OAV CHHANAMERI, SANAKHEMUNDI, GANJAM

BIOLOGY(044)

CLASS-XII

PRACTICAL RECORD

SESSION (2022-2023)

PREPARED BY

MR. SARAT KUMAR GAUDO

(PGT-BIOLOGY)

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY

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 OAV CHHANAMERI, SANAKHEMUNDI, GANJAM
EXPERIMENT NO.-1 DATE:-21.06.2022
AIM:
To prepare a temporary mount to observe pollen germination.
REQUIREMENTS:
(a)Materials: Fresh Mature Flower, Glass Slide, Glass Rod, Dropper, Beaker Compound Microscope.
(b)Chemicals: 10 mg Sucrose, 10mg Boric Acid, 30mg Magnesium Sulphate, 20mg Potassium Nitrate,
Distilled Water

PROCEDURE:
1. Prepare the pollen germination medium by dissolving 10 grams sucrose, 10 milligrams boric acid,
30 milligrams magnesium sulphate and 20 milligrams potassium nitrate in 100ml of distilled
water.
2. Using a glass rod, stir the solution to mix it well.
3. Using a dropper, take some nutrient solution and put two drops on a clean glass slide.
4. Take a mature flower and dust a few pollen grains from its stamen on to the drop on the slide.
5. After 5 minutes, place the glass slide on the stage of the compound microscope.
6. Observe the slide through the microscope regularly for about half an hour.
OBSERVATIONS:
1. The pollen grain is uninucleate (has one nucleus) in the beginning. At the time of liberation, it
becomes 2 celled, with a small generative cell and a vegetative cell.
2. In the nutrient medium, the pollen grain germinates.
3. The tube cell enlarges and comes out of the pollen grain through one of the germ pores to form a
pollen tube.
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 4. The tube nucleus descends to the tip of the pollen tube. The generative cell also passes into it. It
soon divides into two male gametes.

CONCLUSION:
Different stages of germinating pollens are observed. Some pollens are in their initial stage of
germination while others have quite long pollen tube containing tube nucleus and two male gametes.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Flowers should be freshly plucked.
2. Use clean cavity slide to observe the pollen grains.
3. The slides should not be disturbed, otherwise position of pollen grains will get changed.

EXPERIMENT NO.-2 DATE:-28.06.2022

AIM:
To study the plant population density by the quadrant method.
REQUIREMENTS:
Nail, Thread, Hammer and Vegetation Field

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PROCEDURE:
1. Select a site for the study and hammer the nails on the site without harming the vegetation.
2. Fix four nails in the form of a square.
3. Each end of the nail is tied with the help of a thread making a 1mX1m quadrant.
4. Nine more similar quadrants are made at the site of the study.
5. The number of individuals of species A present in the first quadrant is counted and the data is
recorded in the table.
6. The number of individuals of species A in other quadrants is also counted and the data is recorded
in the table.
7. Similarly, count the number of individuals of species B and C present in all the quadrants and
record the data in the table.
8. The density of the plant population is then calculated by the following equation:
Density=Total number of individuals of the species in all sampling units(S)/Total number of
sampling units studied(Q)
or D = S/Q

QN-I QN-II QN-III QN-IV QN-V

A B A A A B
B C A A A B
A C A B
C A A A B
A B B A C A B
C A A B
B A C A B
A C A A B
A A
QN-VI QN-VII QN-VIII QN-IX QN-X
C C B
A
C C A C
B B
C C B C

C B

OBSERVATIONS/TABULATION:

Total Total
Plant number of number Density
Number of individuals in each quadrant
Species individuals of (D)=S/Q
(S) quadrants

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 (Q)
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X
A 2 0 5 7 10 0 0 0 0 3 27 10 2.7
B 1 0 4 0 8 0 3 0 0 2 20 10 2.0
C 4 0 0 3 0 6 0 0 1 2 19 10 1.9
CONCLUSION:
The population density is the highest for species A and the lowest for species C. The density value is
expressed as the number of individuals per unit area.
EXPERIMENT NO.-3 DATE:-05.07.2022
AIM:
To isolate DNA from available plant materials such as spinach leaves, fresh green pea seeds, green
papaya, etc.
REQUIREMENTS:
(a)Materials: Plant materials as spinach leaves/fresh green pea seeds/green papaya, etc.
mortar and pestle, beakers, test tubes, tea filter, needle, forceps, funnel, filter paper .
(b)Chemicals: Water, Sodium chloride, Liquid soap/Detergent, Ethanol/Isopropyl alcohol.
PROCEDURE:
 Take a small amount of plant material and grind it in a mortar with 5ml of water and a pinch of
sodium chloride.
 Make it into a solution and filter it with tea filter.
 To this filtrate, add 5ml of liquid soap/detergent solution and mix it with a glass rod.
 Then filter the detergent solution with filter paper and collect the filtrate in a beaker.
 Take 3ml of filtrate in a test tube from the beaker and tilt it.
 Add 6ml of chilled ethanol/ Isopropyl alcohol and leave it aside in the stand.
 After half-an-hour we can observe the precipitated DNA as fine threads.
 DNA that separates can be removed by spooling DNA that separates can be removed by spooling
with the help of needle/forceps.

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OBSERVATION:
DNA appears as white precipitate of very fine threads on the spool.
INFERENCE:
Thus DNA can be isolated from the plant cell nucleus by this technique.
PRECAUTIONS:
 All the glass wares must be thoroughly cleaned and dried.
 The chemicals used for the experiments must be of standard quality.
 Ethanol/Isopropyl alcohol must be in chilled form.

EXPERIMENT NO.-4 DATE:-12.07.2022

AIM:
To study the plant population frequency by the quadrant method.
REQUIREMENTS:
Nail, Thread, Hammer and Vegetation Field

PROCEDURE:
In the selected site of study, hammer the nails firmly in the soil without damaging the vegetation.

Fix four nails to make a square.

Tie each end of the nails using a thread, to make a 1 m X 1 m quadrat.

Similarly, make nine more quadrats randomly in the site of study.

Select the plant species for study of the population frequency.

Observe the presence of species “A” in the first quadrat and mark it in the table.

Similarly, check for the presence of species “A” in other quadrats respectively and record the data

in the table.
 Observe the presence of species “B” in all quadrats and mark it in the table.
 Repeat the same procedure for species C and record the data in the table.
 We can calculate the frequency of plant populations by this equation:
Percentage Frequency=(Number of sampling units in which the species occurs-N)/(Total number
of sampling units employed for the study-Q)X100
or F % = (N/Q)X100

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 QN-I QN-II QN-III QN-IV QN-V

A
C
A

C B

QN-VI QN-VII QN-VIII QN-IX QN-X

A
C A C

OBSERVATION/TABULATION:

Number
of
quadrats
in which Percentage
Plant Quadrats employed in the
the Frequency
Species study
species F=N/Q*100
is
present
(N)
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X
A PP P P P 5 50%
B P 1 10%
C P P P P4 40%

CONCLUSION:
The plant population frequency is the highest in species C and the least in species A. It
shows how many times a plant species is present in the provided number of sample quadrats.

EXPERIMENT NO.- 5 DATE:-19.07.2022

AIM :
To study mitosis by preparing a temporary mount of an onion root tip.
REQUIREMENTS:
(a)Materials:Onion, Watch glass, Glass slide, Filter paper, Coverslip, Beaker, Burner/Spirit lamp,
Empty vial, Forceps, Dropper, Blade,Needle, Compound microscope.
(b)Chemicals:Glacial acetic acid, Ethanol, Water, N/10 Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Acetocarmine Stain.
THEORY :
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 The genetic information of all organisms resides in the individual DNA molecules
orchromosomes. An onion cell possesses 8 chromosomes .An onion root tip is a rapidly growing part of
the onion and thus many cells will be in differentstages of mitosis. The onion root tips can be prepared
and squashed in a way that allows themto be flattened on a microscopic slide, so that the chromosomes
of individual cells can beobserved easily . The super coiled chromosomes during different stages of
mitosis present inthe onion root tip cells can be visualized by treating with DNA specific stains
like Acetocarmine .
PROCEDURE :
 Place a slice of onion on the tile.
 Using a sharp blade, carefully remove the dried roots.
 Place the bulbs in a beaker filled with water to grow root tips.
 It may take 3–6 days for new roots to grow out.
 2–3 cm of freshly formed roots should be cut off and dropped into a watch glass.
 Transfer them to the vial containing newly made aceto-alcohol fixative using forceps (1:3: glacial
acetic acid: ethanol).
 Allow the root tips to soak for 24 hours. This processes is known as “fixation”.
 Take one root with a forceps and set it on a clean glass slide.
 Apply one drop of N/10 HCl to the root tip using a dropper, then 2–3 drops of acetocarmine stain.
 Warm it up a little on the spirit lamp. Kindly ensure that the strain doesn't dry out.
 Using filter paper, carefully blot the excess stain.
 Cut the significantly more stained tip piece of the root with a blade, keep it on the slide, and
discard the rest.
 Put one drop of water on the root tip after that. Using a needle, attach a coverslip on it.
 Now, touch the coverslip slowly with the blunt end of a needle/pencil to appropriately compress
the meristematic tissue of the root tip beneath the cover slip appear as a thin layer of cells.
 Finally, the different phases of mitosis can be studied under a microscope.

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 MITOSIS CELL DIVISION
OBSERVATIONS:
 Under low power of microscope, rectangular cells with pink nucleus are seen scattered.
 Under high power of microscope following stages become distinct:
1. Interphase:
a) It is the non-dividing phase/stage of the cycle.
b) Nuclear covered and nucleolus are distinct.
c) Chromatin fibers appear in the form of network within the nucleus.
2. Prophase:
a) The nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear. The cellular contents condense into a spindle.
b) Chromatin material shortens and condenses into thread like structures called Chromosomes.
c) Each chromosome consists of two chromatids which are jointed at point called centromere.
d) The centriole divides and shifts to the opposite poles along with astral rays.
3. Metaphase:
a) A bipolar, spindle develops in the cell.
b) Chromosomes become thick and two chromatids of each chromosomes become clear.
c) Chromosomes become arranged at the equator of the spindle.
d) Each chromosome gets attached to the spindle fibers at its centromere.
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4. Anaphase:
a) The two sister chromatids of each chromosome separate from the centromere and move towards
theopposite poles.
b) The daughter chromosomes (separated chromatids) appear V.J.I. and I Shapes, depending upon
the position of centromere.
c) The arms of chromosomes are towards the equator.
d) Slight depression is seen on the sides of the cell.
5. Telophase:
a) The spindle disappears, and the daughters chromosomes uncoil and lengthen to form chromatin
fibers at two poles.
b) Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear and two daughter nuclei appear at opposite poles.
c) Chromosomes become a mass of jumbled network as it was before the non-dividing stage.
6. Cytokinesis:
a) Cell plate formation takes place between the two daughter nuclei.
b) Two daughter cells are formed in this stage.

CONCLUSION:

Mitosis is very important to life because it provides new cells for growth and replaces dead cells.
Mitosis is the process in which a eukaryotic cell nucleus splits in two, followed by division of the parent
cell into two daughter cells. Each cell division consists of two events: cytokinesis and
karyokinesis. Karyokinesis is the process of division of the nucleus and cytokinesis is the process of
division of cytoplasm.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Do not touch the slide with objective lens while observation.

2. The slides are studied under high power: use fine adjustment to focus the slide.
3. The base of the onion bulb should be in contact of water while growing the roots.
4. Root tips should be fixed in the morning between 8 to 10 a.m.

EXPERIMENT NO.- 6 (SPOTTING) DATE:-26.07.2022

AIM:
To identify the given sample.
OBSERVATIONS:
 The flowers are small, inconspicuous.
 These are colourless, odourless and nectarless.
 Petals are often absent for batter exposure to wind.
 Male flowers are often arranged in cluster that move freely in wind.
 Anthers and stigmas are commonly exposed to catch the wind.
 Pollen grains are light, small, powdery and produced in large numbers.
 The stigmas are large, sometimes feathery and branched with large surface area adapted to catch
the pollens.

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 WIND POLLINATED FLOWER (ANEMOPHILY)

IDENTIFICATION:
From the above observed characters the given sample is identified as a wind pollinated
flower (Anemophily) as grass flower.

EXPERIMENT NO.- 7 (SPOTTING) DATE:-16.08.2022

AIM:
To identify the given sample.
OBSERVATIONS:
 The flowers are bright-coloured and produce nectar.
 Anthers and stigmas are commonly inserted inside the petal.
 Presence of fragrance that attracts the insects.
 The pollen is sticky, large, heavy and rough so that stick to the body of the insects.
 The stigma is unbranched, flat or lobed, sticky so that the pollens depositing are not dispersed.
 Nectar guides are present on the petals.

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 INSECT POLLINATED FLOWER (ENTEMOPHILY)
IDENTIFICATION:
From the above observed characters the given sample is identified as aninsect
pollinated flower (Entemophily) as china rose(Hibiscus rosa-sinensis).

EXPERIMENT NO.- 8 (SPOTTING) DATE:-23.08.2022

AIM:
To identify the given sample.
OBSERVATIONS:
 The flowers are tubular and curved that facilitates nectar-sucking by birds.
 Presence of diluted nectar,so that the birds can easily suck.
 The flowers are odourless and bright-coloured(generally red) that attracts the birds.
 While sucking the nectar, the pollen gets deposited on their beaks and neck and is transferred to
the plant they visit next.

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 BIRD POLLINATED FLOWER (ORNITHOPHILY)

IDENTIFICATION:
From the above observed characters the given sample is identified as a bird
Pollinated flower (Ornithophily) as crossvineflower(Bignonia capreolata).

EXPERIMENT NO.- 9 (SPOTTING) DATE:-06.09.2022

AIM:
To identify the given slide.
OBSERVATIONS:
 Small round shaped structures are observed known as pollen grain.
 Presence of 2 hard layered cell wall with nucleus in the cytoplm.
 The outer spiny structure known as exine and made up of sporopollenin.
 The inner smooth structure known as intine and made up of cellulose.
 Some empty spacesare present in the exine known as germ pore.
 Some structures contain 2 unequally divided cells with nucleus each.
 The larger cell known as vegetative cell and the smaller cell known as generative cell.
 Some structure contains a germinated tube known as pollen tube.
 It appears a tail like structure arising from the cytoplasm through the intine and exine.

IDENTIFICATION:
From the above observed characters the given slide is identified as a pollen germination on slide.
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 EXPERIMENT NO.- 10 (SPOTTING) DATE:-13.09.2022
AIM:
To identify the given slide.
OBSERVATIONS:
 The testes comprise several seminiferous tubules embedded in the interstitial tissues.
 Thick fibrous tissues called tunica albuginea cover the testes.
 It comprises different types of cells from the outside to the lunar in the manner given below:
Spermatogonia → Spermatocytes → Spermatids → Spermatozoa (sperms)
 Sertoli cells are located between the germinal cells.
 The Leydig cells that produce testosterone are present in the interstitial tissues.

T.S OF MAMMALIAN TESTES

IDENTIFICATION:
From the above observed characters the given slide is identified as T.S of mammalian testes.

EXPERIMENT NO.- 11 (SPOTTING) DATE:-20.09.2022

AIM:
To identify the given slide.
REQUIREMENTS:
Permanent slides, Compound microscope, Lens-cleaning paper and Cleaning fluid.
PROCEDURE:
 Firstly, wash your hands properly and then dry them thoroughly.
 Secondly, pour some cleaning fluid on the lens-cleaning papers; wipe slides, the microscope’s eye
and objective lenses.
 Thirdly, place the slide on the microscope’s platform. Observe the slides under lower
magnification and then the higher one.
OBSERVATIONS:
 An ovary is a germinal epithelium bounded by a solid structure covered by a thick layer of fibrous
tissue known as tunica albuginea.
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  It consists of an inner medulla and an outer cortex.
 The medulla comprises several round or oval bodies known as ovarian follicles.
 Follicle development takes place in the following stages:
1°follicle → 2°follicle → 3°follicle → Graffian follicle → Corpus luteum
 Cortex comprises corpus luteum along with mature follicles.

T.S OF MAMMALIAN OVARY

IDENTIFICATION:
From the above observed characters the given slide is identified as T.S of mammalian ovary.
PRECAUTIONS:
 The microscope should be handled with care.
 Adjust the lens such that the focus is better.

EXPERIMENT NO.- 12 (SPOTTING) DATE:-27.09.2022

AIM:
To identify the given slide.
REQUIREMENTS:
Permanent slides of meiosis and Compound Microscope
PROCEDURE:
1. Place the slide on the stage of the microscope.
2. Observe the slide with lower magnification.
OBSERVATIONS:
The different stages of meiosis are observed along on the basis of the following features.
Stages of Meiosis I
Prophase I
In this stage, the chromosomes condense and move towards the centre of the cell. It consists of five
different sub-phases:
 Leptotene: The homologous chromosomes replicate.
 Zygotene: Synapsis between homologous chromosomes start.

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  Pachytene: The sister chromatids separate but the homologous chromosomes remain attached.
 Diplotene: The two homologous chromosomes migrate apart and disintegrate between the
chromosomal arms.
 Diakinesis: The condensation of chromosomes stops at this stage and the chiasmata is clearly
visible under an electron microscope. The nucleolus and the nuclear envelop
disappear at this stage and the centrosome moves to the equator.
Metaphase I
The homologous chromosomes that contain two different alleles for each gene, line up on the
metaphase plate to be separated.
Anaphase I
The separated chromosomes are pulled towards the centrioles on either side of the cell.
Telophase I
The chromosomes are completely pulled apart and new nuclear envelope forms.
Stages of Meiosis II
Prophase II
In this stage, the nuclear envelope disintegrates and centrioles develop.
Metaphase II
The chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate and the chromatids are on either side of the
metaphase plate.
Anaphase II
The sister chromatids separate and are known as sister chromosomes.
Telophase II
The cell divides into two and a new nuclear envelope surrounds the chromosomes.
IDENTIFICATION:
From the above observed characters the given slide is identified as different stages of meiosis of
onion bud cells.
PRECAUTIONS:
 The microscope should be handled with care.
 Adjust the lens such that the focus is better.

EXPERIMENT NO.-13(SPOTTING) DATE:-11.10.2022

AIM:
To identify the given slide.
OBSERVATIONS:
 The mass of cells appears as a sphere with a cavity known as blastocoel.
 The outer layer of blastomeres known as trophoblast.
 One end of the blastula shows a cellular mass adhered to the trophoblastknown as the inner cell
mass.

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 T.S OF MAMMALIAN BLASTULA
IDENTIFICATION:
From the above observed characters the given slide is identified as T.S of mammalian blastula.
PRECAUTIONS:
 The microscope should be handled with care.
 Adjust the lens such that the focus is better.

EXPERIMENT NO.- 14 (SPOTTING) DATE:-18.10.2022

AIM:
To study the Mendelian inheritance using seeds of different colours/sizes of any plant.
REQUIREMENTS:
 Petri Dish
 Enamel Tray
 Pea Seed Samples
PROCEDURE:
 Place 100 pea seeds in an enamel tray.
 Separate the seeds into the round and wrinkled and place them in two separate Petri dishes.
 Note down the number of round and wrinkled seeds. Also, calculate their ratio.
 Repeat the procedure mentioned above for other contrasting traits, such as the colour of the
seeds.
OBSERVATION:
 Create a table showing the characteristics of the seed along with the total number observed, the
number of seeds with contrasting characters and the ratio.
(Example) Serial Characteristics Total Seeds Ratio
Number number showing
of contrasting
seeds characters
1 Shape of the 100 (X) round X: Y
seed seeds; (Y) =75:25
wrinkled =3:1
seeds
2 Colour of the 100 (X) green X: Y
seed seeds; (Y) =75:25
yellow =3:1
seeds

CONCLUSION:
From the Mendelian inheritance observation the phenotypic ratio is 3:1

EXPERIMENT NO.- 15 (SPOTTING) DATE:-25.10.2022

AIM:
To prepare and analyse the pedigree charts.
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REQUIREMENTS:
Information about traits in a family for more than one generation.

PRINCIPLE:
 A pedigree chart is a flowchart or a diagrammatic representation prepared to exhibit the
occurrence and appearance or phenotypes of a particular gene or organism along with its
ancestors from one generation to the next generation.
 In the pedigree chart, males are represented by a square and a circle represents the females.
PROCEDURE:
1. Select a family with anyone of the monogenic traits like rolling of tongue, blood groups, ear lobes,
widow’s peak and colour blindness.
2. Ask the person exhibiting the trait as to who in his/ her family has the trait in question.
3. Prepare a pedigree chart on the basis of the information collected, using appropriate symbols.
4. Examine the pedigree chart carefully to find out whether the disease is autosomal recessive,
autosomal dominant, X-linked dominant or recessive and Y-linked dominant or recessive.
EXPLANATION:
Autosomal Dominant Trait
Blood Groups, Free hanging earlobes, Widow’s Peak, Rolling of tongue.
The encoding gene for these genes is present on any of the autosomes. In these traits, the mutant allele is
dominant.
Such type of traits exhibit the following features:
1. The traits get transmitted from the parents to either gender.
2. It affects males and females equally.
3. The trait is present in each of the generations, i.e., the pedigree is vertical.
4. Some common traits of this type include blood groups, polydactyly, brachydactyly, the dimple in
cheeks, etc.

ROLLING TONGUE (AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT TRAIT)

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 BLOOD GROUP(AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT TRAIT)

WIDOW’S PEAK AND FREE HANGING EARLOBES (AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT TRAIT)

Autosomal Recessive Trait

The mutant allele of such traits is recessive. Salient features of such type of traits include:
1. It is found equally in multiple male and female siblings whose parents are carriers.
2. Homozygous siblings for defective alleles, but parents are heterozygous.

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 3. If men and women who are genetically related are married to each other, they might exhibit this
trait.
X-Linked Dominant Traits
The encoding gene for such traits is located on the X chromosome. The mutant allele is dominant in this
trait.
The features of such type of traits are:
1. Inheritance is vertical and is found in all the generations.
2. If the female is affected, half of her sons are also affected.
3. If the male is affected, all the daughters will be affected but no sons will be affected, i.e., there is no
male-to-male transmission.
X-Linked Recessive Traits- Colour Blindness
In such type of traits, the mutant allele is recessive to the wild type allele. The features of X-linked
recessive traits include:
1. This is expressed only by homozygous females but homozygous and hemizygous males.
2. If the female is the carrier, about half the sons are affected. If the female is homozygous, 50% of
the daughters and 100% of the sons can be affected. That is why the male population is the most
affected.

(X-LINKED RECESSIVE TRAITS- COLOUR BLINDNESS)

Y-chromosome Linked Traits

The gene for such traits is present on the Y-chromosome. Any trait linked to Y-chromosome is found only
in males and not in females because the Y-chromosome is present only in males. All the sons of the
affected male exhibit the trait, whereas, none of the daughters exhibits the trait.

EXPERIMENT NO.- 16 (SPOTTING) DATE:-15.11.2022

AIM:
To control pollination through emasculation, tagging and bagging.
REQUIREMENTS:
Plants with large bisexual flowers, Tweezers/Forceps, Scissors, Brush, Alcohol, Rubber bands,
Paper bags, Paper clips, Tags and Magnifying Glass.
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THEORY:
Emasculation is the process of artificial hybridization in which the stamens from the female flowers
are removed from bisexual flowers in order to prevent self-fertilization. This process is carried out long
before the anthers mature. Removal of anther from the bisexual flowers before the anthers mature is
known as emasculation. The emasculated flower is then bagged to prevent any unwanted pollination.
This process helps in the production of flowers with desired characteristics. For this, it is essential to
have knowledge of the flower structure, fertilization, physiology of flowers and fertilization.
PROCEDURE:
1. Select a bud of the flower and open it to remove the stamens. This is known as emasculation. Mark
it as the female parent plant.
2. The plant is then covered with a plastic bag to prevent it from getting pollinated by any undesired
pollen.
3. Bring it in contact with the anther of the male plant with desired characteristics. The pollen should
be dusted on the surface of the stigma.
4. Cover the pollinated flower immediately with a polythene bag and label it with the name of the
seed parent.

EMASCULATION

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 BAGGING AND TAGGING

EXPERIMENT NO.- 17 (SPOTTING) DATE:-22.11.2022

AIM:
To observe the disease-causing organisms like Ascaris, Entamoeba, Plasmodium and Ringworm
through permanent slides.
REQUIREMENTS:
Preserved slides or specimens of disease-causing organisms like Ascaris, Entamoeba, Plasmodium
and Ringworm.
PROCEDURE:
Observe the specimens or slides and identify the organism on the basis of its features.
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Ascaris
Phylum: Aschelminthes
Class: Nematoda
Type: Ascarislumbricoides
Ascaris exhibits the following characteristic features:
1. It has a long, cylindrical and unsegmented body.
2. The male and female organisms are separate.
3. It bears a mouth at the anterior end surrounded by three lips.
4. There is an excretory pore on the ventral surface slightly behind the anterior end.
5. A pair of penial spicules are present in the male worms close to the cloacal opening.
6. The female genitals are present at about one-third distance from the anterior end.
Ascariasis is the disease caused by Ascarislumbricoides or roundworm.
Symptoms:
 Abdominal cramping
 Abdominal swelling
 Nausea
 Vomiting
 Fever

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2. Entamoeba
Phylum: Protozoa
Class: Rhizopoda
Type: Entamoebahystolytica
Following are the characteristic features of Entamoeba:
1. It is a unicellular organism with an irregular shape.
2. It consists of a few food vacuoles. The contractile vacuole is absent.
3. Cysts with four nuclei are present.
4. It consists of a nucleus located eccentrically in the cell.
Entamoebahistolytica is an organism found in the intestines of humans that is responsible for causing
amoebic dysentery.
Symptoms:
 Abdominal pain
 Watery diarrhoea with mucus, blood and pus
 Fatigue
 Fever
 Nausea
 Vomiting
3. Plasmodium
Phylum: Protozoa
Class: Sporozoa
Type: Plasmodium vivax
Plasmodium can be identified by the following characteristic features:
1. It is a unicellular endoparasite found within the red blood cells of the diseased person.
2. The parasite is mostly diagnosed at the “signet ring” stage where the parasite appears as a round
body.
3. There is a big vacuole present inside the cell. The cytoplasm is accumulated at one place and
contains the nucleus.
Plasmodium vivax is a protozoan parasite that causes malaria in humans. The infected female
anopheles bites a healthy person and transmits the sporozoite into the peripheral blood vessels of
humans, thereby, causing malaria.
Symptoms:
 High fever
 Shaking chills from moderate to severe.
 Headache
 Vomiting
 Nausea
4. Ringworm
Kingdom: Fungi
Class: Deuteromycetes
Type: Trichophytonrubrum
Trichophyton or ringworm fungus has the following characteristic features:
1. This fungus feeds on the keratin of the skin of human beings.
2. The hyphae are waxy and can be smooth or cotton-like.
3. Hyphae that are not stained are yellowish-brown, reddish-brown or white in colour.
Ringworm is a communicable fungal infection of the skin.
Symptoms:
 Scaly, itchy skin
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  Red and raised patches
 They are redder at the periphery than at the centre and forms a ring-like appearance.

EXPERIMENT NO.- 18 (SPOTTING) DATE:-29.11.2022

AIM:
To prepare a flash card model showing homologous and analogous organs.
REQUIREMENTS:
Card board, list of homologous and analogous characters and figures.
THEORY
Homologous organs :
1. Similar structure , different function
2. Developmental origin is same
3. Divergent evolution
Example :
 Flipper - whale
 Wing - bat
 Fore limb -horse
 Paw - cat
 Hand - human
 Thorn - bougainvillaea
 Tendril - cucurbita

HOMOLOGOUS ORGANS

Analogous organ :
1. Same function but different structure
2. Convergent evolution
3. Not anatomically similar
Example :
 Wings of a butterfly and wings of a bird.
 Flippers of penguin and dolphin
 Eye of an octopus and a mammal ( both differ in retinal position but function is same )
 Sweet potato( root modification) and potato ( stem modification) - both help in storage of food.

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 ANALOGOUS ORGAN

EXPERIMENT NO.- 19 (SPOTTING) DATE:-06.12.2022

AIM:
To study the symbiotic association in root nodules of leguminous plants, Cuscuta on host and
Lichens.
REQUIREMENTS:
Root nodules of leguminous plants, Cuscuta plant and Lichen
OBSERVATIONS :
1. Root nodules of leguminous plants
 The roots of leguminous plant are modified in to several nodules.
 Nitrogen fixing bacteria are found inside the nodules.
 They convert the nitrogen into soluble form which is absorbed by the leguminous plant for protein
synthesis.
 The plant provides shelter to the bacteria and the bacteria helps the plant for nitrogen fixation.

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 ROOT NODULES OF LEGUMINOUS PLANTS
2. Cuscuta
 The host plant is covered with thread like yellowish green structures known as cuscuta.
 The cuscuta is an ectoparasite on plants.
 It absorbs water and minerals from the host plant.
 Here the host plant is the loser and cuscuta plant is getting benefits from the host plant.

CUSCUTA

3.Lichen
 Tow layered organisms are observed.
 The upper layer is green coloured algal part.
 The lower layer is brown coloured fungal part
 The fungal part provides mineral nutrients to the algae by decomposing the organic materials.
 The algal part provides food and shelter to the fungi by photosynthesis.
 Here both of them are beneficiary to each other.

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 LICHEN
IDENTIFICATION:
From the above observing characters the given specimens are identified as
1. Root nodules of leguminous plants and Nitrogen fixing bacteria are showing symbiotic relationship
with each other.
2. Cuscuta on host stem is showing parasitic relationship with host plant.
3. Lichen is showing symbiotic relationship with algae and fungi.

Thank you
All the best

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