Biology Video Notes
Biolog Notes
Breathing and
Exchange of Gases
Class 11ᵗʰ
Class 11ᵗʰ
BREATHING AND EXCHANGE
OF GASES
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The process of taking oxygen from the atmosphere and producing carbon dioxide
by the body cells is known as Breathing.
Breathing involves inspiration and expiration.
Depending upon the level of organization and habitats in a group of
animals, the mechanism of breathing varies in different organisms.
Lower invertebrates For instance, in coelenterates, sponges, flatworms, etc.
oxygen is exchanged with carbon dioxide by simple diffusion over the whole body
surface.
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All the animals have different organs specialised for the gaseous exchange.
Mode of gaseous exchange Respiratory organs
Examples:
Cutaneous respiration Skin Through body surface- poriferans, coelenterates,
flatworms
Moist cuticle-Earthworms
Moist skin- Amphibians (frogs)
Tracheal Spiracles Arthropods (cockroaches)
Branchial respiration Gills Aquatic animals- arthropods, molluscs and fishes
Pulmonary respiration Lungs Terrestrial vertebrates including human
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The human respiratory system is divided into various parts such as the
nostrils, nasal passage, larynx, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
The openings just above the upper lips are called nostrils. Through the nasal
passage, these nostrils lead to the nasal chamber.
The nasal chamber opens into pharynx. It is a common passage
for air and food. The pharynx extends through the larynx.
The larynx is a cartilaginous called soundbox helping in the
production of sound. The larynx region opens into the trachea.
Epiglottis helps in preventing food from entering the larynx. It is
a cartilaginous flap.
The windpipe, also called trachea, opens to the mid-thoracic cavity PRESERVE!!
and divides at the level of the 5th thoracic vertebra into the right and left
primary bronchi. The primary bronchi are divided into multiple primary
bronchioles.
The bag-like structures are called alveoli. They are the basic units of gas
exchange in the lungs.
Lungs compose the whole network of bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli.
Two lungs in the human body are covered by double- layered pleura having
pleural fluid between them.
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VERTEBRAL COLUMN AT DORSAL SIDE.
VENTRALLY STURNAM
RIBS AT THE LATERAL SIDE
ON THE LOWER SIDE IS A DOME-
SHAPED DIAPHRAGM
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Breathing in which Oxygen rich atmospheric air is diffused in and CO₂ rich
alveolar air is diffused out.
Diffusion of gases (0₂ and CO₂) across alveolar membrane.
Transport of gases by blood.
Diffusion of 0₂ and CO₂ between blood and tissues.
Utilization of 0₂ by cells to obtain energy and release of CO₂ (cellular
respiration).
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Two stages are involved in the mechanism of breathing:
Inspiration (air is drawn inside)
Expiration (Alveolar air is released outside)
The first breathing stage is inspiration, also called pulmonary ventilation. It
involves the movement of air into and out of the lungs.
Between the ribs, there are Intercostal muscles. These play an important role
in breathing.
The movement of the diaphragm initiates inspiration. To lift the rib and the
sternum, the external intercostal muscle contracts. Ribs move downward and
upward directions, and due to the movement of the ribs, the diameter of the
thoracic cavity increases. Into the lungs, a negative pressure develops, and air
rushes inside them.
External intercostal muscles get relaxed in case of expiration or
exhalation. The ribcage moves downward and upward, reducing the
activity of the thoracic. Positive pressure is caused due to the reduced volume
that results in exhalation.
With the help of additional muscles in the abdomen, humans can increase the
strength of inspiration and expiration. A healthy person breathes 12-16 times
per minute on average. A spirometer is used to determine the volume of air
involved in breathing movements.
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Tidal volume (TV) - volume of air inspired or expired during a normal
respiration. It is approx 500ml in healthy man. Approx (inspire or expire)
6000 to 8000 ml of air per min.
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) – additional volume of air a person
can inspire by forceful inspiration. It is about 2500 ml to 3000ml.
Expiatory Reserve Volume (ERV) – additional volume of air a Person
can expire by forceful expiration. It is about 1000 ml to 1100ml. THRIVE!!
Residual Volume (RV) - volume of air remaining in lungs even after a
forcible expiration. It is about 1100ml to 1200ml.
Inspiratory Capacity (IC) – This is the volume of air a person can inspire
after a normal expiration. It is the sum of tidal volume and inspiratory
reserve volume (TV+IRV).
Expiratory Capacity (EC) - the volume of air a person can expire after a
normal inspiration. It is the sum of tidal volume and expiratory reserve
volume (TV+ERV).
Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) - This is the volume of air that remains
in the lungs following a normal expiration. It is the sum of expiratory reserve
volume and residual volume (ERV+RV).
Vital Capacity (VC) - Maximum volume of air a person can breathe in after
a forceful expiration. ERV+ TV+ IRV
Total Lung Capacity (TLC) - Total volume of air accommodated in lung at
the end of forced inspiration. RV+ ERV+ TV+ IRV or Vital capacity +
Residual Volume.
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Exchanges of gases occur by simple diffusion due to pressure/ concentration
gradient, solubility of the gases and thickness of membrane.
Pressure contributed by individual gas in a mixture of gas is called partial
pressure represented by, pCO₂ and p0₂.
Partial pressure of Oxygen and carbon dioxide at different part involved in
diffusion varies from one part to another and moves from higher partial
pressure to lower partial pressure.
Solubility of CO₂ is 20-25 times more than solubility of 0₂, so CO₂ diffuse
much faster through membrane.
Diffusion membrane is three layered thick, that is alveolar squamous
epithelium, endothelium of alveolar capillaries and basement substance
between them. (less than 1 mm thickness).
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Blood is the medium of transport for CO₂ and 0₂.
97% of oxygen is transported through RBC and remaining 3% by blood plasma.
20-25% of CO₂ is transported by RBC, 70% as bicarbonate and rest 7% in dissolved
state by blood plasma.
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the video (Click here) GRAPH
Oxygen Transportation: In the bloodstream,
oxygen is primarily carried by red blood cells
(RBCs), with about 97% binding to the iron-
containing pigment hemoglobin, forming
oxyhemoglobin.
The remaining 3% of oxygen is transported
dissolved in plasma. Hemoglobin has four iron
-containing parts, allowing each molecule to
bind with four oxygen molecules.
The binding of oxygen to hemoglobin is
influenced by factors such as carbon dioxide
partial pressure, hydrogen ion concentration,
and temperature.
The relationship between hemoglobin saturation and
oxygen partial pressure is depicted by the oxygen dissociation curve, which shows an S-
shaped curve.
In the alveoli, where oxygen partial pressure is high and carbon dioxide partial pressure
is low, oxyhemoglobin forms.
Conversely, in tissues with low oxygen partial pressure, high carbon dioxide partial
pressure, high hydrogen ion concentration, and higher temperature, oxygen dissociates
from hemoglobin, allowing oxygen to be released to the tissues.
Under normal conditions, 100 mL of oxygenated blood carries about 5 ml of oxygen.
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Carbon Dioxide Transportation: Carbon dioxide is transported in various forms in the
blood. Approximately 20-25% is carried by hemoglobin as carbamino-hemoglobin,
proportional to carbon dioxide partial pressure. Carbon dioxide binding to hemoglobin
is influenced by oxygen partial pressure, with more binding occurring in tissues where
carbon dioxide partial pressure is high and oxygen partial pressure is low.
When carbon dioxide partial pressure is low and oxygen partial pressure is
high, as in the alveoli, carbon dioxide dissociates from carbamino-hemoglobin.
The majority of carbon dioxide (about 70%) is converted into bicarbonate ions by the
enzyme carbonic anhydrase abundant in red blood cells. This enzyme is responsible
for the conversion of carbon dioxide into bicarbonate ions, which can easily move
from tissues to the alveoli for elimination. Additionally, about 7% of carbon dioxide is
transported dissolved in plasma, while the remaining 5-7% is transported bound to
hemoglobin.
The enzyme - carbonic anhydrase is present in high concentration in the RBCs. Small
amounts of this enzyme are also present in plasma. This enzyme catalyzes the
following reaction in both directions: +
-
CO₂ + H₂O ⇿ HCO₃ + H
The partial pressure of CO₂ is high in the tissues due to catabolism. Here, CO₂
- +
diffuses into the blood (plasma and RBCs) and gives rise to HCO₃ and H. The reaction
takes place in the opposite direction in the alveoli where the pCO₂ is low, leading to
the formation of CO₂ and H₂0. Thus, at the tissue level, CO₂ is trapped as
bicarbonate, transported to the alveoli and released as CO₂. Under normal
physiological conditions, every 100 ml of deoxygenated blood delivers about 4 ml of
CO₂ to the alveoli.
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Human beings have ability to maintain and moderate the rate of respiration to fulfill
the demand of body tissues by neural system.
Respiratory rhythm centre is located in medulla region of hind brain. Pneumotaxic
centre in pons moderate the function of respiratory rhythm centre.
Chemo-sensitive area near rhythm centre is highly sensitive to CO₂ and H+ ions that
ultimately control the respiratory rate. Oxygen do not play major role in controlling
rate of respiration.
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Asthma
It is a chronic disorder that affects both children and adults.
Causes
It occurs due to allergic reactions that affect the respiratory tract.
Allergens that cause reactions can be pollen, dust, dust mites, dander, feathers,
animal fur, smoke and fumes etc.
Symptoms
Difficulty in breathing due to inflammation (swelling and redness of bronchi and
bronchioles) Coughing and wheezing.
Emphysema
The inflation or abnormal distension of the bronchioles or alveolar
sacs of lungs. This occurs due to destroying of septa between alveolI
Causes
Chronic smoking is a major cause Secondary smoking or inhalation of toxic INSPIRE!!
substances for a long period of time.
Symptoms
The walls of alveoli are damaged.
Loss of elasticity of walls of bronchioles and alveoli leads to reduction of surface area
for gaseous exchange.
Lungs remain inflated(hyperinflated) as exhalation becomes difficult
Occupational Respiratory Disorders-occurs due to occupation of individual.
This is caused by inhalation of gas, fumes or dust present in surrounding of work
place. This includes Silicosis, Asbestoses due to exposer of silica and asbestos. The
symptom includes proliferation of fibrous connective tissue of upper part of lung
causing inflammation.
ques. Write a note on the mechanism of breathing.
Ans. Inspiration - It is inducted by the diaphragm contraction that raises the volume of
the thoracic chamber in the anteroposterior axis. The inter-costal muscles contracts
causing external protrusion of the sternum and ribs resulting in an increment in the
volume of the thoracic chamber in the dorsoventral axis. This increase in the thoracic
volume results in a similar increase in pulmonary volume causing reduced
intrapulmonary pressure to lesser than the atmospheric pressure which results in
inspiration.
b) Expiration - The inter-costal muscles reverse the sternum and diaphragm to their
original positions with the diaphragm relaxing, which decreases the thoracic volume and
hence the pulmonary volume. Expulsion of air occurs as the intra-pulmonary pressure
increases to a level somewhat above the atmospheric pressure causing expiration.
ques. Name the organs of respiration in cockroach, earthworm and birds.
Ans. Cockroaches respire through small openings on the sides of its body called
spiracles. Earthworm respire through the skin. Birds respire through the lungs.
ques. Write the various modes of transportation of carbon dioxide in the blood.
Ans. It is carried in the blood in three forms:
Dissolved state under normal pressure and temperature, 7% of CO₂ is transported by
physical solution. As carbamino compounds, carbon dioxide directly combines with Hb to
form an unstable compound, the carbamino compounds as bicarbonate ions
ques. Explain why the diffusion of carbon dioxide by the diffusion membrane per unit
difference in partial pressure is much greater compared to oxygen.
Ans. The solubility rate of CO₂ is 22-25 times more than oxygen.
