Atomic structure

SL
IB CHEMISTRY SL
2.1 The nuclear atom
Understandings:
• Atoms contain a positively charged dense nucleus composed of protons and neutrons
(nucleons).
• Negatively charged electrons occupy the space outside the nucleus.
• The mass spectrometer is used to determine the relative atomic mass of an element from
its isotopic composition.
Applications and skills:
• Calculations involving non-integer relative atomic masses and abundance of isotopes
from given data, including mass spectra.
• Use the following notation 𝐴𝑍X to deduce the number of protons, neutrons and electrons
in atoms and ions.

Guidance:
• Relative masses and charges of the subatomic particles should be known; actual values
are given in section 4 of the data booklet. The mass of the electron can be considered
negligible.
• Specific examples of isotopes need not be learned.
• The operation of a mass spectrometer is not required.

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Syllabus checklist

Objective I am confident I need to review I need help with

with this this this
State the name and location of
the sub-atomic particles in an
atom
State the relative charge and
relative mass of the sub-atomic
particles
State the meaning of the terms
atomic number (Z) and mass
number (A)
Determine the number of
protons, neutrons and electrons
in an atom (or ion) from the
atomic number and mass
number (nuclear symbol
notation)
State the meaning of the term
isotope
Outline the concept of relative
atomic mass (Ar)
Calculate the relative atomic
mass of an atom given %
abundance and atomic mass
data
Calculate the % abundance
given relative atomic mass and
atomic mass data

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Structure of the atom and the sub-atomic particles
• The three sub-atomic particles are the proton, neutron and the electron.
• Protons and neutrons (nucleons) are located in the nucleus of the atom.
• The nucleus is very dense as it contains almost all of the mass of an atom.
• The electrons are located in energy levels (principal energy levels) within the atom.
• Atoms are electrically neutral because they have the same number of protons and
electrons.

Exercises
1. Complete the table below:

Sub-atomic particle Relative mass Relative charge

Proton

Neutron

Electron

2. Explain why the nucleus is the most dense part of the atom.

3. An atom contains the same number of which sub-atomic particles?

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Atomic number (Z) and mass number (A)
• The atomic number (or proton number) is the number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom.
• The mass number is the number of protons and neutrons (nucleons) in the nucleus of an
atom.
• To find the number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom, subtract the atomic number
from the mass number (A – Z).
• The notation used for the atomic number and mass number is shown below (the nuclear
symbol notation).

𝐴 19 19
𝑍X 9F F
• X is the symbol of the element Note that the atomic number is sometimes
• Z is the atomic number (or proton number) omitted; it can be found by looking on the
periodic table. You should include it when
• A is the mass number (or nucleon number) writing the nuclear notation for an element.

Example: The nuclear symbol for helium-4 is 42He. Its atomic number is 2 and its mass number is
4. It has 2 protons and 2 neutrons in its nucleus.

Isotopes
• Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but a
different number of neutrons.
• Isotopes have the same atomic number (Z) but a different mass number (A).
• The two isotopes shown below, carbon-12 (12C) and carbon-14 (14C), have the same
number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

12 6 protons
14
6C 6C
6 protons
6 neutrons 8 neutrons
6 electrons 6 electrons

• Isotopes have the same chemical properties but different physical properties such as
density and boiling point.
• Many isotopes are radioactive (known as radioisotopes); examples include cobalt-60,
carbon-14 and iodine-131.

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Exercises
1. Define the terms atomic number and mass number.

2. Write the nuclear symbol notation for magnesium-24 and iron-54.

3. Define the term isotope.

4. Deduce the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in the following.

Species* Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of

number number protons neutrons electrons
2
1H
14
6C
14
7N
40
20Ca
37
17Cl
79
35Br
206
82Pb
235
92U

*The word species is used to refer to an atom, ion, or molecule.

5. Deduce the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in the following isotopes.

Isotope Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of

number number protons neutrons electrons
10
5B
11
5B
16
8O
17
8O

6. Deduce the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in the following ions.

Ion Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of

number number protons neutrons electrons
40 2+
20Ca
27 3+
13Al
35 −
17Cl
14 3−
7N

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Relative atomic mass (Ar)
• The mass of atoms is so small (in the range of 10-24 to 10-22 kg), therefore a relative scale
is used.
• The standard for the relative scale is carbon-12, which is given a relative mass of exactly
12.00.

The relative atomic mass is the weighted average mass of an atom

compared to an atom of the isotope carbon-12.

• Relative atomic masses do not have units because it is a relative scale.

The mass spectrometer (note that the operation of mass spectrometer is not required)
• A mass spectrometer is used to determine the isotopes of an element, together with
their relative abundances.
• The relative abundance of an isotope is the percentage of atoms with a specific atomic
mass found in a naturally occurring sample of an element.
• A mass spectrometer produces a mass spectrum which shows relative abundance on the
y-axis against mass to charge ratio (m/z) on the x-axis. The mass spectrum for lead (Pb) is
shown below.

Exercise Based on the mass spectrum above, is the relative atomic mass of lead likely to be
closer to 204 or 208? Explain your answer.

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Calculating relative atomic mass

• To calculate the relative atomic mass of an element, multiply the mass of each isotope by
its relative abundance, add together for all the isotopes, and then divide by 100.
• For example, to calculate the relative atomic mass of an element with two isotopes:

(mass of isotope 1 × % abundance) + (mass of isotope 2 × % abundance)

𝐴𝑟 =
100

Exercises
1. Rhenium has two naturally occurring isotopes with the following percentage abundances.
Calculate the relative atomic mass of rhenium to two decimal places.
Isotope % abundance
185Re 37.40
187Re 62.60

2. Europium has two naturally occurring isotopes, Europium-151 and Europium-153, and a
relative atomic mass of 151.96. Calculate the percentage abundance of each isotope of
europium.

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2.2 Electron configurations
Understandings:
• Emission spectra are produced when photons are emitted from atoms as excited
electrons return to a lower energy level.
• The line emission spectrum of hydrogen provides evidence for the existence of electrons
in discrete energy levels, which converge at higher energies.
• The main energy level or shell is given an integer number, n, and can hold a maximum
number of electrons, 2n2.
• A more detailed model of the atom describes the division of the main energy level into s,
p, d and f sub-levels of successively higher energies.
• Sub-levels contain a fixed number of orbitals, regions of space where there is a high
probability of finding an electron.
• Each orbital has a defined energy state for a given electronic configuration and chemical
environment and can hold two electrons of opposite spin.
Applications and skills:
• Description of the relationship between colour, wavelength, frequency and energy across
the electromagnetic spectrum.
• Distinction between a continuous spectrum and a line spectrum.
• Description of the emission spectrum of the hydrogen atom, including the relationships
between the lines and energy transitions to the first, second and third energy levels.
• Recognition of the shape of an s atomic orbital and the p x, py and pz atomic orbitals.
• Application of the Aufbau principle, Hund’s rule and the Pauli exclusion principle to write
electron configurations for atoms and ions up to Z = 36.

Guidance:
• Details of the electromagnetic spectrum are given in the data booklet in section 3.
• The names of the different series in the hydrogen line emission spectrum are not
required.
• Full electron configurations (e.g 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4) and condensed electron
configurations (e.g [Ne] 3s2 3p4) should be covered.
• Orbital diagrams should be used to represent the character and relative energy of
orbitals. Orbital diagrams refer to arrow-in-box diagrams, such as the one given below.

• The electron configurations of Cr and Cu as exceptions should be covered.

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Syllabus checklist

Objective I am confident I need to review I need help with

with this this this
Deduce electron configurations
for atoms (or ions) up to Z = 36
State the shapes of s and p
atomic orbitals
State the maximum number of
electrons in the s and p sub-
levels
State the maximum number of
electrons in each main energy
level (up to n=4)
Write electron configurations
(full and abbreviated) for atoms
(or ions) up to Z = 36
Outline the exceptions to the
Aufbau principle (Cu and Cr)
Draw electron in box diagrams
for atoms (or ions)
Outline the relationship
between energy, frequency and
wavelength (and colour) on the
electromagnetic spectrum
Describe the difference
between a continuous spectrum
and a line spectrum
Explain the formation of the
emission and absorption line
spectra
Describe the hydrogen emission
spectrum
Explain the relationship
between the lines and electron
transitions to the first, second
and third energy levels in the
hydrogen emission spectrum (in
terms in energy, frequency and
wavelength)

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Electron configurations
• The Bohr model of the atom has the electrons located in energy levels (principal energy
levels) which are assigned the letter n.

• n=1 is closest to the nucleus and has lowest energy. As the value of n increases, the
energy also increases.
• Each main energy level can hold 2n2 electrons.
• The main energy levels are divided into sub-levels: s, p, d and f.
• The order in terms of energy of the sub-levels is: s < p < d < f (s is lowest and f is highest).

Energy level sub-level maximum number maximum number

of electrons in sub- of electrons in level
level
n=1 1s 2 2
n=2 2s 2
2p 6 8
3s 2
n=3 3p 6 18
3d 10
4s 2
n=4 4p 6
4d 10 32
4f 14

Summary:
• The s sub-level can hold a maximum of _____ electrons.
• The p sub-level can hold a maximum of _____ electrons.
• The d sub-level can hold a maximum of _____ electrons.
• The f sub-level can hold a maximum of _____ electrons.
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Atomic orbitals
• Atomic orbitals describe the probability of finding an electron in an area of space.
• They represent the region around the nucleus where there is a 95% chance of finding an
electron.

s atomic orbitals
• s orbitals are spherical in shape.

p atomic orbitals
• A p orbital is like 2 identical balloons tied together at the centre (dumbbell shaped).
• The p sub-level contains three p orbitals of equal energy (degenerate orbitals).

d and f atomic orbitals

• The d sub-level contains five degenerate d orbitals.
• The f sub-level contains seven degenerate f orbitals.
• Students are not required to know the shapes of d and f atomic orbitals.

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The Aufbau Principle
• The Aufbau Principle states that electrons are placed into orbitals of lowest energy first.
• The following diagram shows the sub-levels in order of increasing energy.
• Note the overlap between the 4s and 3d sub-levels.

• The filling of the sub-levels follows the pattern below.

1s
2s 2p
3s 3p 3d
4s 4p 4d 4f
5s 5p 5d 5f
6s 6p 6d
7s 7p

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Electron spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle
• The Pauli Exclusion Principle states that no two electrons in the same orbital can have the
same quantum number.
• This means that no more than two electrons can occupy an orbital and they must spin in
opposite directions.
• Electrons and their spins are represented by single-headed arrows (↿ or ⇂).

Hund’s rule
• Hund’s rule states that if more than one degenerate orbital in a sub-level is available,
electrons occupy separate orbitals with parallel spins.
• Always fill orbitals of equal energy singly with one electron first and then add the second
electron once each orbital has one electron in it.

Writing electron configurations

• Electron configurations show how electrons are arranged in sub-levels.
• The first number shows the main energy level (or principal quantum number).
• The letter shows the sub-level (s, p, d or f).
• The number in superscript shows the number of electrons in the sub-level.

2
main energy level (n)
1s number of electrons in
sub-level

sub-level
Example: Write the full electron configuration of the magnesium atom (Z=12)

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Abbreviated (condensed) electron configurations
Example – the full and abbreviated electron configuration of rubidium (Rb) are shown below
• Rb 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s1
• Rb [Kr] 5s1
Write the abbreviated electron configuration for Al:
• Al 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1

Concept check:
Write full electron configurations for the following atoms:
1. He 11. Ar

2. Li 12. Ca

3. B 13. Ti

4. C 14. Mn

5. O 15. Ni

6. Ne 16. Zn

7. Na 17. Ge

8. Al 18. Se

9. P 19. Br

10. Cl 20. Kr

Write abbreviated (condensed) electron configurations for the following atoms:

1. Li

2. Mg

3. S

4. Ca

5. Ga

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Electron configurations of ions
• Note that First row d-block elements (Sc to Zn) lose their 4s electrons first when they
form ions.
Write the electron configuration for the Ni2+ ion:

Write the electron configuration for the Mn2+ion:

Exercise: write abbreviated (condensed) electron configurations for the following ions:

1. Na+

2. S2-

3. Ca2+

4. Cr3+

5. Cu+

Exceptions to the Aufbau principle: copper (Cu) and chromium (Cr)

Copper Z=29
• The full electron configuration for the Cu atom is:

Chromium Z=24
• The abbreviated electron configuration for the Cr atom is:

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Orbital diagrams – electrons in boxes
• Boxes can be used to represent the atomic orbitals with single headed arrows used to
represent the spinning electrons.
• Recall that electrons fill orbitals according to Hund’s rule and the Pauli exclusion
principle; an orbital can hold a maximum of two electrons which must have opposite
spins, ↿ or ⇂, and degenerate orbitals are filled singly before being doubly occupied.

Exercises:
1. Draw electrons in boxes (orbital diagrams) for the first 7 elements below:
H He Li Be Boron

Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen

2. Draw orbital diagrams for the following showing only the 4s and 3d sub-levels.

1. Ca

2. V

3. Mn

4. Cr3+

5. Cu2+

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The electromagnetic spectrum
• The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of wavelengths, or frequencies, of
electromagnetic radiation.
• It extends from radio rays (low energy, long wavelength, low frequency) to gamma rays
(high energy, short wavelength, high frequency).

• Higher energy corresponds to higher frequency and shorter wavelength.

• Lower energy corresponds to lower frequency and longer wavelength.
Exercises
1. Write the following in order of increasing energy.

UV, visible light, gamma rays, X-rays, microwaves, radio waves, infrared

2. Write the following in order of increasing wavelength.

UV, visible light, gamma rays, X-rays, microwaves, radio waves, infrared

3. Write the following in order of increasing frequency.

UV, visible light, gamma rays, X-rays, microwaves, radio waves, infrared

4. Write the following in order of increasing energy.

Orange, yellow, red, violet, green, indigo, blue

5. State the relationship between energy, frequency and wavelength.

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Line spectra
• The three types of line spectra are continuous, absorption, and emission spectra.

• A continuous spectrum shows all the wavelengths, or frequencies, of visible light.

• An absorption spectrum shows black lines on a coloured background.
• An emission spectrum shows coloured lines on a black background.
• Each element has unique absorption and emission spectra and they can be used to
identify unknown elements.

Exercises

1. Classify the spectra above as absorption or emission spectra.

2. Describe the difference between the two spectra.

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How are line spectra produced?
• The Bohr model of the atom has the protons and neutrons located in the nucleus and the
electrons located in energy levels around the nucleus.

• Electrons can only exist within the energy levels and electrons in the same energy level
have the same amount of energy.
• Electrons can transition (move) between energy levels by either absorbing or emitting
specific amounts of energy.
• If an electron absorbs a specific amount of energy, it will transition to a higher energy
level (for example from n = 1 to n = 2).
• If an electron emits a specific amount of energy, it will transition to a lower energy level
(for example n = 4 to n = 2).
• The energy is in the form of small packets of energy called photons and is related to the
position of the light in the electromagnetic spectrum by the equation below (note that
the use of this equation will not be assessed).
E = hν
E = energy
h = Plank’s constant 6.63 × 10-34 J s-1
ν = frequency

Summary:
• Electrons are located in energy levels within the atom.
• Electrons can only exist at certain energy levels.
• Electrons can transition to higher energy levels by absorbing energy.
• Electrons can transition to lower energy levels by emitting energy.

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Emission spectra
• The emission line spectrum of hydrogen is shown below.
• It has four coloured lines on a black background that converge at high energy.

• The emission spectrum above is produced when an electron emits energy and transitions
to a lower energy level (to n=2).
• The energy emitted by the electron corresponds to the wavelength, or frequency, of
visible light.
• For example, when an electron transitions from n=3 to n=2, the energy that is emitted
corresponds to the wavelength, or frequency, of red light. This explains why a red line
appears in the emission spectrum.

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Absorption spectra
• The absorption line spectrum of hydrogen is shown below.
• It has four black lines on a coloured background.

• The absorption spectrum above is produced when an electron absorbs energy and
transitions to a higher energy level (from n=2).
• The energy absorbed by the electron corresponds to the to the wavelength, or
frequency, of visible light.
• For example, when an electron transitions from n=2 to n=3, the energy that is absorbed
corresponds to the wavelength, or frequency, of red light. This explains why the colour
red is missing in the absorption spectrum.

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The hydrogen emission spectrum
• The hydrogen emission spectrum is shown below.

• Electron transitions to the first energy level (n=1) release the highest amount of energy
and are in the UV region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
• Electron transitions to the n=2 energy level emit energy that corresponds to the
frequency, or wavelength of visible light.
• Electron transitions to the n=3 energy level emit energy in the infrared region of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
• The longer the arrow, the greater the amount of energy emitted (or absorbed).
• Higher energy corresponds to higher frequency and shorter wavelength.
• Lower energy corresponds to lower frequency and longer wavelength.

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Exercises
1. What is absorbed when an electron transitions from a lower energy level to a
higher energy level?

2. What is emitted when an electron transitions from a higher energy level to a lower
energy level?

3. Do spectral lines converge at high energy or low energy?

4. Electron transitions to n=1 emit which type of electromagnetic radiation?

5. Electron transitions to n=2 emit which type of electromagnetic radiation?

6. Electron transitions to n=3 emit which type of electromagnetic radiation?

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