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An Introduction
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An Operating system forms the core of any computer device. The functioning and processing of a
computer system can come to hold without an operating system.

let us first know What is an Operating System?

An Operating System is the interface between the computer hardware and the end-user. Processing
of data, running applications, file management and handling the memory is all managed by the
computer OS. Windows, Mac, Android etc. Are examples of Operating systems which are generally
used nowadays.

All modern computing devices including Laptops, Tablet, mobile phones, etc. comprise an Operating
System which helps in the smooth working of the device.

History of the Operating System

It took years to evolve the Operating Systems and make them as modernised and advanced as they
are today. Given below are the details about the evolution and history of Operating systems.

 Initially, the computers made did not have an Operating system and to run each program a
different code was used. This had made the processing of data more complex and time
taking

 In 1956, the first operating systems were developed by General Motors to run a single IBM
computer

 It was in the 1960s that IBM had started installing OS in the devices they launched

 The first version of the UNIX operating system was launched in the 1960s and was written in
the programming language C

 Later on, Microsoft came up with their OS on the request of IBM

 Today, all major computer devices have an operating system, each performing the same
functions but with slightly different features

Types of Operating System

Given below are the different types of Operating System along with brief information about each of
them:

1. Batch Operating System

 There is no direct communication between the computer and the OS

 There is an intermediate, the Operator, which needs to distribute the work into batches and
sort similar jobs

 Multiple users can use it

 Can easily manager a large amount of work

2. Real-Time Operating System

 It has a data processing system

 The processing time is very small between the user’s command and the output

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 Used in fields where the response needs to be quick and rapid

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3. Time-Sharing Operating System

 Multiple people at various terminals can use a program at the same time

 The main motive is to minimize the response time

4. Distributed Operating System

 When two or more systems are connected to each other and one can open files which are
not present in their system but in other devices connected in the network

 Its usage has now increased over the years

 They use multiple central processors to serve real-time applications

 Failure of one system does not affect the other systems connected in the network

5. Embedded Operating System

 These special Operating systems are built into larger systems

 They generally are limited to single specific functions like an ATM

6. Network Operating System

 They have one main server which is connected to other client servers

 All the management of files, processing of data, access to sharing files, etc. are performed
over this small network

 It is also a secure operating system for working with multiple users

7. Mobile Operating System

 With the advancement in the field of technology, smartphones now are released with an
Operating system.

 They are designed in a manner that they can help a small device work efficiently

Functions of Operating System

Given below are the various functions of an Operating System:

 It helps with memory management. It keeps a track of the files being saved in the Main
memory and the primary memory of the computer device

 Whenever a computer is turned on, the Operating system automatically starts to work. Thus,
the booting and rebooting process of a computer device is also an important function of the
OS

 It provides a user interface

 Managing of basic peripheral devices is done by the operating system

 Using the password protection option of an operating system, the data in the device can be
kept secure

 It coordinates with the software and the user

 Easy navigation and organisation of files and programs are managed by the OS
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 Any kind of program which needs to be run through the system is done by the operating
system
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 If any kind of error or bug is found during the program is detected using the operating
system

List of Common Operating Systems

Given below is a list of commonly used Operating systems along with their year of release.

List of Operating Systems

Name of the OS Release Date

Android 2008

iOS 2007

Windows 1985

Mac OS 2001

MS-DOS 1981

Chrome OS 2011

Windows Phone 2010

Blackberry OS 1999

Firefox OS 2013

UNIX 1969

Q 1. The __________ connects applications to 2. Main Memory

the actual processing of data and manages all 3. Kernel
communications between software and 4. Systematic Multi-Processing
hardware components. It is the core of any 5. Cluster Unit
OS. Answer: (3) Kernel
1. Central Processing Unit
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Q 2. Which of the following options is not an Q 4. The first Operating System was
Operating System? developed by _____
1. MS-DOS NOTES 1. IBM
2. Blackberry OS 2. Microsoft
3. Windows 3. Blackberry
4. Oracle 4. Mac
5. UNIX 5. General Motors
Answer: (4) Oracle Answer: (5) General Motors

Q 3. Which of these is not a type of Operating Q 5. A program that automates the translation
System? of assembly language into machine language
1. Network Operating System is called _________
2. Distributed Operating System 1. Assembler
3. Embedded Operating System 2. Interpreter
4. Batch Operating System 3. Compiler
5. All are a type of Operating System 4. Processor
Answer: (5) All are a type of Operating 5. None of the above
System Answer: (1) Assembler

What is a Storage Device? Definition, Types, Examples

The storage unit is a part of the computer system which is employed to store the information and
instructions to be processed. A storage device is an integral part of the computer hardware which
stores information/data to process the result of any computational work. Without a storage device, a
computer would not be able to run or even boot up. Or in other words, we can say that a storage
device is hardware that is used for storing, porting, or extracting data files. It can also store
information/data both temporarily and permanently.

Types of Computer Memory

1. Primary Memory

2. Secondary Memory

3. Tertiary Memory

1. Primary Memory: It is also known as internal memory and main memory. This is a section of the
CPU that holds program instructions, input data, and intermediate results. It is generally smaller in
size. RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only Memory) are examples of primary
storage.

2. Secondary Memory: Secondary storage is a memory that is stored external to the computer. It is
mainly used for the permanent and long-term storage of programs and data. Hard Disks, CDs, DVDs,
Pen/Flash drives, SSD, etc, are examples of secondary storage.

3. Tertiary Memory: Tertiary Memory is a type of Memory that is rarely used in personal computers
and due to this, tertiary memory is not considered to be an important one. Tertiary memory works
automatically without human intervention.

Types of Computer Storage Devices

Now we will discuss different types of storage devices available in the market. These storage devices
have their own specification and use. Some of the commonly used storage devices are:
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1. Primary Storage Devices

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2. Magnetic Storage Devices

3. Flash memory Devices

4. Optical Storage Devices

5. Cloud and Virtual Storage

1. Primary Storage Devices

 RAM: It stands for Random Access Memory. It is used to store information that is used
immediately or we can say that it is a temporary memory. Computers bring the software
installed on a hard disk to RAM to process it and to be used by the user. Once, the computer
is turned off, the data is deleted. With the help of RAM, computers can perform multiple
tasks like loading applications, browsing the web, editing a spreadsheet, experiencing the
newest game, etc. It allows you to modify quickly among these tasks, remembering where
you’re in one task once you switch to a different task. It is also used to load and run
applications, like your spreadsheet program, answers commands, like all edits you made
within the spreadsheet, or toggle between multiple programs, like once you left the
spreadsheet to see the email. Memory is nearly always actively employed by your computer.
It ranges from 1GB – 32GB/64GB depending upon the specifications. There are different
types of RAM, and although they all serve the same purpose, the most common ones are :

o SRAM: It stands for Static Random Access Memory. It consists of circuits that retain
stored information as long as the power supply is on. It is also known as volatile
memory. It is used to build Cache memory. The access time of SRAM is lower and it is
much faster as compared to DRAM but in terms of cost, it is costly as compared to
DRAM.

o DRAM: It stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory. It is used to store binary bits
in the form of electrical charges that are applied to capacitors. The access time of
DRAM is slower as compared to SRAM but it is cheaper than SRAM and has a high
packaging density.

o SDRAM: It stands for Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory. It is faster than
DRAM. It is widely used in computers and others. After SDRAM was introduced, the
upgraded version of double data rate RAM, i.e., DDR1, DDR2, DDR3, and DDR4 was
entered into the market and widely used in home/office desktops and laptops.

 ROM: It stands for Read-Only Memory. The data written or stored in these devices are non-
volatile, i.e, once the data is stored in the memory cannot be modified or deleted. The
memory from which will only read but cannot write it. This type of memory is non-volatile.
The information is stored permanently during manufacture only once. ROM stores
instructions that are used to start a computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. It is
also used in other electronic items like washers and microwaves. ROM chips can only store a
few megabytes (MB) of data, which ranges between 4 and 8 MB per ROM chip. There are
two types of ROM:

o PROM: PROM is Programmable Read-Only Memory. These are ROMs that can be
programmed. A special PROM programmer is employed to enter the program on the
PROM. Once the chip has been programmed, information on the PROM can’t be
altered. PROM is non-volatile, that is data is not lost when power is switched off.

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o EPROM: Another sort of memory is the Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory.
It is possible to erase the info which has been previously stored on an EPROM and
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write new data onto the chip.

o EEPROM: EEPROM is Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory. Here,

data can be erased without using ultraviolet light, with the use of just applying the
electric field.

Primary Storage Devices

2. Magnetic Storage Devices

 Floppy Disk: Floppy Disk is also known as a floppy diskette. It is generally used on a personal
computer to store data externally. A Floppy disk is made up of a plastic cartridge and secured
with a protective case. Nowadays floppy disk is replaced by new and effective storage
devices like USB, etc.

 Hard Disk: Hard Disk is a storage device (HDD) that stores and retrieves data using magnetic
storage. It is a non-volatile storage device that can be modified or deleted n number of times
without any problem. Most computers and laptops have HDDs as their secondary storage
device. It is actually a set of stacked disks, just like phonograph records. In every hard disk,
the data is recorded electromagnetically in concentric circles or we can say track present on
the hard disk, and with the help of a head just like a phonograph arm(but fixed in a position)
to read the information present on the track. The read-write speed of HDDs is not so fast but
decent. It ranges from a few GBs to a few and more TB.

 Magnetic Card: It is a card in which data is stored by modifying or rearranging the

magnetism of tiny iron-based magnetic particles present on the band of the card. It is also
known as a swipe card. It is used like a passcode(to enter the house or hotel room), credit
card, identity card, etc.

 Tape Cassette: It is also known as a music cassette. It is a rectangular flat container in which
the data is stored in an analog magnetic tape. It is generally used to store audio recordings.

 SuperDisk: It is also called LS-240 and LS-120. It is introduced by Imation Corporation and it
is popular with OEM computers. It can store data up to 240 MB.

Magnetic Storage Devices

3. Flash Memory Devices

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It is a cheaper and more portable storage device. It is the most commonly used device to store data
because is more reliable and efficient as compared to other storage devices. Some of the commonly
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used flash memory devices are:

 Pen Drive: It is also known as a USB flash drive that includes flash memory with an
integrated USB interface. We can directly connect these devices to our computers and
laptops and read/write data into them in a much faster and more efficient way. These
devices are very portable. It ranges from 1GB to 256GB generally.

 SSD: It stands for Solid State Drive, a mass storage device like HDD. It is more durable
because it does not contain optical disks inside like hard disks. It needs less power as
compared to hard disks, is lightweight, and has 10x faster read and writes speed as
compared to hard disks. But, these are costly as well. While SSDs serve an equivalent
function as hard drives, their internal components are much different. Unlike hard drives,
SSDs don’t have any moving parts and thus they’re called solid-state drives. Instead of
storing data on magnetic platters, SSDs store data using non-volatile storage. Since SSDs
haven’t any moving parts, they do not need to “spin up”. It ranges from 150GB to a few more
TB.

 SD Card: It is known as a Secure Digital Card. It is generally used with electronic devices like
phones, digital cameras, etc. to store larger data. It is portable and the size of the SD card is
also small so that it can easily fit into electronic devices. It is available in different sizes like
2GB, 4GB, 8GB, etc.

 Memory Card: It is generally used in digital cameras. printers, game consoles, etc. It is also
used to store large amounts of data and is available in different sizes. To run a memory card
on a computer you require a separate memory card reader.

 Multimedia Card: It is also known as MMC. It is an integrated circuit that is generally used in-
car radios, digital cameras, etc. It is an external device to store data/information.

Flash Memory Devices

4. Optical Storage Devices

Optical Storage Devices is also secondary storage device. It is a removable storage device. Following
are some optical storage devices:

 CD: It is known as Compact Disc. It contains tracks and sectors on its surface to store data. It
is made up of polycarbonate plastic and is circular in shape. CD can store data up to 700MB.
It is of two types:

o CD-R: It stands for Compact Disc read-only. In this type of CD, once the data is
written can not be erased. It is read-only.

o CD-RW: It stands for Compact Disc Read Write. In this type of CD, you can easily
write or erase data multiple times.

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 DVD: It is known as Digital Versatile Disc. DVDs are circular flat optical discs used to store
data. It comes in two different sizes one is 4.7GB single-layer discs and another one is 8.5GB
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double-layer discs. DVDs look like CDs but the storage capacity of DVDs is more than as
compared to CDs. It is of two types:

o DVD-R: It stands for Digital Versatile Disc read-only. In this type of DVD, once the
data is written can not be erased. It is read-only. It is generally used to write movies,
etc.

o DVD-RW: It stands for Digital Versatile Disc Read Write. In this type of DVD, you can
easily write or erase data multiple times.

 Blu-ray Disc: It is just like CD and DVD but the storage capacity of blu ray is up to 25GB. To
run a Blu-ray disc you need a separate Blu-ray reader. This Blu-ray technology is used to read
a disc from a blue-violet laser due to which the information is stored in greater density with a
longer wavelength.

Optical Storage Devices

5. Cloud and Virtual Storage

Nowadays, secondary memory has been upgraded to virtual or cloud storage devices. We can store
our files and other stuff in the cloud and the data is stored for as long as we pay for the cloud
storage. There are many companies that provide cloud services largely Google, Amazon, Microsoft,
etc. We can pay the rent for the amount of space we need and we get multiple benefits out of it.
Though it is actually being stored in a physical device located in the data centers of the service
provider, the user doesn’t interact with the physical device and its maintenance. For example,
Amazon Web Services offers AWS S3 as a type of storage where users can store data virtually instead
of being stored in physical hard drive devices. These sorts of innovations represent the frontier of
where storage media goes.

Cloud and Virtual Storage

Characteristics of Computer Storage Devices

 Data stored in the Memory can be changed or replaced in case of a requirement, because of
the mobility of the storage devices.
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 Storage Devices validate that saved data can be replaced or deleted as per the requirements
because the storage devices are easily readable, writeable, and rewritable.
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 Storage Devices are easy and convenient to access because they do not require much skill set
to handle these resources.

 The storage capacity of these devices is an extra advantage to the system.

 Storage Devices have better performance and data can be easily transferred from one device
to another.