Solar Energy Technology: ME 478/678

Title: Earth and Sun Geometry

Harekrishna Yadav
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical engineering
IIT Indore

1
 Sun –Earth Geometric relationship
Earth Revolution and rotation
o The amount and intensity of solar radiation reaching the Earth’s surface
depends on the geometric relationship of the Earth with respect to the Sun.
✓ Amount of solar radiation intercepted by the earth, varies throughout the
year, maximum being on December 21 (minimum distance) and the
minimum on June 21 (maximum distance).
o Earth orbits counterclockwise around the sun (365 days and 6 hours), and
also around its own axis (day and night- 24 hours) (viewed from above)
o As seen from the earth, the sun rotates around its axis about once every four
weeks

o Sun substants angle of 32 minutes on earth surface

o Beam Radiation received from earth surface is almost parallel
2
Sun –Earth Geometric relationship Earth Geometry

o Earth is wider in the middle and flatter at the poles than a perfect sphere (Geoid)
o Equator is about 12,756 kilometers.
o Pole is about 12,714 kilometers

o The equatorial bulge is due to the centrifugal force exerted on the Earth by its rotation

o Earth’s axis of rotation is tilted by 23.450 to direction of the orbit

(seasonal variation).
o The angle remains constant as Earth orbit the Sun

3
 Sun –Earth … Earth Geometry

Earth's Hemispheres and Directions

o Direction: North, South, East and West

o Pole: Earth’s axis of rotation intersects its surface

✓ North pole: northernmost point of the Earth.
✓ South pole: southernmost point on the Earth

o Hemisphere: is half of a sphere or ball

✓ Northern hemispheres: is the half of Earth that is north
of the horizontal imaginary line (Equator)
✓ Southern hemispheres: is the half of Earth that is south
to the Equator.

✓ Eastern hemispheres: Half of the earth lie west of the vertical

imaginary line (prime meridian)
✓ Western hemispheres: Half of the earth lie west of the prime meridian
4
 Sun –Earth … Earth Geometry
How to locate a place on the Earth?
o In three-dimensional space – (r, θ, 𝜙)
✓ Earth Surface- r constant
✓ θ, 𝜙: longitude and latitude

o Grid system: it is made up of two sets of lines that cross each other
o Starting points (points of reference)
✓ North Pole and the South Pole
✓ Halfway between the poles is an east-west line called
the equator
✓ Equator: encircles the Earth and divides it into two equal
parts, or hemispheres
✓ Latitude: Lines parallel to the equator
• 89 equally spaced lines to the north and south of the equator
• 90th east-west lines would be are two points (north and south poles)
• Latitudes specify the north-south position of a location on the globe 5
Sun –Earth … Earth Geometry
Important latitude:
o Determine based on the amount of the sun light received thought
the year
o Helps to define different climate zone on the earth

Tropical Zone:
o Region between the tropic of cancer and tropic of Capricorn
o Gets more sun light
o Climate is generally worm and humid
o Heavy rainfall in most places

Temperate Zone:
o Region between the tropic and poler circle
o Gets moderate sun light
o All four seasons

Polar zone:
o Region beyond the polar circle
o Climate is wintry and snowy due to lack of sun light
6
Sun –Earth … Earth Geometry
Important latitude:

o The tropics of Cancer (23.45°N) and Capricorn (23.45°S) are at the extreme
latitudes where the sun is overhead at least once a year

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Sun –Earth … Earth Geometry

Longitude:
o The vertical lines running north to south joining two poles are
called longitude (meridian) (-1800 to +1800)
o Prime Meridian: (zero, or base line) chosen by international
agreement, passes through Greenwich, England
o cuts the Earth into two hemispheres Western Hemisphere; the
half east of the zero line, the Eastern Hemisphere.
o Unlike east-west lines, all north-south lines have the same
length.
o Time: every degree at 4 minutes difference (from Greenwich)
1 degree = (360/24 = 4 minutes)

8
Sun –Earth … Earth Geometry

o North-south lines ( longitude) and the east-west lines (latitude) together form
the global grid system used to find the exact location of any place on Earth

Find a location on 23.50 and 820 ??

o First Latitude
o Second longitude

✓ Prayagraj
23.50 N

820 E
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Sun –Earth … Reckoning of Time
o Different parts of the earth receive daylight at different times. Earth is divided into different time zone

GMT= Greenwich Mean Time

24×60
10 = = 4 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑠
o Reference time for all the country 360

o Counted from the midnight (00:00)

Greenwich
SMT (ST) = Standard Mean Time back of the sphere
(00:00 midnight)
o Reference time for a particular country.
o Remains same all over the country
o Places on the same longitude have different standard time (depends on the city
selection)
LMT = Local Mean Time
o front of the sphere - day
o Implies the time of a particular region/city as regards the meridian running
through it.
o Local time is determined by the sun’s position in the sky
o Places on the same longitude have same local time
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 Sun –Earth … Reckoning of Time
24×60
o 𝑆𝑀𝑇 = 𝐺𝑀𝑇 ± 4 × 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 10 = = 4 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑠
360
✓ + sign for the eastern hemisphere
✓ - Sign for the western hemisphere

o IST (Indian standard time) is calculated based

on the Mirzapur City (82.580 E)

𝐼𝑆𝑇 = 𝐺𝑀𝑇 + 4 × 82.58

𝐼𝑆𝑇 = 𝐺𝑀𝑇 + 330.3 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑠
𝐼𝑆𝑇 = 𝐺𝑀𝑇 + 5.5 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

o Longitude of the Manipur = 93.9° E

✓ Sunrise and sunset compared to the Mirzapur
= (93.9 – 82.58) = 45 minutes

✓ Solar energy calculations, apparent solar time (AST) must be used to express the time of day. 11
 Sun –Earth … Reckoning of Time
Apparent solar time (AST):
▪ Standard time is based on longitudes
o Apparent time is based on the sun dial
o Varies with location and time of the year
✓ Location: due to the difference in local longitude than
standard longitude
✓ Time of the year (earth orbit and
axis of rotation)

o AST requires two correction in standard

mean Time (SMT) Same location
A B
✓ 1- Equation of time
✓ 2- Longitude correction A on day 1 A on day 2
o Person A and B, Experience solar noon
at different watch time
o Person A would not experience
solar noon on the same watch time
on different day 12
Sun –Earth … Reckoning of Time

1- Equation of time:
o Apparent solar time varies slightly by a local clock time. The variation is
called the Equation of time (ET).

o Length of a day is not uniform throughout the year. (Over the

year, the average length of a day is 24 h)
o Reasons
✓ Earth orbit
✓ Earth Axis
o Sun Earth Distance
o 𝑅 = 𝑎 (1 ± 𝑒)
o Earth’s orbital velocity varies throughout the year (minimum at the farthest o a (mean sun earth distance)
=149.5985×106 km
distance to a maximum at the closest distance of the Earth to the Sun) o eccentricity, e = 0.0163
o Earth’s orbital speed is faster than its average speed for half the year
(October-March) and slower than its average speed for the remaining half of
the year (April-September).
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Sun –Earth … Reckoning of Time

Equation of time:
o Values of the equation of time as a function of the day of the year (N)

ET = 9.87 sin(2B ) - 7.53 cos (B) - 1.5 sin (B) [min]

360
𝐵 = (𝑁 − 81)
364

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Sun –Earth … Reckoning of Time

2- Longitude correction:
o Standard mean time is measured from the GMT (assumed constant for a particular
country).
o Local time depends on the longitude of the locality
o Longitude correction = 4 (Standard longitude – local longitude)
o Either added or subtracted (West/ East) mean time

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 Sun –Earth … Reckoning of Time

Apparent solar time (AST)

(Positive) (Negative)
𝐴𝑆𝑇 = 𝑆𝑀𝑇 ± 4 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 − 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 + 𝐸𝑇 (𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑠)

W E
GMT

Example:
Find the equation of AST for the city of Nicosia, Cyprus
o Standard longitude for Cyprus = 300 E
o Longitude of Nicosia = 33.330 E

𝐴𝑆𝑇 = 𝑆𝑀𝑇 ± 4 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 − 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 + 𝐸𝑇

𝐴𝑆𝑇 = 𝑆𝑀𝑇 ± 4 30 − 33.33 + 𝐸𝑇

𝐴𝑆𝑇 = 𝑆𝑀𝑇 + 13.33 (𝑚𝑖𝑛) + 𝐸𝑇

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Sun –Earth … Reckoning of Time

Example:

Calculate the apparent solar time on March 10 (2023) at 2:30pm for the city of Athens (30 °E longitude), Greece
(23.66 0E longitude).

𝐴𝑆𝑇 = 𝑆𝑀𝑇 ± 4 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 − 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 + 𝐸𝑇 (𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑠)

ET = 9.87 sin(2B) -7.53 cos (B) -1.5 sin (B) [min]

360
𝐵 = (𝑁 − 81) N = 69
364
𝐵 = −11.868

ET = 9.87 sin(2B) -7.53 cos( B) -1.5 sin (B) [min] = -11.034 min

𝐴𝑆𝑇 = 2: 30 − 4 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 − 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 + 𝐸𝑇 (𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑠)

𝐴𝑆𝑇 = 14: 30 − 4 23.66 − 30 − 11.74

𝐴𝑆𝑇 = 14: 44 14 minutes earlier than standard time17
Sun –Earth … Path of the Sun
Apparent Path of the Sun

o Earth rotates from west to east (counterclockwise)

o Objects (sun) in the sky appear to move in the opposite
direction, which means from east to west
o Sun appears to rise in the east and set in the west each day.

o From a fixed location on Earth, the sun appears to move

throughout the sky.
o The position of the sun depends on the location of a point on
Earth, time of day and time of year.

Southern hemisphere
 Sun –Earth .. Path of the Sun
o Sun moves daily in an arc across the sky, reaching its highest
point at midday.
o As winter becomes spring and then summer, the sunrise and
sunset points move gradually northward.

Summer solstice: June 21: sun is at its most northerly position with
respect to the earth. Maximum day time
Winter solstice: December 21, the sun is at its most southerly
position. Sun path is lower in the sky. Minimum day time

Spring and fall equinoxes: March 21 and September 21: the length
of the day is equal to the length of the night.

✓ The summer and winter solstices are the opposite in the Southern
Hemisphere
✓ Southern hemisphere winter are colder than the northern hemisphere
winter. 19
Sun –Earth …. Seasons

Seasons on the earth

(Autumn)

o Earth's rotation causes day and night

o Earth's movement around the sun (revolution) and axis
plays a roll the four seasons.

o Length of the daytime and intensity are major reason for

the temperature variation.

o Intensity of the in the given area varies with the time

(month)
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Sun –Earth … Sun Angles
Solar Declination Angle:
Solar declination (δs): solar declination angle is the angle between the
rays of the sun and the equator of the earth
or
Angle between the sun-earth center line and the projection of this line on
the equatorial plane

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Sun –Earth … Sun Angles

✓ Not a constant value, varies between 23.45°

and −23.45°
✓ Declinations angle for north of the equator
(summer in the Northern Hemisphere) are
positive, and those are negative for the south

✓ Zero, twice a year (March 21/September 21;

are called equinoxes).
✓ It is considered constant for the same day.

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Sun –Earth …. Sun Angles
Hour Angle (h)

o The solar hour angle is a measure of the angular distance

between the sun at the local solar time and the sun at solar
noon
or
o Angle through which the earth would turn to bring the
meridian of the point directly under the sun
o Hour angle of point P as the angle measured on the
earth’s equatorial plane between the projection of OP
o 360 longitude on the earth surface = 24 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
and the projection of the sun-earth center to center line
360
✓ 1ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 = = 150
24

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 Sun –Earth …. Sun Angles

o The solar hour angle is zero at solar noon

o Positive value applies to afternoon hours and the minus value to
morning hours.

➢ Hour angle can also be obtained from the apparent solar time
(AST; the corrected local solar time)

ℎ = (𝐴𝑆𝑇 − 12) × 15

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 Sun –Earth … Sun Angles
Solar Altitude Angle (α)
Position of the sun: can be described at any time by two angles (altitude and azimuth angles)

Solar altitude angle: angle between the sun’s rays and a horizontal plane

Variation of solar altitude angle

✓ Time of the day,
✓ Time of the year,
✓ Latitude of the Earth

✓ It is zero at sunrise each day, increases as the Sun rises and reaches a maximum at
solar noon and then decreases again until it reaches zero at sunset.
o When the sun is directly overhead α = 90 (happens within the tropics), in most
latitudes, the sun will never be directly overhead
✓ Maximum for the June solstice and minimum for the December solstice
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Sun –Earth … Sun Angles
Zenith angle (Φ):
o Angle between the sun’s rays and the vertical

𝜋
𝛼+𝜙 =
2

Azimuthal angle (Z):

o Angle of the sun’s rays measured in the horizontal plane from south
(Northern Hemisphere) or from north (Southern Hemisphere)

✓ Varies with the time of the day, year and latitude

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 Sun –Earth …. Sun Angles
o At the equinoxes, the sun rises directly east and sets directly west
regardless of the latitude, thus making the azimuth angles + 90° at
sunrise and -90° at sunset.

o The solar altitude and azimuthal angles are not fundamental angles.

Solar altitude Angle:

𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = cos 𝜙 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐿 cos 𝛿 cos(ℎ) L = Local latitude

Solar Azimuthal Angle:

cos 𝛿 sin(ℎ)
sin 𝑧 =
cos(𝛼)

27
 Sun –Earth …. Sun Angles
Special cases:
At Solar Noon:
hour angle (h) = 0

𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐿 cos 𝛿 cos(ℎ)

𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐿 cos 𝛿

𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝐿 − 𝛿)

𝐶𝑜𝑠 90 − 𝛼 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝐿 − 𝛿)

90 − 𝛼 = 𝐿 − 𝛿

𝛼 = 90 − 𝐿 + 𝛿

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Sun –Earth …. Sun Angles
Example:
What are the maximum and minimum noon altitude angles for a location at 40° latitude?

Solution:

Maximum and minimum noon altitude angle

𝛼 = 90 − 𝐿 + 𝛿

For maximum value of declination angle (𝛿 = +23.45), June solstice

𝛼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 90 − 40 + 23.45 = 73.50

For minimum value of declination angle (𝛿 = -23.45), December solstice

𝛼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 90 − 40 − 23.45 = 26.50

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 Sun –Earth …. Sun Angles
Special cases: Solar altitude angles for 3 different declination angles:

(1) For 𝛿 = 0 ,
o All latitude on the earth experience 12 hours a day
o The maximum solar altitude angle (900) is achieved on equator
(2) For 𝛿 ≠ 0
o Behaviour of the solar latitude angle is not symmetrical
o 𝛿 = −23.450 , northern hemisphere location with 𝜙 = 70 - 90 are not illuminated at all (α ≤ 0).
o 𝛿 = +23.450 , northern hemisphere location with 𝜙 = 70 - 90 illuminated all the time (α ≤ 0).
30
Sun –Earth … Sun Angles
Sunrise and Sunset Times and Day Length

For Sun rise and Sun set, solar altitude angle (α) = 0

Solar Altitude angle:

𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐿 cos 𝛿 cos(ℎ)

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐿 cos 𝛿 cos(ℎ) = 0 hss = hour angle at sunset

hsr = hour angle at sunrise
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿
cos hss = −
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐿 cos 𝛿

At sun set: hss positive

cos hss = − tan 𝐿 cos 𝛿

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Sun –Earth …. Sun Angles
Sunrise and sunset time in hours from local solar noon (h = 0)
o Each 15° of longitude equivalent to 1h

1
𝐻𝑠𝑠 = −𝐻𝑠𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 − tan 𝐿 tan(𝛿)
15

Length of day:

o Solar noon is at the middle of the sunrise and sunset hours

o Day length is twice the sunset hour

2
𝐻𝑠𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 − tan 𝐿 tan(𝛿)
15

32
Sun –Earth …. Sun Angles
Sunrise and sunset time in hours from local solar noon (h = 0)
o Each 15° of longitude equivalent to 1h

1
𝐻𝑠𝑠 = −𝐻𝑠𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 − tan 𝐿 tan(𝛿)
15

Length of day:

o Solar noon is at the middle of the sunrise and sunset hours

o Day length is twice the sunset hour

2
𝐻𝑠𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 − tan 𝐿 tan(𝛿)
15

33
Sun –Earth ….. Sun Angles
Example: Find the solar altitude and azimuth angles at 2 h after local noon on June 15 for a city located at 40 ° N latitude.
Also find the sunrise and sunset hours and the day length.

Solution:

h = 2 ×15 =300; 2 hours after local noon

N = 167

𝛿 = 23.350

Solar altitude (α)

𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐿 cos 𝛿 cos(ℎ) L = 400, 𝛿 = 23.350 , h = 300

𝛼 = 59.750

34
 Sun –Earth …. Sun Angles
Solar Azimuthal Angle:

cos 𝛿 sin(ℎ)
sin 𝑧 =
cos(𝛼)

cos 23.35 sin(30)

sin 𝑧 =
cos(59.75)

𝑧 = 65.670
Sunset time:
1
𝐻𝑠𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 − tan 𝐿 tan(𝛿)
15

1
𝐻𝑠𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 − tan 40 tan(23.35)
15

𝐻𝑠𝑠 = 7.42 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 (𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜𝑜𝑛)

Day Length = 2×7.42 =14. 84 hours
35
Sun –Earth …. Sun Path Diagram
Sun Path Diagram
o Find the position of the sun in the sky at any time of the year

o Sun path plotted on the horizontal plane

Solar altitude (α)

𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐿 cos 𝛿 cos(ℎ)

Solar Azimuthal Angle:

cos 𝛿 sin(ℎ)
sin 𝑧 =
cos(𝛼)

36
Sun –Earth …. Sun Path Diagram

Sun Path Diagram for different latitude

37
 Sun –Earth …. Sun Angles

Position of sun with respect to the tilted surface

o Maximum solar energy collection can be achieved when the sun’s rays
are perpendicular to the collecting area (parallel to surface normal)
o Solar tracking system are used to modify the slope, costly.

o Fixed angle of tilting: most practical receivers

✓ Surface must always tilted facing the equator
✓ For dates when the sun is low-maximum solar altitude, inclination
should be maximum, to minimise the angle between the sun’s rays
and surface normal
✓ When the sun follow the higher path in sky, inclination must be
small

38
 Sun –Earth …. Sun Angles
Incidence Angle, θ

o Angle between the solar radiation beam incident on the

surface and the imaginary line normal to the surface

✓ θ = 00, sun’s rays are perpendicular to the surface

✓ θ = 900, sun’s rays are parallel to the surface

𝛽 = surface tilt angle from the horizontal

39
Sun –Earth …. Sun Angles
Relationship with fundamental angles

𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝜽 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐿 sin 𝛿 cos 𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐿 sin 𝛿 sin 𝛽 cos 𝑍𝑠

+ cos 𝐿 cos 𝛿 cos ℎ cos 𝛽 + sin 𝐿 cos 𝛿 cos(h)sin 𝛽 cos(𝑍𝑠 )
+ cos 𝛿 sin ℎ sin 𝛽 sin(𝑍𝑠 )

𝑍𝑠 : surface azimuth angle, the angle between the normal to the surface from true south, westward is designated as positive

40
Sun –Earth …. Sun Angles
Special cases:

(1) horizontal surfaces

𝛽 = 0; 𝜃 = 𝜙
0
𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝜽 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐿 sin 𝛿 cos 𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐿 sin 𝛿 sin 𝛽 cos 𝑍𝑠
+ cos 𝐿 cos 𝛿 cos ℎ cos 𝛽 + sin 𝐿 cos 𝛿 cos(h)sin 𝛽 cos(𝑍𝑠 )
+ cos 𝛿 sin ℎ sin 𝛽 sin(𝑍𝑠 )

𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝜽 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐿 sin 𝛿 + cos 𝐿 cos 𝛿 cos ℎ

𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝜙 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐿 sin 𝛿 + cos 𝐿 cos 𝛿 cos ℎ 𝛼 + 𝜙 = 900

𝒔𝒊𝒏 α = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐿 sin 𝛿 + cos 𝐿 cos 𝛿 cos ℎ

41
Sun –Earth …. Sun Angles
Special cases:
For vertical surfaces, β = 90 °

𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝜽 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐿 sin 𝛿 cos 𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐿 sin 𝛿 sin 𝛽 cos 𝑍𝑠

+ cos 𝐿 cos 𝛿 cos ℎ cos 𝛽 + sin 𝐿 cos 𝛿 cos(h)sin 𝛽 cos(𝑍𝑠 )
+ cos 𝛿 sin ℎ sin 𝛽 sin(𝑍𝑠 )

0
𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝜽 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐿 sin 𝛿 cos 𝛽 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐿 sin 𝛿 cos 𝑍𝑠
+ cos 𝛿 cos ℎ cos 𝛽 + sin 𝐿 cos 𝛿 cos(h) cos(𝑍𝑠 )
+ cos 𝛿 sin ℎ sin(𝑍𝑠 )

𝑪𝒐𝒔 𝜽 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐿 sin 𝛿 cos 𝑍𝑠 + sin 𝐿 cos 𝛿 cos(h) cos(𝑍𝑠 )

+ cos 𝛿 sin ℎ sin(𝑍𝑠 )

42
 Sun –Earth …. Sun Angles
Example:

A surface tilted 45° from horizontal and pointed 10° west of due south is located at 35° N latitude. Calculate the incident
angle at 2 h after local noon on June 15

360 N = 167
𝛿 = 23.45𝑠𝑖𝑛 (284 + 𝑁)
365

𝛿 = 23.350 h = 300
Zs = 100

𝜃 = 39.720 43
Sun –Earth …. Solar Tracker
Solar tracker:

o Solar tracking system adjusts the face of the solar panel to follow the
movement of the Sun.
o accurately tracks the path of the Sun throughout the day.

o The movement of solar trackers increases the solar energy output by up to

40% than standard panels

Types of sun tracking systems (power requirement):

o Passive solar trackers
o Manual solar trackers
o Active solar trackers
44
Sun –Earth …. Solar tracker
Passive solar trackers

o Passive trackers contain a liquid with a low boiling point that will
evaporate when exposed to solar radiation.
o When the liquid evaporates, the tilt system becomes imbalanced.
o Imbalance causes the panels to tilt towards the direction of the
sun’s rays.

Manual solar trackers:

o Monitor the sun and change the position of the solar panel system
manually
o Require someone to physically adjust the panels at different times
throughout the day to follow the sun.
o Not practical
45
 Sun –Earth …. Solar tracker
Active solar trackers

o Active trackers rely on motors to change position.

o Motors in active trackers move the PV panels so they are
facing the sun.
o Moving parts within the motors could easily break, lead to
higher maintenance costs

46
 Sun –Earth …. Solar tracker
Types of sun tracking systems (direction):

o Single axis solar tracker

o Dual axis solar tracker

Single axis solar tracker

o Single-axis trackers follow the position
of the sun as it moves from east to west.
o A single-axis tracker can increase
production between 25% to 35%

47
 Sun –Earth …. Solar tracker
Dual axis solar tracker

o Tracks the sun as it moves east to west and also

track from north to south.
o Dual-axis trackers can increase energy production
by about 40%.

48