dynamic model that can reliably estimate space field due to the high difficulties of the technologies and equipment
the boil-off rate, thermal stratification, pressurization, flow dy­ requirements, and is prone to parasitic heat leakage, at which time
namics, two-phase distribution, temperature and thermal stress dis­ passive thermal protection can be assisted to achieve zero or reduced
tribution of LH2 during static storage and loading/unloading of boil-off.
liquid cargo through the geometric shape and scale of the storage The commonly used insulation methods in the industrial field mainly
tank. This model can also describe the thermodynamic and dynamic include foam, aerogel, perlite, glass bubble, MLI, VCS and fiber rein­
conditions inside LH2 storage tanks under sloshing and extreme forced plastics. From the current existing medium-scale stationary
conditions. storage tanks, there are more ways to use perlite powder under vacuum
3) Hydrogen safety is one of the most important challenges to ensure and glass bubble under vacuum. For mobile storage tanks, fiberglass
the rapid development of LH2 storage and transportation. Acceler­ reinforced plastics are commonly used due to their high strength.
ating the development and implementation of relevant LH2 regula­ In order to promote the rapid development of LH2 in large-scale
tions and standards can help mitigate risks related to de- storage and long-distance transportation, innovative insulation combi­
pressurization, fire and explosion. On the other hand, professional nations and materials to reduce boil-off losses should be sought; A
training for technical personnel can help eliminate or correct the comprehensive model for simulating the thermodynamics and dynamics
risks caused by human errors. Intelligent, automated, and high- inside LH2 storage tanks should be developed; Hydrogen safety

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