First Semester AY: 2020-2021

Module # 04

4-1. About the Module

4-1.1 Overview

Compressed air is used all around us in everyday life. It can be used in the form of blowing air
or as an energy source and it is used to power or produce many of the things we use. From
opening a bottle of fizzy drink, riding a roller coaster, taking the bus, visiting the dentist or the
electricity we use each day, compressed air will have played a role in each one of these
experiences.

Compressed air is air that is pressurized to greater than atmospheric pressure. It is exactly the
same as the air that you breathe only it has been forced to a smaller volume and kept under
pressure. Air is made up of 78% nitrogen, 20-21% oxygen and around 1-2% of other gases as
well as water vapor. When compressed, the air is still made up of the same mixture of gases,
however, it will have been forced into a smaller space, bringing the molecules closer together.

Compressed air can be stored at a high pressure and is a fantastic medium for transmitting
energy. Compressed air is a popular energy source as it is safer and easier than alternative
options like steam and batteries. Steam can be dangerous as it gets extremely hot whereas
batteries can run out of charge, making both options unfavorable.

Compressed air is safe to use, easy to store and has many versatile uses.

4-1.2 Module Objectives

After completing this module, the student must be able to:

• Familiarize with the modes of heat transfer, the heat transfer properties of materials such as
insulators, refractories, etc.
 • Explain how the modes of heat transfer takes place.
• Describe the effects the properties of materials on the process of heat transfer.
• Solve various problems about the topic.

4-1.3 Course Materials

To complement this learning module, the students are advised to read/watch the following
resources listed below.

Ch. 1 Theory & Ch. 2 Compressors and Auxiliary Equipment

Atlas Copco (2010). Compressed Air Manual, 7th Ed. Atlas Copco Airpower NV, Belgium

Ch.2 Compressed Air Applications

Elliott, B.S. (2006). Compressed Air Operations Manual: An Illustrated Guide to Selection,
Installation, Applications, and Maintenance. McGraw-Hill. USA

How does an Air Compressor work?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bJluUxA7aaY

Compressed air made easy

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SmWJW5kiJiE

4-1.4 Topics

Compressed Air Systems

Compressed Air Applications, Compressors, Auxiliary Parts of Compressed Air System
4-2. Compressed Air Applications

Uses for compressed air are as varied as for any other utility. These uses range from simply
blowing dust off of a new cabinet to providing control pressure for entire petrochemical plants.
Most of us have witnessed a busy auto repair shop and heard all the air tools buzzing away. Air
tools provide a high power, light weight, safe and reliable alternative to other types of tools.
From a control standpoint, compressed air represents a very powerful utility. Pneumatic controls
are generally about one-third the size of their electrical counterparts and they have the added
advantage of being impervious to water. Washdown rated electrical controls are extremely
expensive and have a rather short life expectancy. Food processing plants, for instance, require
regular washdown operations. Pneumatic controls are ideal for this industry and provide many
years of service in these otherwise hostile environments. Another arena is petrochemical plants,
where pneumatic controls shine. The bulk of most chemical plants are in the form of outside
installations. Electrical controls cannot be exposed to the elements and require special
construction or housings. Additionally, because of the flammable nature of the materials being
handled, all electrical controls within a chemical plant must be explosion proof. Standard
pneumatic controls, on the other hand, do not represent a fire or ignition hazard.

The auto repair industry relies heavily on pneumatic tools for everyday operations. Most auto
mechanics rate their air wrenches as some of their most important tools. If you stroll through a
typical auto repair shop, you will notice that each mechanic has two or three different air
wrenches lying about his workstation. Paint and body shops conduct most of their grinding and
polishing operations with pneumatic tools. They use air wrenches to speed assembly and
disassembly, and of course, apply all paint with pneumatic paint sprayers. Cabinet and furniture
shops use pneumatic nailers and staplers almost exclusively. These businesses simply cannot
compete without the speed and reliability that these tools provide their operation. There are a
myriad of air tools and pneumatic controls on the market today, and a detailed review of this
subindustry. In this module will show some of the more common air tools and pneumatic
applications.

4-1.1 Blow-Off Guns

Blow-off guns are the most common use for compressed air. From blowing off chips in a
machine shop to makeshift air brooms, these guns are extremely convenient tools. The blow-off
gun is simply a push button valve with a discharge nozzle to focus escaping air.
Compact Blow-off Gun

4-1.2 Tire Inflators

The figure below shows a simple air chuck. This is a very inexpensive and handy tool to have
squirreled away in your toolbox or desk. There are versions of the air chuck that have a locking
mechanism, which allows the chuck to be locked to the tire valve. Caution should be exercised
when using a locking air chuck. If the chuck is connected and the operator gets distracted the
tire may be over pressurized, and in some cases a tire can rupture.

Simple Air Chuck

4-1.3 Portable Air Tanks

For some field applications, most notably filling tires, a portable air tank or service tank can be
utilized. These devices are little more than an air tank with a carrying handle, filler valve, and air
chuck. The air chuck is typically connected to the tank with a 4- or 4-ft hose, which attaches to a
tee. The tee normally has a pressure gauge, which shows the internal pressure of the tank. The
filler valve is usually a tire-type valve, which allows the tank to be filled at any auto repair facility.
These units are generally set up on four feet to provide a stable mount when in use. The tanks
used normally have a 4- to 5-gal capacity because larger tanks are a little too bulky to be
handled comfortably. Oftentimes, service tanks can be seen on the back of tow-trucks as they
cruise down the road. If you have a trailer stored in a remote location, a service tank will allow
you to conveniently air up the tires before moving it. Below shows a typical service tank.

Portable Air Tank

4-1.4 Fire Extinguishers

Another device that most of us are aware of, but probably wouldn’t consider a pneumatic tool, is
the pressurized air/water fire extinguisher. These units are commonly found hanging in the halls
of schools, hospitals, and office buildings. They rely heavily on compressed air for their
operation. A valve cap is used to seal a small water tank. The valve assembly consists of a
palm-actuated valve, safety ring, carrying handle, pressure gauge, hose with nozzle, and filler
valve. After the tank is charged with water, usually two and a half gallons, the valve cap
assembly is replaced on the tank and the remaining air space is pressurized with compressed
air. The air is introduced
through a tire filler tank valve that is generally opposite the pressure gauge. When pressurizing
one of these extinguishers, the gauge should indicate in the “green” zone. If the gauge indicates
anywhere in the red zones, the internal pressure should be adjusted back into the green. These
types of fire extinguishers should not be used on electrical fires.

To operate the unit, simply pull out the safety ring, point the nozzle at the fire, and push down
the palm trigger. The air charge forces the water out of the nozzle at a surprising rate.

Air Pressure Fire Extinguisher

4-1.5 Air Cylinders

Among the most common ways to take advantage of compressed air is through the use of
cylinders. These devices offer a versatile and reliable way to convert the energy of compressed
air into linear motion. By selecting different piston areas and adjusting the delivery pressure, a
wide range of force can be realized.

There are two principal types of cylinders available in the market. The first is simply a cylinder
with a piston and rod. These cylinders are available in a wide range of diameters and strokes.
The second is the diaphragm actuator. These serve the same general purpose, except a
diaphragm replaces the piston. These types of cylinders will generally endure water
contamination better than their piston counterparts. They are normally used to produce high
forces with low pressures by taking advantage of their large diaphragm area. The real drawback
in diaphragm cylinders is their stroke length. Because the diaphragm cannot slide within a
cylinder, there are practical limits that must be dealt with. The other drawback is that because
their diaphragms cannot handle large differential pressures, these units are normally limited to
relatively low pressures.

Air Cylinder
Diaphragm Air Cylinder

Cylinders are typically controlled with a venting four-way valve. When the valve is in one
position, pressure is applied to one side of the piston and vented on the opposite side. These
valves are available in many different configurations, which are applicable for almost any control
situation.

Controlling the speed of the cylinder is another consideration in almost every application. Small,
inexpensive speed control valves are available that can be adjusted to control the rate of either
extension, contraction, or both.

The force that can be utilized on air cylinder is described by the equation:

𝑟=𝑟∙𝑟
where,
𝑟 is the force generated
𝑟 is the air pressure

𝑟 is the cross-sectional area of the cylinder

4-1.6 Pressure Amplifiers

A variation of the simple cylinder is the pressure amplifier. These are also referred to as
pressure intensifiers, pressure boosters, gas boosters, and hydraulic amplifiers. These units are
designed to produce high secondary pressures from relatively low compressed air pressures.
The most common of these devices generally consists of a large pneumatic cylinder pushing a
smaller hydraulic cylinder. These devices are generally a low-cost alternative to standard high-
pressure pumps when high flow rates are not a consideration. Figure below shows a schematic
representation of a pressure amplifier.

Hydraulic Pressure Amplifier

The principle of operation is based on the force applied to the area of the larger air cylinder
being transferred to the smaller area of the hydraulic cylinder, creating a higher pressure. The
pressure is then a function of the differential piston areas. It is described by the Pascal’s law:

𝑟1 = 𝑟2
𝑟1𝑟1 = 𝑟2𝑟2

𝑟2 = 𝑟𝑟1𝑟1
2
Where,

𝑟1, 𝑟1 & 𝑟1 are the pressure, force, cross-sectional area of the piston at air cylinder
𝑟2, 𝑟2 & 𝑟2 are the pressure, force, cross-sectional area of the piston at hydraulic cylinder
𝑟1 > 𝑟2
4-1.7 Air Motors

Air motors are almost always delivered in the form of a rotary vane device. These motors are
like a rotary vane compressor, except that they use compressed air to generate rotation rather
than using rotation to produce compressed air. The rotary vane motors are very simple and
reliable devices. When used and maintained properly, they can provide a compact power source
with an exceptional service life. They are utilized in almost every type of rotational pneumatic
tool, from die grinders to overhead cranes.

Figure below shows a sectional illustration of a rotary vane air motor. The motor consists of a
cylinder with an internal rotor. The rotor is placed off-center so that its outside diameter is
tangent to the cylinder’s inside diameter. The rotor carries four vanes that are placed into slots.
The vanes are usually spring-loaded and slide within the slots so that they are always in contact
with the inside diameter of the cylinder. Compressed air is introduced into a cavity, which drives
the rotor during expansion. As the rotor vanes rotate, the expanding volume progresses toward
the vent. When the expanding volume reaches the vent, the air can vent. These motors normally
operate at a rather high speed, and while some tools operate at the motor RPM, others
incorporate some sort of gearbox to reduce the RPM and increase the torque to more suitable
parameters for their application. It should be noted that most air motors are reversible by simply
switching the locations of the air feed and muffler.

Rotary Vane Motor

4-1.8 Sandblaster

Sandblasters are used extensively in the coating industries. These machines are available in
sizes ranging from small, benchtop blast cabinets for intricate parts, to large units intended for
structural and marine blasting. Sandblasting will effectively remove any substance that may be
adhering to the surface of the material being blasted. In addition to sand, there are a variety of
other blast media available including glass beads, walnut shells, steel shot, abrasives, and the
like.

Figure below shows a schematic representation of a typical pressure feed sandblasting unit.
Sand is held in the hopper, which is pressurized. The sand flow control valve is used to adjust
the quantity of sand that is introduced into the air stream. The sand is carried, in suspension,
through the hose and is discharged out of the nozzle.

Sandblaster Schematic
4-1.8 Vacuum Generator

Compressed air may be used to provide a vacuum by incorporating a vacuum generator. These
units are simple Venturi pumps that are driven with compressed air. Venturi vacuum pumps are
not a very efficient way to generate a vacuum; however, they have several advantages over
more traditional pumps. First and foremost, they have no moving parts and are exceptionally
reliable. In addition, they are compact, have no electrical requirements, are very inexpensive,
and require no maintenance.

Figure below shows a sectional view of a typical vacuum generator. To lower the sound level,
the pump output of the vacuum generator is generally equipped with a muffler. If fluids or
hazardous gases are to be pumped, then the muffler can be replaced with a connection to an
appropriate dump site.

Vacuum Generator
4-3. Compressors

There are two generic principles for the compression of air (or gas): positive displacement
compression and dynamic compression. Positive displacement compressors include, for
example, reciprocating (piston) compressors, orbital (scroll) compressors and different types of
rotary compressors (screw, tooth, vane).

Most common compressor types, divided according to their working principles

In positive displacement compression, the air is drawn into one or more compression chambers,
which are then closed from the inlet. Gradually the volume of each chamber decreases, and the
air is compressed internally. When the pressure has reached the designed build-in pressure
ratio, a port or valve is opened, and the air is discharged into the outlet system due to continued
reduction of the compression chamber’s volume.

In dynamic compression, air is drawn between the blades on a rapidly rotating compression
impeller and accelerates to a high velocity. The gas is then discharged through a diffuser, where
the kinetic energy is transformed into static pressure. Most dynamic compressors are turbo-
compressors with an axial or radial flow pattern. All are designed for large volume flow rates.

4-3.1 Positive Displacement Compressors

A bicycle pump is the simplest form of a positive displacement compressor, where air is drawn
into a cylinder and is compressed by a moving piston. The piston compressor has the same
operating principle and uses a piston whose forward and backward movement is accomplished
by a connecting rod and a rotating crankshaft. If only one side of the piston is used for
compression this is called a single-acting compressor. If both the piston’s top and undersides
are used, the compressor is double acting.

The pressure ratio is the relationship between absolute pressure on the inlet and outlet sides.
Accordingly, a machine that draws in air at atmospheric pressure (1 bar and compresses it to 7
bar overpressure works at a pressure ratio of (7 + 1)/1 = 8.

Single Stage, Single Acting Piston Compressor

Figure below illustrates the pressure-volume relationship for a theoretical compressor diagram
for a piston compressor. The stroke volume is the cylinder volume that the piston travels during
the suction stage. The clearance volume is the volume just underneath the inlet and outlet
valves and above the piston, which must remain at the piston’s top turning point for mechanical
reasons.

The difference between the stroke volume and the suction volume is due to the expansion of the
air remaining in the clearance volume before suction can start. The difference between the
theoretical p/V diagram and the actual diagram is due to the practical design of a compressor,
e.g. a piston compressor. The valves are never completely sealed and there is always a degree
of leakage between the piston skirt and the cylinder wall. In addition, the valves cannot fully
open and close without a minimal delay, which results in a pressure drop when the gas flows
through the channels. The gas is also heated when fl owing into the cylinder because of this
design.

Piston Compressor Works in Theory

For isothermal Compression,

𝑟2
𝑟 = 𝑟 𝑟 ln
1 1
𝑟1
For isentropic Compression,
𝑟
𝑟= (𝑟2𝑟2 − 𝑟1𝑟1)
𝑟−1
Where,
𝑟 is the compression work
𝑟 is the isentropic constant, about 1.3 – 1.4
𝑟1 & 𝑟2 is the initial and final pressure, respectively
𝑟1 & 𝑟2 is the initial and final volume, respectively

These relations show that more work is required for isentropic compression than for isothermal
compression.

4-3.2 Dynamic Compressors

In a dynamic compressor, the pressure increase takes place while the gas flows. The flowing
gas accelerates to a high velocity by means of the rotating blades on an impeller. The velocity of
the gas is subsequently transformed into static pressure when it is forced to decelerate under
expansion in a diffuser. Depending on the main direction of the gas flow used, these
compressors are called radial or axial compressors.

As compared to displacement compressors, dynamic compressors have a characteristic

whereby a small change in the working pressure results in a large change in the flow rate. Each
impeller speed has an upper and lower flow rate limit. The upper limit means that the gas flow
velocity reaches sonic velocity. The lower limit means that the counterpressure becomes greater
than the compressor’s pressure build-up, which means return flow inside the compressor. This
in turn results in pulsation, noise, and the risk for mechanical damage.

Radial Turbo-compressor
In theory, air or gas may be compressed isentropically (at constant entropy) or isothermally (at
constant temperature). Either process may be part of a theoretically reversible cycle. If the
compressed gas could be used immediately at its final temperature after compression, the
isentropic compression process would have certain advantages. In practice, the air or gas is
rarely used directly after compression and is usually cooled to ambient temperature before use.
Consequently, the isothermal compression process is preferred, as it requires less work.

A common, practical approach to executing this isothermal compression process involves

cooling the gas during compression. At an effective working pressure of 7 bar, isentropic
compression theoretically requires 37% higher energy than isothermal compression.

A practical method to reduce the heating of the gas is to divide the compression into several
stages. The gas is cooled after each stage before being compressed further to the final
pressure. This also increases the energy efficiency, with the best result being obtained when
each compression stage has the same pressure ratio. By increasing the number of compression
stages, the entire process approaches isothermal compression. However, there is an economic
limit for the number of stages the design of a real installation can use.

4-3.2 Positive Displacement vs Dynamic Compressors

At constant rotational speed, the pressure/flow curve for a turbo-compressor differs significantly
from an equivalent curve for a positive displacement compressor. The turbo-compressor is a
machine with a variable flow rate and variable pressure characteristic. On the other hand, a
displacement compressor is a machine with a constant flow rate and a variable pressure. A
displacement compressor provides a higher-pressure ratio even at a low speed. Turbo--
compressors are designed for large air flow rates
Load curves for centrifugal and displacement compressors when the load is changed at a
constant speed

4-4. Positive Displacement Compressors

A displacement compressor encloses a volume of gas or air and then increases the pressure by
reducing the enclosed volume through the displacement of one or more moving members.

4-4.1 Piston Compressors

The piston compressor is the oldest and most common of all industrial compressors. It is
available in single-acting or double-acting, oil-lubricated, or oil-free variants, with various
numbers of cylinders in different configurations. Except for very small compressors having
vertical cylinders, the V-configuration is the most common for small compressors.

On double-acting, large compressors the L-configuration with a vertical low-pressure cylinder

and horizontal high-pressure cylinder offers immense benefits and has become the most
common design.
Oil-lubricated compressors normally work with splash lubrication or pressure lubrication. Most
compressors have self-acting valves. A self-acting valve opens and closes through the effect of
pressure differences on both sides of the valve disk.

Oil-free piston compressors have piston rings made of carbon, and alternatively, the piston and
cylinder wall can be profiled.

Piston Compressor

When the piston moves downwards and draws in air into the cylinder the largest disc flexes to
fold downwards allowing air to pass. When the piston moves upwards, the large disc folds
upwards and seals against the seat. The small disc’s flexi-function then allows the compressed
air to be forced through the hole in the valve seat
4-4.2 Diaphragm Compressor

Diaphragm compressors form another group. Their diaphragm is actuated mechanically or

hydraulically. The mechanical diaphragm compressors are used with a small flow and low
pressure or as vacuum pumps. Hydraulic diaphragm compressors are used for high pressure
applications.

Mechanical Diaphragm Compressor

4-4.3 Twin Screw Compressor

The principle for a rotating displacement compressor in twin screw form was developed during
the 1930s, when a rotating compressor with high flow rate and stable flow under varying
pressure conditions was required.

The twin screw element’s main parts are the male and female rotors, which rotate in opposite
directions while the volume between them and the housing decreases. Each screw element has
a fixed, build-in pressure ratio that is dependent on its length, the pitch of the screw and the
form of the discharge port. To attain maximum efficiency, the build-in pressure ratio must be
adapted
to the required working pressure. The screw compressor is generally not equipped with valves
and has no mechanical forces that cause unbalance. This means it can work at a high shaft
speed and can combine a large flow rate with small exterior dimensions. An axial acting force,
dependent on the pressure difference between the inlet and outlet, must be overcome by the
bearings.

The first twin screw compressors had a symmetric rotor profile and did not use any cooling liquid
inside the compression chamber. These were called oil-free or dry screw compressors. Modern,
high-speed, oil-free screw compressors have asymmetric screw profiles, resulting in significantly
improved energy efficiency, due to reduced internal leakage.

Twin Screw Compressor

External gears are most often used to synchronize the position of the counter-rotating rotors. As
the rotors neither encounter each other nor with the compressor housing, no lubrication is
required inside the compression chamber. Consequently, the compressed air is completely oil-
free. The rotors and housing are manufactured with ultimate precision to minimize leakage from
the pressure side to the inlet. The build-in pressure ratio is limited by the limiting temperature
difference between the inlet and the discharge. Therefore oil-free screw compressors are
frequently built with several stages and inter-stage cooling to reach higher pressures.

In liquid-injected screw compressors, a liquid is injected into the compression chamber and
often into the compressor bearings. Its function is to cool and lubricate the compressor
element’s moving parts, to cool the air being compressed internally, and to reduce the return
leakage to the inlet. Today oil is the most injected liquid due to its good lubricating and sealing
properties,
however, other liquids are also used, for example, water or polymers. Liquid-injected screw
compressor elements can be manufactured for high pressure ratios, with one compression
stage usually being sufficient for pressure up to 14 and even 17 bar, albeit at the expense of
reduced energy efficiency.

4-2.4 Tooth Compressor

The compression element in a tooth compressor consists of two rotors that rotate in opposite
directions inside a compression chamber. The compression process consists of intake,
compression, and outlet. During the intake phase, air is drawn into the compression chamber
until the rotors block the inlet. During the compression phase, the drawn in air is compressed in
the compression chamber, which gets smaller as the rotors rotate.

The outlet port is blocked during compression by one of the rotors, while the inlet is open to
draw in new air into the opposite section of the compression chamber.

Rotor Set of a Double Tooth Compressor

Discharge takes place when one of the rotors opens the outlet port and the compressed air is
forced out of the compression chamber.
Both rotors are synchronized via a set of gear wheels. The maximum pressure ratio obtainable
with an oil-free tooth compressor is limited by the limiting temperature difference between the
inlet and the discharge. Consequently, several stages with inter-stage cooling are required for
higher pressures.

4-2.5 Scroll Compressors

A scroll compressor is a type of (usually) oil-free orbiting displacement compressor, i.e. it

compresses a specific amount of air into a continuously decreasing volume. The compressor
element consists of a stator spiralfixed in a housing and a motor-driven eccentric, orbiting spiral.
The spirals are mounted with 180° phase displacement to form air pockets with a gradually
varying volume.

This provides the scroll elements with radial stability. Leakage is minimized because the
pressure difference in the air pockets is lower than the pressure difference between the inlet and
the outlet. The orbiting spiral is driven by a short-stroke crankshaft and runs eccentrically around
the center of the fixed spiral. The inlet is situated at the top of the element housing.

When the orbiting spiral moves, air is drawn in and is captured in one of the air pockets, where it
is compressed gradually while moving towards the center where the outlet port and a non-return
valve are situated. The compression cycle is in progress for 2.5 turns, which virtually gives
constant and pulsation-free air fl ow. The process is relatively silent and vibration-free, as the
element has hardly any torque variation as compared to a piston compressor, for example.

Compression Principle of a Scroll Compressor

4-2.6 Vane Compressor

The operating principle for a vane compressor is the same as for many compressed air
expansion motors. The vanes are usually manufactured of special cast alloys and most vane
compressors are oil lubricated.

A rotor with radial, movable blade-shaped vanes is eccentrically mounted in a stator housing.
When it rotates, the vanes are pressed against the stator walls by centrifugal force. Air is drawn
in when the distance between the rotor and stator increases. The air is captured in the different
compressor pockets, which decrease in volume with rotation. The air is discharged when the
vanes pass the outlet port.

Vane Compressor

4-2.7 Roots Blowers

A Roots blower is a valve-less displacement compressor without internal compression. When

the compression chamber encounters the outlet port, compressed air flows back into the
housing from the pressure side. Subsequently, further compression takes place when the
volume of the compression chamber further decreases with continued rotation. Accordingly,
compression takes place against full counter-pressure, which results in low efficiency and a high
noise level.

Two identical, usually symmetrical, counterrotating rotors work in a housing, synchronized by

means of a set of gear wheels. Blowers are usually air-cooled and oil-free. Their low efficiency
limits these blowers to very low-pressure applications and compression in a single stage, even if
two- and three-stage versions are available. Roots blowers are frequently used as vacuum
pumps and for pneumatic conveyance.

Roots Blowers

4-3. Dynamic Compressors

Dynamic compressors are available in both axial and radial designs. They are frequently called
turbo-compressors. Those with radial design are called centrifugal compressors. A dynamic
compressor works at a constant pressure, unlike, for example, a displacement compressor,
which works with a constant flow. The performance of a dynamic compressor is affected by
external conditions: for example, a change in the inlet temperature results in a change in the
capacity.

4-3.1 Centrifugal Compressors

A centrifugal compressor is characterized by its radial discharge flow. Air is drawn into the
center of a rotating impeller with radial blades and is pushed out towards the perimeter of the
impeller by centrifugal forces. The radial movement of the air results simultaneously in a
pressure rise and a generation of kinetic energy. Before the air is led to the center of the
impeller of the next compressor stage, it passes through a diffuser and a volute where the
kinetic energy is converted into pressure.
Each stage takes up a part of the overall pressure rise of the compressor unit. In industrial
machinery, the maximum pressure ratio of a centrifugal compressor stage is often not more
than
3. Higher pressure ratios reduce the stage efficiency. Low pressure, single-stage applications
are used, for instance, in wastewater treatment plants. Multi-stage applications allow the
possibility of inter-cooling to reduce the power requirement. Multiple stages can be arranged in
series on a single, low-speed shaft. This concept is often used in the oil and gas or process
industry. The pressure ratio per stage is low, but many stages and/or multiple compressors sets
in series are used to achieve the desired outlet pressure. For air compression applications, a
high-speed gearbox is integrated with the compressor stages to rotate the impellers on high
speed pinions.

The impeller can have either an open or closed design. Open design is most used for high
speed air applications. The impeller is normally made of special stainless-steel alloy or
aluminum. The impeller shaft speed is very high compared to that of other types of compressor.
Speeds of 15,000-100,000 rpm are common.

Modern High-Speed Direct-Drive Centrifugal Compressor

4-3.2 Axial compressors

An axial compressor has axial flow, whereby the air or gas passes along the compressor shaft
through rows of rotating and stationary blades. In this way, the velocity of the air is gradually
increased while the stationary blades convert the kinetic energy to pressure. A balancing drum
is usually built into the compressor to counterbalance axial thrust.

Axial compressors are generally smaller and lighter than their equivalent centrifugal
compressors and normally operate at higher speeds. They are used for constant and high-
volume flow rates at a relatively moderate pressure, for instance, in ventilation systems. Given
their high rotational speed, they are ideally coupled to gas turbines for electricity generation and
aircraft propulsion.

Axial Compressor

4-4. Compressed Air Treatment

All atmospheric air contains water vapor: more at high temperatures and less at lower
temperatures in addition to small particles such as dust, etc. When the air is compressed the
water, concentration increases. For example, a compressor with a working pressure of 7 bar
and a capacity of 200 l/s that compresses air at 20˚C with a relative humidity of 80% will release
10 liters/hour of water in the compressed air line. To avoid problems and disturbances due to
water precipitation and dust particles in the pipes and connected equipment, the compressed air
must be dried and filtered. This takes place using filters, after cooler and drying equipment.
4-4.1 After Cooler

An after-cooler is a heat exchanger that cools the hot compressed air to precipitate the water
that otherwise would condensate in the pipe system. It is water-cooled or air-cooled, is generally
equipped with a water separator with automatic drainage and should be placed close to the
compressor.

Approximately 80–90% of the precipitated condensation water is collected in the after-cooler’s

water separator. A common value for the temperature of the compressed air after passing
through the aftercooler is approx. 10˚C above the coolant temperature but can vary depending
on the type of cooler. An after-cooler is used in virtually all stationary installations. In most
cases, an aftercooler is built into modern compressors.

Aftercooler

4-4.2 Refrigerant Drying

Refrigerant drying means that the compressed air is cooled, which allows a large amount of the
water to condense and be separated. After cooling and condensing, the compressed air is
reheated to around room temperature so that condensation does not form on the outside of the
pipe system. This heat exchange between ingoing and outgoing compressed air also reduces
the temperature of the incoming compressed air, and as such reduces the required cooling
capacity of the refrigerant circuit.
Cooling the compressed air takes place via a closed refrigerant system. Smart steering of the
refrigerant compressor via intelligent control algorithms can significantly reduce the power
consumption of modern refrigerant dryers. Refrigerant dryers are used for dew points between
+2˚C to +10˚C and have a lower limit, which is the freezing point of the condensed water. They
are available as either a freestanding machine or an integrated drying module inside the
compressor. The latter has the advantage of having a small footprint and ensures optimized
performance for the air compressor capacity.

Modern refrigerant dryers use refrigerant gases with a low Global Warming Potential (GWP),
which means refrigerant gases that -when accidentally released into the atmosphere- contribute
less to global warming. Future refrigerants will have an even lower GWP value, as dictated by
environmental legislation.

Operating Principle of Refrigerant Drying

4-4.3 Over-compression

Over-compression is perhaps the easiest method for drying compressed air. Air is first
compressed to a higher pressure than the intended working pressure, which means that the
concentration of water vapor increases. Thereafter the air is cooled, and the water is separated
as a result. Finally, the air can expand to the working pressure, and a lower pressure dew point
(PDP) is attained. However, this method is only suitable for very small air flow rates, due to its
high energy consumption.

4-4.4 Absorption Drying

Absorption drying is a chemical process in which water vapor is bound to absorption material.
The absorption material can either be a solid or liquid. Sodium chloride and sulfuric acid are
frequently used, which means that the possibility of corrosion must be taken into consideration.
This method is unusual and involves high consumption of absorbent materials. The dew point is
only lowered to a limited extent.

4-4.5 Adsorption Drying

The general working principle of adsorption dryers is simple: moist air flows over hygroscopic
material (typical materials used are silica gel, molecular sieves, activated alumina) and is
thereby dried. The exchange of water vapor from the moist compressed air into the hygroscopic
material or “desiccant”, causes the desiccant to gradually be saturated with adsorbed water.
Therefore, the desiccant needs to be regenerated regularly to regain its drying capacity, and
adsorption dryers are typically built with two drying vessels for that purpose: the first vessel will
dry the incoming compressed air while the second one is being regenerated. Each vessel
(“tower”) switches tasks when the other tower is completely regenerated. Typical PDP that can
be achieved is -40°C, which makes these dryers suitable for providing very dry air for more
critical applications.

There are 4 different ways to regenerate the desiccant, and the method used determines the
type of adsorption dryer. More energy-efficient types are usually more complex and,
consequently, more expensive.
Purge Regenerated Adsorption Dryer

1. Purge regenerated adsorption dryers (also called “heatless-type dryers”). These dryers
are best suited for smaller air flow rates. The regeneration process takes place with the
help of expanded compressed air (“purged”) and requires approx. 15–20% of the dryer’s
nominal capacity at 7 bar(g) working pressure.

2. Heated purge regenerated dryers. These dryers heat up the expanded purge air by means
of an electric air heater and hence limit the required purge flow to around 8%. This type
uses 25% less energy than heatless-type dryers.

3. Blower regenerated dryers. Ambient air is blown over an electric heater and brought into
contact with the wet desiccant in order to regenerate it. With this type of dryer, no
compressed air is used to regenerate the desiccant material, thus the energy consumption
is 40% lower than for heatless-type dryers.
 4. Heat of compression dryers (“HOC” dryers). In HOC dryers the desiccant is regenerated
by using the available heat of the compressor. Instead of evacuating the compressed air
heat in an after cooler, the hot air is used to regenerate the desiccant. This type of dryer
can provide a typical PDP of -20°C without any energy being added. A lower PDP can
also be obtained by adding extra heaters.

Guaranteed separation and drainage of the condensation water must always be arrangedbefore
adsorption drying. If the compressed air has been produced using oil-lubricated compressors,
an oil separating filter must also be fitted upstream of the drying equipment. In most cases a
particle filter is required after adsorption drying.

4-4.6 Membrane Dryers

Membrane dryers use the process of selective permeation of the gas components in the air. The
dryer is a cylinder which houses thousands of tiny hollow polymer fibers with an inner coating.
These fibers have selective permeation for the removal of water vapor. As filtered, wet
compressed air enters the cylinder, the membrane coating allows water vapor to permeate the
membrane wall and collect between the fibers, while the dry air continues through the fibers in
the cylinder at almost the same pressure as the incoming wet air.

The permeated water is vented to the atmosphere outside of the cylinder. The permeation or
separation is caused by the difference in the partial pressure of a gas between the inside and
the outside of the hollow fiber. Membrane dryers are simple to operate, silent while operating,
have no moving parts, low power consumption and minimal service requirements (mainly filters
upstream of the dryer).

Besides removing water, gas component separation can also be achieved with a membrane,
depending on the characteristics of the fiber material. Separation of different gases is achieved
by differences in molecular size and gas solubility in the membrane. Gases of smaller molecular
size have larger diffusion and can be suitably separated by differences in mobility. As such,
specific membranes can be used to make nitrogen generators, for example.
Working Principle of Membrane Dryers

4-4.7 Filters

Particles in an air stream that pass through a filter can be removed in several different ways. If
the particles are larger than the openings between the filter material, they are separated
mechanically (“sieving”). This usually applies for particles larger than 1 mm. The filter efficiency
in this regard increases with a tighter filter material, consisting of finer fibers.

Particles smaller than 1 mm are collected on fiber material by 3 physical mechanisms: inertial
impaction, interception, and diffusion.

Impaction occurs for relatively large particles and/ or for high gas velocities. Due to the large
inertia of the heavy particle, it does not follow the streamlines but instead travels straight ahead
and collides with the fiber. This mechanism mainly occurs for particles above 1 μm and
becomes increasingly important with the increasing size of the particles. Interception occurs
when a particle does follow the streamline, but the radius of the particle is larger than the
distance between the streamline and the fiber perimeter.

Particle deposition due to diffusion occurs when a very small particle does not follow the
streamlines but moves randomly across the flow due to Brownian motion. It becomes
increasingly important with smaller particle size and lower air velocity.

The particle-separating capacity of a filter is a result of the combined sub-capacities (for the
different particle sizes) as set forth above. In practice, each filter is a compromise, as no filter is
efficient across the entire particle size range. Even the effect of the stream velocity on the
separating capacity for different particle sizes is not a decisive factor. Generally, particles
between
0.1 μm and 0.2 μm are the most difficult to separate (Most Penetrating Particle Size).
As stated above, the total capturing efficiency of a coalescence filter can be attributed to a
combination of all occurring mechanisms. Obviously, the importance of each mechanism, the
particle sizes for which they occur, and the value of the total efficiency heavily depend on the
particle size distribution of the aerosol, the air speed and the fiber diameter distribution of the
filter media.

Particle Collision Mechanism in Filters

4-6. Activities and Assessment

1. Explain how the compressed air is being utilized as a utility.

2. Differentiate the types of compressor between each other
3. Explain how refrigerant drying works.
4. Answer the following questions.
4.1. What is the most common pneumatic tool?
a. Air Wrench
b. Nail Gun
c. Paint Sprayer
d. Blowgun
4.2. What kind of motion foes a cylinder generates?
 a. Vibrating
b. Linear
c. Pumping
d. Circular
4.3. What are the two principal cylinders?
a. Turbo
b. Rotary Vane
c. Piston
d. Screw
4.4. What common medias are used in sandblasters?
a. Sand
b. Glass Beads
c. Steel Shot
d. Walnut Shell
4.5. What type of pump is usually powered by compressed air?
a. Centrifugal
b. Diaphragm
c. Piston
d. Metering

4-7. References

Atlas Copco (2010). Compressed Air Manual, 7th Ed. Atlas Copco Airpower NV, Belgium

Elliott, B.S. (2006). Compressed Air Operations Manual: An Illustrated Guide to Selection,
Installation, Applications, and Maintenance. McGraw-Hill. USA

Moran, S. (2017). Process plant Layout, 2nd Ed. Butterworth-Heinemann. USA