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 CAMBRIDGE STUDIES IN ADVANCED MATHEMATICS
Editorial Board
B. Bollobas, W. Fulton, A. Katok, F. Kirwan, P. Sarnak, B. Simon, B. Totaro

AUTOMORPHIC FORMS AND L-FUNCTIONS FOR

THE GROUP GL (n, R)

L-functions associated with automorphic forms encode all classical num-

ber theoretic information. They are akin to elementary particles in physics.
This book provides an entirely self-contained introduction to the theory of
L-functions in a style accessible to graduate students with a basic knowledge
of classical analysis, complex variable theory, and algebra. Also within the
volume are many new results not yet found in the literature. The exposition
provides complete detailed proofs of results in an easy-to-read format using
many examples and without the need to know and remember many complex
definitions. The main themes of the book are first worked out for GL(2,R) and
GL(3,R), and then for the general case of GL(n,R). In an appendix to the book,
a set of Mathematica® functions is presented, designed to allow the reader to
explore the theory from a computational point of view.
CAMBRIDGE STUDIES IN ADVANCED MATHEMATICS
Editorial Board:
B. Bollobas, W. Fulton, A. Katok, F. Kirwan, P. Sarnak, B. Simon, B. Totaro
Already published
30 D.J. Benson Representations and cohomology I
31 D.J. Benson Representations and cohomology II
32 C. Allday & V. Puppe Cohomological methods in transformation groups
33 C. Soule et al. Lectures on Arakelov geometry
34 A. Ambrosetti & G. Prodi A primer of nonlinear analysis
35 J. Palis & F. Takens Hyperbolicity, stability and chaos at homoclinic bifurcations
37 Y. Meyer Wavelets and operators I
38 C. Weibel An introduction to homological algebra
39 W. Bruns & J. Herzog Cohen-Macaulay rings
40 V. Snaith Explicit Brauer induction
41 G. Laumon Cohomology of Drinfeld modular varieties I
42 E.B. Davies Spectral theory and differential operators
43 J. Diestel, H. Jarchow, & A. Tonge Absolutely summing operators
44 P. Mattila Geometry of sets and measures in Euclidean spaces
45 R. Pinsky Positive harmonic functions and diffusion
46 G. Tenenbaum Introduction to analytic and probabilistic number theory
47 C. Peskine An algebraic introduction to complex projective geometry
48 Y. Meyer & R. Coifman Wavelets
49 R. Stanley Enumerative combinatorics I
50 I. Porteous Clifford algebras and the classical groups
51 M. Audin Spinning tops
52 V. Jurdjevic Geometric control theory
53 H. Volklein Groups as Galois groups
54 J. Le Potier Lectures on vector bundles
55 D. Bump Automorphic forms and representations
56 G. Laumon Cohomology of Drinfeld modular varieties II
57 D.M. Clark & B.A. Davey Natural dualities for the working algebraist
58 J. McCleary A user’s guide to spectral sequences II
59 P. Taylor Practical foundations of mathematics
60 M.P. Brodmann & R.Y. Sharp Local cohomology
61 J.D. Dixon et al. Analytic pro-P groups
62 R. Stanley Enumerative combinatorics II
63 R.M. Dudley Uniform central limit theorems
64 J. Jost & X. Li-Jost Calculus of variations
65 A.J. Berrick & M.E. Keating An introduction to rings and modules
66 S. Morosawa Holomorphic dynamics
67 A.J. Berrick & M.E. Keating Categories and modules with K-theory in view
68 K. Sato Levy processes and infinitely divisible distributions
69 H. Hida Modular forms and Galois cohomology
70 R. Iorio & V. Iorio Fourier analysis and partial differential equations
71 R. Blei Analysis in integer and fractional dimensions
72 F. Borceaux & G. Janelidze Galois theories
73 B. Bollobas Random graphs
74 R.M. Dudley Real analysis and probability
75 T. Sheil-Small Complex polynomials
76 C. Voisin Hodge theory and complex algebraic geometry I
77 C. Voisin Hodge theory and complex algebraic geometry II
78 V. Paulsen Completely bounded maps and operator algebras
79 F. Gesztesy & H. Holden Soliton Equations and their Algebro-Geometric Solutions Volume 1
81 Shigeru Mukai An Introduction to Invariants and Moduli
82 G. Tourlakis Lectures in logic and set theory I
83 G. Tourlakis Lectures in logic and set theory II
84 R.A. Bailey Association Schemes
85 James Carlson, Stefan Müller-Stach, & Chris Peters Period Mappings and Period Domains
86 J.J. Duistermaat & J.A.C. Kolk Multidimensional Real Analysis I
87 J.J. Duistermaat & J.A.C. Kolk Multidimensional Real Analysis II
89 M. Golumbic & A.N. Trenk Tolerance Graphs
90 L.H. Harper Global Methods for Combinatorial Isoperimetric Problems
91 I. Moerdijk & J. Mrcun Introduction to Foliations and Lie Groupoids
92 János Kollár, Karen E. Smith, & Alessio Corti Rational and Nearly Rational Varieties
93 David Applebaum Lévy Processes and Stochastic Calculus
95 Martin Schechter An Introduction to Nonlinear Analysis

See http:www.cambridge.org for a complete list of books available in this series

Automorphic Forms and L-Functions for
the Group GL (n, R)

DORIAN GOLDFELD
Columbia University

With an Appendix by Kevin A. Broughan

University of Waikato
  
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo

Cambridge University Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge  , UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521837712

© D. Goldfeld 2006

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of

relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place
without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published in print format 2006

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Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of s
for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not
guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
Dedicated to Ada, Dahlia, and Iris
 Contents

Introduction page xi
1 Discrete group actions 1
1.1 Action of a group on a topological space 3
1.2 Iwasawa decomposition 8
1.3 Siegel sets 15
1.4 Haar measure 19
1.5 Invariant measure on coset spaces 23
1.6 Volume of S L(n, Z)\S L(n, R)/S O(n, R) 27
2 Invariant differential operators 38
2.1 Lie algebras 39
2.2 Universal enveloping algebra of gl(n, R) 42
2.3 The center of the universal enveloping algebra of gl(n, R) 46
2.4 Eigenfunctions of invariant differential operators 50
3 Automorphic forms and L–functions for S L(2, Z) 54
3.1 Eisenstein series 55
3.2 Hyperbolic Fourier expansion of Eisenstein series 59
3.3 Maass forms 62
3.4 Whittaker expansions and multiplicity one for G L(2, R) 63
3.5 Fourier–Whittaker expansions on G L(2, R) 67
3.6 Ramanujan–Petersson conjecture 68
3.7 Selberg eigenvalue conjecture 70
3.8 Finite dimensionality of the eigenspaces 71
3.9 Even and odd Maass forms 73
3.10 Hecke operators 74
3.11 Hermite and Smith normal forms 77
3.12 Hecke operators for L2 (S L(2, Z))\h2 80

vii
viii Contents

3.13 L–functions associated to Maass forms 84

3.14 L-functions associated to Eisenstein series 89
3.15 Converse theorems for S L(2, Z) 91
3.16 The Selberg spectral decomposition 94
4 Existence of Maass forms 99
4.1 The infinitude of odd Maass forms for S L(2, Z) 100
4.2 Integral operators 101
4.3 The endomorphism ♥ 105
4.4 How to interpret ♥: an explicit operator with purely
cuspidal image 106
4.5 There exist infinitely many even cusp forms for S L(2, Z) 108
4.6 A weak Weyl law 110
4.7 Interpretation via wave equation and the role of finite
propagation speed 111
4.8 Interpretation via wave equation: higher rank case 111
5 Maass forms and Whittaker functions for S L(n, Z) 114
5.1 Maass forms 114
5.2 Whittaker functions associated to Maass forms 116
5.3 Fourier expansions on S L(n, Z)\hn 118
5.4 Whittaker functions for S L(n, R) 128
5.5 Jacquet’s Whittaker function 129
5.6 The exterior power of a vector space 134
5.7 Construction of the Iν function using wedge products 138
5.8 Convergence of Jacquet’s Whittaker function 141
5.9 Functional equations of Jacquet’s Whittaker function 144
5.10 Degenerate Whittaker functions 150
6 Automorphic forms and L-functions for S L(3, Z) 153
6.1 Whittaker functions and multiplicity one for S L(3, Z) 153
6.2 Maass forms for S L(3, Z) 159
6.3 The dual and symmetric Maass forms 161
6.4 Hecke operators for S L(3, Z) 163
6.5 The Godement–Jacquet L-function 172
6.6 Bump’s double Dirichlet series 186
7 The Gelbart–Jacquet lift 194
7.1 Converse theorem for S L(3, Z) 194
7.2 Rankin–Selberg convolution for GL(2) 210
7.3 Statement and proof of the Gelbart–Jacquet lift 213
7.4 Rankin–Selberg convolution for G L(3) 223
 Contents ix

8 Bounds for L-functions and Siegel zeros 235

8.1 The Selberg class 235
8.2 Convexity bounds for the Selberg class 238
8.3 Approximate functional equations 241
8.4 Siegel zeros in the Selberg class 245
8.5 Siegel’s theorem 249
8.6 The Siegel zero lemma 251
8.7 Non-existence of Siegel zeros for Gelbart–Jacquet lifts 252
8.8 Non-existence of Siegel zeros on G L(n) 256
9 The Godement–Jacquet L-function 259
9.1 Maass forms for S L(n, Z) 259
9.2 The dual and symmetric Maass forms 261
9.3 Hecke operators for S L(n, Z) 266
9.4 The Godement–Jacquet L-function 277
10 Langlands Eisenstein series 285
10.1 Parabolic subgroups 286
10.2 Langlands decomposition of parabolic subgroups 288
10.3 Bruhat decomposition 292
10.4 Minimal, maximal, and general parabolic Eisenstein series 295
10.5 Eisenstein series twisted by Maass forms 301
10.6 Fourier expansion of minimal parabolic Eisenstein series 303
10.7 Meromorphic continuation and functional equation of
maximal parabolic Eisenstein series 307
10.8 The L-function associated to a minimal parabolic
Eisenstein series 310
10.9 Fourier coefficients of Eisenstein series twisted by
Maass forms 315
10.10 The constant term 319
10.11 The constant term of S L(3, Z) Eisenstein series twisted by
S L(2, Z)-Maass forms 321
10.12 An application of the theory of Eisenstein series to the
non-vanishing of L-functions on the line ℜ(s) = 1 322
10.13 Langlands spectral decomposition for S L(3, Z)\h3 324
11 Poincaré series and Kloosterman sums 337
11.1 Poincaré series for S L(n, Z) 337
11.2 Kloosterman sums 339
11.3 Plücker coordinates and the evaluation of Kloosterman sums 343
11.4 Properties of Kloosterman sums 350
x Contents

11.5 Fourier expansion of Poincaré series 352

11.6 Kuznetsov’s trace formula for S L(n, Z) 354
12 Rankin–Selberg convolutions 365
12.1 The GL(n) × GL(n) convolution 366
12.2 The GL(n) × GL(n + 1) convolution 372
12.3 The G L(n) × G L(n ′ ) convolution with n < n ′ 376
12.4 Generalized Ramanujan conjecture 381
12.5 The Luo–Rudnick–Sarnak bound for the generalized
Ramanujan conjecture 384
12.6 Strong multiplicity one theorem 393
13 Langlands conjectures 395
13.1 Artin L-functions 397
13.2 Langlands functoriality 402

List of symbols 407

Appendix The GL(n)pack Manual Kevin A. Broughan 409
A.1 Introduction 409
A.2 Functions for GL(n)pack 413
A.3 Function descriptions and examples 416
References 473
Index 485
 Introduction

The theory of automorphic forms and L-functions for the group of n × n invert-
ible real matrices (denoted G L(n, R)) with n ≥ 3 is a relatively new subject.
The current literature is rife with 150+ page papers requiring knowledge of a
large breadth of modern mathematics making it difficult for a novice to begin
working in the subject. The main aim of this book is to provide an essentially
self-contained introduction to the subject that can be read by someone with a
mathematical background consisting only of classical analysis, complex vari-
able theory, and basic algebra – groups, rings, fields. Preparation in selected
topics from advanced linear algebra (such as wedge products) and from the
theory of differential forms would be helpful, but is not strictly necessary for
a successful reading of the text. Any Lie or representation theory required is
developed from first principles.
This is a low definition text which means that it is not necessary for the reader
to memorize a large number of definitions. While there are many definitions,
they are repeated over and over again; in fact, the book is designed so that a
reader can open to almost any page and understand the material at hand without
having to backtrack and awkwardly hunt for definitions of symbols and terms.
The philosophy of the exposition is to demonstrate the theory by simple, fully
worked out examples. Thus, the book is restricted to the action of the discrete
group S L(n, Z) (the group of invertible n × n matrices with integer coefficients)
acting on G L(n, R). The main themes are first developed for S L(2, Z) then
repeated again for S L(3, Z), and yet again repeated in the more general case of
S L(n, Z) with n ≥ 2 arbitrary. All of the proofs are carefully worked out over
the real numbers R, but the knowledgeable reader will see that the proofs will
generalize to any local field. In line with the philosophy of understanding by
simple example, we have avoided the use of adeles, and as much as possible
the theory of representations of Lie groups. This very explicit language appears

xi
xii Introduction

particularly useful for analytic number theory where precise growth estimates
of L-functions and automorphic forms play a major role.
The theory of L-functions and automorphic forms is an old subject with roots
going back to Gauss, Dirichlet, and Riemann. An L-function is a Dirichlet series
∞

an
n=1
ns
where the coefficients an , n = 1, 2, . . . , are interesting number theoretic func-
tions. A simple example is where an is the number of representations of n as a
sum of two squares. If we knew a lot about this series as an analytic function of
s then we would obtain deep knowledge about the statistical distribution of the
values of an . An automorphic form is a function that satisfies a certain differ-
ential equation and also satisfies a group of periodicity relations. An example
is given by the exponential function e2πi x which is periodic (i.e., it has the
same value if we transform x → x + 1) and it satisfies the differential equa-
2
tion ddx 2 e2πi x = −4π 2 e2πi x . In this example the group of periodicity relations
is just the infinite additive group of integers, denoted Z. Remarkably, a vast
theory has been developed exposing the relationship between L-functions and
automorphic forms associated to various infinite dimensional Lie groups such
as G L(n, R).
The choice of material covered is very much guided by the beautiful paper
(Jacquet, 1981), titled Dirichlet series for the group G L(n), a presentation of
which I heard in person in Bombay, 1979, where a classical outline of the theory
of L-functions for the group G L(n, R) is presented, but without any proofs. Our
aim has been to fill in the gaps and to give detailed proofs. Another motivating
factor has been the grand vision of Langlands’ philosophy wherein L-functions
are akin to elementary particles which can be combined in the same way as
one combines representations of Lie groups. The entire book builds upon this
underlying hidden theme which then explodes in the last chapter.
In the appendix a set of Mathematica functions is presented. These have
been designed to assist the reader to explore many of the concepts and results
contained in the chapters that go before. The software can be downloaded by
going to the website given in the appendix.
This book could not have been written without the help I have received from
many people. I am particularly grateful to Qiao Zhang for his painstaking read-
ing of the entire manuscript. Hervé Jacquet, Daniel Bump, and Adrian Diaconu
have provided invaluable help to me in clarifying many points in the theory.
I would also like to express my deep gratitude to Xiaoqing Li, Elon Linden-
strauss, Meera Thillainatesan, and Akshay Venkatesh for allowing me to include
their original material as sections in the text. I would like to especially thank
 Introduction xiii

Dan Bump, Kevin Broughan, Sol Friedberg, Jeff Hoffstein, Alex Kontorovich,
Wenzhi Luo, Carlos Moreno, Yannan Qiu, Ian Florian Sprung, C. J. Mozzochi,
Peter Sarnak, Freydoon Shahidi, Meera Thillainatesan, Qiao Zhang, Alberto
Perelli and Steve Miller, for clarifying and improving various proofs, defini-
tions, and historical remarks in the book. Finally, Kevin Broughan has provided
an invaluable service to the mathematical community by creating computer
code for many of the functions studied in this book.

Dorian Goldfeld
 1
Discrete group actions

The genesis of analytic number theory formally began with the epoch making
memoir of Riemann (1859) where he introduced the zeta function,
∞


ζ (s) := n −s , (ℜ(s) > 1),
n=1

and obtained its meromorphic continuation and functional equation

s    ∞
1−s du
π −s/2
Ŵ ζ (s) = π −(1−s)/2
Ŵ ζ (1 − s), Ŵ(s) = e−u u s .
2 2 u
0

Riemann showed that the Euler product representation

 
1 −1
ζ (s) = 1− s ,
p p

together with precise knowledge of the analytic behavior of ζ (s) could be used
to obtain deep information on the distribution of prime numbers.
One of Riemann’s original proofs of the functional equation is based on the
Poisson summation formula



f (ny) = y −1 fˆ(ny −1 ),
n∈Z n∈Z

where f is a function with rapid decay as y → ∞ and

 ∞
fˆ(y) = f (t)e−2πit y dt,
−∞

is the Fourier transform of f . This is proved by expanding the periodic function

F(x) = f (x + n)
n∈Z

1
2 Discrete group actions

in a Fourier series. If f is an even function, the Poisson summation formula

may be rewritten as
∞ ∞


1
f (ny −1 ) = y fˆ(ny) − (y fˆ(0) − f (0)),
n=1 n=1
2

from which it follows that for ℜ(s) > 1,

 ∞  ∞
∞
dy dy
ζ (s) f (y)y s = f (ny)y s
0 y 0 n=1
y
 ∞
∞
 dy
= f (ny)y s + f (ny −1 )y −s
1 n=1
y
 ∞
∞
 dy 1 f (0) fˆ(0)
= f (ny)y s + fˆ(ny)y 1−s − + .
1 n=1
y 2 s 1−s

If f (y) and fˆ(y) have sufficient decay as y → ∞, then the integral above
converges absolutely for all complex s and, therefore, defines an entire function
of s. Let
 ∞
dy
f˜(s) = f (y)y s
0 y
denote the Mellin transform of f , then we see from the above integral rep-
resentation and the fact that fˆˆ(y) = f (−y) = f (y) (for an even function f )
that

ζ (s) f˜(s) = ζ (1 − s) f˜ˆ (1 − s).

2
Choosing f (y) = e−π y , a function with the property that it is invariant under
Fourier transform, we obtain Riemann’s original form of the functional equa-
tion. This idea of introducing an arbitrary test function f in the proof of the
functional equation first appeared in Tate’s thesis (Tate, 1950).
A more profound understanding of the above proof did not emerge until
2
much later. If we choose f (y) = e−π y in the Poisson summation formula, then
since fˆ(y) = f (y), one observes that for y > 0,
∞ ∞

2
y 1
2
e−πn =√ e−π n /y .
n=−∞ y n=−∞

This identity is at the heart of the functional equation of the Riemann zeta
function, and is a known transformation formula for Jacobi’s theta function
∞

2
θ(z) = e2πin z ,
n=−∞
 1.1 Action of a group on a topological space 3

 
a b
where z = x + i y with x ∈ R and y > 0. If is a matrix with integer
c d
coefficients a, b, c, d satisfiying ad − bc = 1, c ≡ 0 (mod 4), c = 0, then the
Poisson summation formula can be used to obtain the more general transfor-
mation formula (Shimura, 1973)
 
az + b 1
θ = ǫd−1 χc (d)(cz + d) 2 θ(z).
cz + d
Here χc is the primitive character of order ≤ 2 corresponding to the field exten-
1
sion Q(c 2 )/Q,

1 if d ≡ 1 (mod 4)
ǫd =
i if d ≡ −1 (mod 4),
1
and (cz + d) 2 is the “principal determination” of the square root of cz + d, i.e.,
the one whose real part is > 0.
It is now well understood that underlying the functional equation of the
Riemann zeta function are the above transformation formulae for θ(z). These
transformation
  formulae are induced from the action of a group of matrices
a b
on the upper half-plane h = {x + i y | x ∈ R, y > 0} given by
c d
az + b
z→ .
cz + d
The concept of a group acting on a topological space appears to be absolutely
fundamental in analytic number theory and should be the starting point for any
serious investigations.

1.1 Action of a group on a topological space

Definition 1.1.1 Given a topological space X and a group G, we say that G
acts continuously on X (on the left) if there exists a map ◦ : G → Func(X → X )
(functions from X to X ), g → g◦ which satisfies:
r x → g ◦ x is a continuous function of x for all g ∈ G;
r g ◦ (g ′ ◦ x) = (g · g ′ ) ◦ x, for all g, g ′ ∈ G, x ∈ X where · denotes the
internal operation in the group G;
r e ◦ x = x, for all x ∈ X and e = identity element in G.

Example 1.1.2 Let G denote the additive group of integers Z. Then it is easy
to verify that the group Z acts continuously on the real numbers R with group
4 Discrete group actions

action ◦ defined by

n ◦ x := n + x,

for all n ∈ Z, x ∈ R. In this case e = 0.

+
Example
  1.1.3 Let G = G L(2, R) denote the group of 2 × 2 matrices
a b
with a, b, c, d ∈ R and determinant ad − bc > 0. Let
c d
 
h := x + i y  x ∈ R, y > 0
 
a b
denote the upper half-plane. For g = ∈ G L(2, R)+ and z ∈ h define:
c d

az + b
g ◦ z := .
cz + d
Since

az + b ac|z|2 + (ad + bc)x + bd (ad − bc) · y

= +i ·
cz + d |cz + d|2 |cz + d|2

it immediately follows that g ◦ z ∈ h. We leave as an exercise to the reader, the

verification that ◦ satisfies the additional axioms of a continuous action. One
usually extends this action to the larger space h∗ = h ∪ {∞}, by defining
 
a b a/c if c = 0,
◦∞=
c d ∞ if c = 0.

Assume that a group G acts continously on a topological space X . Two

elements x1 , x2 ∈ X are said to be equivalent (mod G) if there exists g ∈ G
such that x2 = g ◦ x1 . We define
 
Gx := g ◦ x  g ∈ G

to be the equivalence class or orbit of x, and let G\X denote the set of equiva-
lence classes.

Definition 1.1.4 Let a group G act continuously on a topological space X .

We say a subset Ŵ ⊂ G is discrete if for any two compact subsets A, B ⊂ X ,
there are only finitely many g ∈ Ŵ such that (g ◦ A) ∩ B = φ, where φ denotes
the empty set.
 1.1 Action of a group on a topological space 5

Example 1.1.5 The discrete subgroup S L(2, Z). Let

   
a b 
Ŵ = S L(2, Z) := a, b, c, d ∈ Z, ad − bc = 1 ,
c d 
and let
   
1 m 
m∈Z
Ŵ∞ :=
0 1 

be the subgroup of Ŵ whichfixes ∞. Note that Ŵ∞ \Ŵ is just a set of coset

a b
representatives of the form where for each pair of relatively prime
c d
integers (c, d) = 1 we choose a unique a, b satisfying ad − bc = 1. This fol-
lows immediately from the identity
     
1 m a b a + mc b + md
· = .
0 1 c d c d
The fact that S L(2, Z) is discrete will be deduced from the following lemma.
Lemma 1.1.6 Fix real numbers 0 < r, 0 < δ < 1. Let Rr,δ denote the
rectangle
 
Rr,δ = x + i y  − r ≤ x ≤ r, 0 < δ ≤ y ≤ δ −1 .
Then for every ǫ > 0, and any fixed set S of coset representatives for
Ŵ∞ \S L(2, Z), there are at most 4 + (4(r + 1)/ǫδ) elements g ∈ S such that
Im(g ◦ z) > ǫ holds for some z ∈ Rr,δ .
 
a b
Proof Let g = . Then for z ∈ Rr,δ ,
c d
y
Im(g ◦ z) = <ǫ
c2 y 2 + (cx + d)2
1 1 1
if |c| > (yǫ)− 2 . On the other hand, for |c| ≤ (yǫ)− 2 ≤ (δǫ)− 2 , we have
y
<ǫ
(cx + d)2
if the following inequalities hold:
1 1
|d| > |c|r + (yǫ −1 ) 2 ≥ |c|r + (ǫδ)− 2 .
Consequently, Im(g ◦ z) > ǫ only if
1 1
|c| ≤ (δǫ)− 2 and |d| ≤ (ǫδ)− 2 (r + 1),
and the total number of such pairs (not counting (c, d) = (0, ±1), (±1, 0)) is at
most 4(ǫδ)−1 (r + 1).

6 Discrete group actions

It follows from Lemma 1.1.6 that Ŵ = S L(2, Z) is a discrete subgroup of

S L(2, R). This is because:

(1) it is enough to show that for any compact subset A ⊂ h there are only
finitely many g ∈ S L(2, Z) such that (g ◦ A) ∩ A = φ;
(2) every compact subset of A ⊂ h is contained in a rectangle Rr,δ for some
r > 0 and 0 < δ < δ −1 ;
(3) ((αg) ◦ Rr,δ ) ∩ Rr,δ = φ, except for finitely many α ∈ Ŵ∞ , g ∈ Ŵ∞ \Ŵ.

To prove (3), note that Lemma 1.1.6 implies that (g ◦ Rr,δ ) ∩ Rr,δ = φ except
for finitely many g ∈ Ŵ∞ \Ŵ. Let S ⊂ Ŵ∞ \Ŵ denote this finite set of such ele-
ments g. If g ∈ S, then Lemma 1.1.6 tells us that it is because Im(gz) < δ for all
z ∈ Rr,δ . Since Im(αgz) = Im(gz) for α ∈ Ŵ∞ , it is enough to show that for each
g ∈ S, there are only finitely many α ∈ Ŵ∞ such that ((αg) ◦ Rr,δ ) ∩ Rr,δ = φ.
This last statement follows from the fact that g ◦ Rr,δ itself
 lies in some other
1 m
rectangle Rr ′ ,δ′ , and every α ∈ Ŵ∞ is of the form α = (m ∈ Z), so
0 1
that
 −1 
α ◦ Rr ′ ,δ′ = x + i y  − r ′ + m ≤ x ≤ r ′ + m, 0 < δ ′ ≤ δ ′ ,

which implies (α ◦ Rr ′ ,δ′ ) ∩ Rr,δ = φ for |m| sufficiently large.

Definition 1.1.7 Suppose the group G acts continuously on a connected topo-

logical space X . A fundamental domain for G\X is a connected region D ⊂ X
such that every x ∈ X is equivalent (mod G) to a point in D and such that no
two points in D are equivalent to each other.

Example 1.1.8 A fundamental domain for the action of Z on R of

Example 1.1.2 is given by

Z\R = {0 ≤ x < 1 | x ∈ R}.

The proof of this is left as an easy exercise for the reader.

Example 1.1.9 A fundamental domain for S L(2, Z)\h can be given as the
region D ⊂ h where
  
 1 1
D = z  − ≤ Re(z) ≤ , |z| ≥ 1 ,

2 2

with congruent boundary points symmetric with respect to the imaginary axis.
 1.1 Action of a group on a topological space 7

-1 -1/2 0 1/2 1

 √ 
Note that the vertical line V ′ := − 21 + i y  y ≥ 23 is equivalent to the
 √ 
vertical line V := 21 + i y  y ≥ 23 under the transformation
 z → z + 1.
′ 1
Furthermore, the arc A :=  z − 2 ≤ Re(z) < 0, |z| = 1 is equivalent to

the reflected arc A := z  0 < Re(z) ≤ 1 , |z| = 1 , under the transformation
2
z → −1/z. To show that D is a fundamental domain, we must prove:

(1) For any z ∈ h, there exists g ∈ S L(2, Z) such that g ◦ z ∈ D;

(2) If two distinct points z, z ′ ∈ D are congruent (mod S L(2, Z)) then
Re(z) = ± 21 and z ′ = z ± 1, or |z| = 1 and z ′ = −1/z.

We first prove (1). Fix z ∈ h. It follows from Lemma 1.1.6 that for every
ǫ > 0, there are at most finitely many g ∈ S L(2, Z) such that g ◦ z lies in the
strip
  
 1 1
Dǫ := w  − ≤ Re(w) ≤ , ǫ ≤ Im(w) .
2 2

Let Bǫ denote the finite set of such g ∈ S L(2, Z). Clearly, for sufficiently small
ǫ, the set Bǫ contains at least one element. We will show that there is at least
one g ∈ Bǫ such that g ◦ z ∈ D. Among these finitely many g ∈ Bǫ ,choose one 
0 −1
such that Im(g ◦ z) is maximal in Dǫ . If |g ◦ z| < 1, then for S = ,
1 0
8 Discrete group actions

 
1 1
T = , and any m ∈ Z,
0 1
 
m −1 Im(g ◦ z)
Im(T Sg ◦ z) = Im = > Im(g ◦ z).
g◦z |g ◦ z|2
This is a contradiction because we can always choose m so that T m Sg ◦ z ∈ Dǫ .
So in fact, g ◦ z must be in D.
To complete the verification that D is a fundamental
  domain, it only remains
a b
to prove the assertion (2). Let z ∈ D, g = ∈ S L(2, Z), and assume
c d
that g ◦ z ∈ D. Without loss of generality, we may assume that
y
Im(g ◦ z) = ≥ Im(z),
|cz + d|2
(otherwise just interchange z and g ◦ z and√ use g −1 ). This implies that
|cz + d| ≤ 1 which implies that 1 ≥ |cy| ≥ 23 |c|. This is clearly impossi-
ble if |c| ≥ 2. So we only have to consider the cases c = 0, ±1. If c = 0
then d = ±1 and g is a translation by b. Since − 21 ≤ Re(z), Re(g ◦ z) ≤ 12 ,
this implies that either b = 0 and z = g ◦ z or else b = ±1 and Re(z) = ± 12
while Re(g ◦ z) = ∓ 12 . If c = 1, then |z + d| ≤ 1 implies that d = 0 unless
z = e2πi/3 and d = 0, 1 or z = eπi/3 and d = 0, −1. The case d = 0 implies
that |z| ≤ 1 which implies |z| = 1. Also, in this case, c = 1, d = 0, we
must have b = −1 because ad − bc = 1. Then g ◦ z = a − 1z . It follows that
a = 0. If z = e2πi/3 and d = 1, then we must have a − b = 1. It follows that
g ◦ e2πi/3 = a − 1+e12πi/3 = a + e2πi/3 , which implies that a = 0 or 1. A similar
argument holds when z = eπi/3 and d = −1. Finally, the case c = −1 can be
reduced to the previous case c = 1 by reversing the signs of a, b, c, d.

1.2 Iwasawa decomposition

This monograph focusses on the general linear group G L(n, R) with n ≥ 2.
This is the multiplicative group of all n × n matrices with coefficients in R
and non-zero determinant. We will show that every matrix in G L(n, R) can be
written as an upper triangular matrix times an orthogonal matrix. This is called
the Iwasawa decomposition (Iwasawa, 1949).
The Iwasawa decomposition, in the special case of G L(2, R), states that
every g ∈ G L(2, R) can be written in the form:
   
y x α β d 0
g= (1.2.1)
0 1 γ δ 0 d
 1.2 Iwasawa decomposition 9

where y > 0, x, d ∈ R with d = 0 and

 
α β
∈ O(2, R),
γ δ
where
 
O(n, R) = g ∈ G L(n, R)  g · gt = I
t
is the orthogonal group. Here I denotes the identity
 matrix on G L(n, R) and g
y x
denotes the transpose of the matrix g. The matrix in the decomposition
0 1
 
α β
(1.2.1) is actually uniquely determined. Furthermore, the matrices
γ δ
   
d 0 ±1 0
and are uniquely determined up to multiplication by .
0 d 0 ±1
Note that explicitly,
   
± cos t − sin t 
O(2, R) = 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π .
± sin t cos t 

We shall shortly give a detailed proof of (1.2.1) for G L(n, R) with n ≥ 2.

The decomposition (1.2.1) allows us to realize the upper half-plane
 
h = x + i y  x ∈ R, y > 0

as the set of two by two matrices of type

   
y x 
x ∈ R, y > 0 ,
0 1 
or by the isomorphism
 
h ≡ G L(2, R) O(2, R), Z 2 , (1.2.2)

where
⎧⎛ ⎞  ⎫
⎨ d 0
⎪  ⎪
 ⎬
⎜
Zn = ⎝ .. ⎟ 
⎠  d ∈ R, d = 0
⎪ .  ⎪
⎩ ⎭
0 d 

is the center of G L(n, R), and O(2, R), Z 2  denotes the group generated by
O(2, R) and Z 2 .
The isomorphism (1.2.2) is the starting point for generalizing the classical
theory of modular forms on G L(2, R) to G L(n, R) with n > 2. Accordingly,
we define the generalized upper half-plane hn associated to G L(n, R).
10 Discrete group actions

Definition 1.2.3 Let n ≥ 2. The generalized upper half-plane hn associated

to G L(n, R) is defined to be the set of all n × n matrices of the form z = x · y
where
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ′ ⎞
1 x1,2 x1,3 · · · x1,n yn−1
′
⎜
⎜ 1 x2,3 · · · x2,n ⎟ ⎟
⎜
⎜ yn−2 ⎟
⎟
x =⎜
⎜ . .. . ⎟
.. ⎟ , y=⎜
⎜ . .. ⎟
⎟,
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
′
⎝ 1 xn−1,n ⎠ ⎝
1y ⎠
1 1
yi′
with xi, j ∈ R for 1 ≤ i < j ≤ n and > 0 for 1 ≤ i ≤ n − 1.
To simplify later formulae and notation in this book, we will always express
y in the form:
⎛ ⎞
y1 y2 · · · yn−1
⎜
⎜ y1 y2 · · · yn−2 ⎟
⎟
y=⎜
⎜ .. ⎟
⎟,
⎜ . ⎟
⎝ y1 ⎠
1
with yi > 0 for 1 ≤ i ≤ n − 1. Note that this can always be done since yi′ = 0
for 1 ≤ i ≤ n − 1.
Explicitly, x is an upper triangular matrix with 1s on the diagonal and y
is a diagonal matrix beginning with a 1 in the lowest right entry. Note that x
is parameterized by n · (n − 1)/2 real variables xi, j and y is parameterized by
n − 1 positive real variables yi .
Example 1.2.4 The generalized upper half plane h3 is the set of all matrices
z = x · y with
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1 x1,2 x1,3 y1 y2 0 0
x = ⎝0 1 x2,3 ⎠ , y=⎝ 0 y1 0⎠,
0 0 1 0 0 1
where x1,2 , x1,3 , x2,3 ∈ R, y1 , y2 > 0. Explicitly, every z ∈ h3 can be written
in the form
⎛ ⎞
y1 y2 x1,2 y1 x1,3
z=⎝ 0 y1 x2,3 ⎠ .
0 0 1
Remark 1.2.5 The generalized upper half-plane h3 does not have a com-
plex structure. Thus h3 is quite different from h2 , which does have a complex
structure.
 1.2 Iwasawa decomposition 11

Proposition 1.2.6 Fix n ≥ 2. Then we have the Iwasawa decomposition:

G L(n, R) = hn · O(n, R) · Z n ,
i.e., every g ∈ G L(n, R) may be expressed in the form

g = z · k · d, (· denotes matrix multiplication)

where z ∈ hn is uniquely determined, k ∈ O(n, R), and d ∈ Z n is a non-zero

diagonal matrix which lies in the center of G L(n, R). Further, k and d are also
uniquely determined up to multiplication by ±I where I is the identity matrix
on G L(n, R).

Remark Note that for every n = 1, 2, 3, . . . , we have Z n ∼

= R× . We shall,
henceforth, write
hn ∼
= G L(n, R)/(O(n, R) · R× ).

Proof Let g ∈ G L(n, R). Then g · tg is a positive definite non–singular

matrix. We claim there exists u, ℓ ∈ G L(n, R), where u is upper triangular with
1s on the diagonal and ℓ is lower triangular with 1s on the diagonal, such that

u · g · tg = ℓ · d (1.2.7)

with
⎛ ⎞
d1
⎜
d=⎝ .. ⎟
⎠, d1 , . . . , dn > 0.
.
dn
 
a b
For example, consider n = 2, and g = . Then
c d
     
t a b a c a 2 + b2 ac + bd
g· g= · = .
c d b d ac + bd c2 + d 2
 
1 t
If we set u = , then u satisfies (1.2.7) if
0 1
   2   
1 t a + b2 ac + bd ∗ 0
· = ,
0 1 ac + bd c2 + d 2 ∗ ∗

so that we may take t = (−ac − bd)/(c2 + d 2 ). More generally, the upper

triangular matrix u will have n(n − 1)/2 free variables, and we will have to
12 Discrete group actions

solve n(n − 1)/2 equations to satisfy (1.2.7). This system of linear equations
has a unique solution because its matrix g · tg is non–singular.
It immediately follows from (1.2.7) that u −1 ℓd = g · tg = d · t ℓ(t u)−1 , or
equivalently

t
d · t ℓ%
"ℓ · d#$· u% = "u · #$ = d.
lower △ upper △

The above follows from the fact that a lower triangular matrix can only equal an
upper triangular matrix if it is diagonal, and that this diagonal matrix must be
d by comparing diagonal entries. The entries di > 0 because g · tg is positive
definite.
Consequently ℓd = d(t u)−1 . Substituting this into (1.2.7) gives

u · g · tg · t u = d = a −1 · (t a)−1

for
⎛ − 21
⎞
d1
⎜ .. ⎟
a=⎜
⎝ . ⎟.
⎠
− 12
dn

Hence aug · (tg · t u · t a) = I so that aug ∈ O(n, R). Thus, we have expressed
g in the form

g = (au)−1 · (aug),

from which the Iwasawa decomposition immediately follows after dividing and
−1
multiplying by the scalar dn 2 to arrange the bottom right entry of (au)−1 to
be 1.
It only remains to show the uniqueness of the Iwasawa decomposition.
Suppose that zkd = z ′ k ′ d ′ with z, z ′ ∈ hn , k, k ′ ∈ O(n, R), d, d ′ ∈ Z n . Then,
since the only matrices in hn and O(n, R) which lie in Z n are ±I where I is the
identity matrix, it follows that d ′ = ±d. Further, the only matrix in hn ∩ O(n, R)
is I . Consequently z = z ′ and k = ±k ′ .

We shall now work out some important instances of the Iwasawa decompo-
sition which will be useful later.
 1.2 Iwasawa decomposition 13

Proposition 1.2.8 Let I denote the identity matrix on G L(n, R), and for every
1 ≤ j < i ≤ n, let E i, j denote the matrix with a 1 at the {i, j}th position and
zeros elsewhere. Then, for an arbitrary real number t, we have
⎛ ⎞
1
⎜ . ⎟
⎜ .. ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 1 t ⎟
⎜ 1 ··· 2 1 ⎟
⎜ (t 2 + 1) 2 (t + 1) 2 ⎟ 
⎜
I + t E i, j = ⎜ .. .. ⎟ mod (O(n, R) · R× ) ,
⎟
⎜ . . ⎟
⎜ 1 ⎟
⎜ (t 2 + 1) 2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ .. ⎟
⎝ . ⎠
1

1 1
where, in the above matrix, 1 occurs at position { j, j}, (t 2 + 1) 2 occurs
(t 2 + 1) 2
t
at position {i, i}, all other diagonal entries are ones, 1 occurs at position
(t 2 + 1) 2
{ j, i}, and, otherwise, all other entries are zero.

Proof Let g = I + t E i, j . Then

g · tg = (I + t E i, j ) · (I + t E j,i ) = I + t E i, j + t E j,i + t 2 E i,i .

If we define a matrix u = I − (t/(t 2 + 1))E j,i , then u · g · tg · t u must be a

diagonal matrix d. Setting d = a −1 · (t a)−1 , we may directly compute:

t2
u · g · tg · t u = I + t 2 E i,i − E j, j ,
t2 +1
t
u −1 = I + E j,i ,
t2 + 1
 
1 &
a −1 =I+ √ − 1 E j, j + t 2 + 1 − 1 E i,i .
t2 + 1

Therefore,
 
1 & t
u −1 a −1 = I + √ − 1 E j, j + t 2 + 1 − 1 E i,i + √ E j,i .
2
t +1 2
t +1

As in the proof of Proposition 1.2.6, we have g = u −1 · a −1

(mod (O(n, R), R× )).

14 Discrete group actions

Proposition 1.2.9 Let n ≥ 2, and let z = x y ∈ hn have the form given in

Definition 1.2.3. For i = 1, 2, . . . , n − 1, define
⎛ ⎞
1
⎜ .. ⎟
⎜
⎜ . ⎟
⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 0 1 ⎟
ωi = ⎜ ⎟,
⎜ 1 0 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ .. ⎟
⎝ . ⎠
1

to be 
the n ×n identity matrix except for the ith and (i + 1)th rows where we
0 1
have on the diagonal. Then
1 0
⎛ ′ ′ ′ ⎞⎛ ⎞
1 x1,2 x1,3 ··· x1,n y1′ y2′ · · · yn−1
′
′ ′
⎜
⎜ 1 x2,3 ··· x2,n ⎟⎜
⎟⎜
′
y1′ y2′ · · · yn−2 ⎟
⎟
⎜
ωi z ≡ ⎜ .. .. ⎟⎜ .. ⎟
. . ⎟·⎜ . ⎟
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
′
⎝ 1 xn−1,n ⎠⎝ y1′ ⎠
1 1

mod (O(n, R) · R× ) , where yk′ = yk except for k = n − i + 1, n − i, n − i − 1,
in which case
yn−i '
′ ′ 2 2
yn−i = 2 2
, yn−i±1 = yn−i±1 · xi,i+1 + yn−i ,
xi,i+1 + yn−i
′
and xk,ℓ = xk,ℓ except for ℓ = i, i + 1, in which case
2
′ ′ xi− j,i yn−i + xi− j,i+1 xi,i+1
xi− j,i = x i− j,i+1 − x i− j,i x i,i+1 , xi− j,i+1 = 2 2
,
xi,i+1 + yn−i

for j = 1, 2, . . . , i − 2.

Proof Brute force computation which is omitted.

Proposition 1.2.10 The group G L(n, Z) acts on hn .

Proof Recall the definition of a group acting on a topological space given in

Definition 1.1.1. The fact that G L(n, Z) acts on G L(n, R) follows immediately
from the fact that G L(n, Z) acts on the left on G L(n, R) by matrix multiplication
and that we have the realization hn = G L(n, R)/(O(n, R) · R× ), as a set of
cosets, by the Iwasawa decomposition given in Proposition 1.2.6.

 1.3 Siegel sets 15

1.3 Siegel sets

We would like to show that Ŵ n = G L(n, Z) acts discretely on the generalized
upper half-plane hn defined in Definition 1.2.3. This was already proved for
n = 2 in Lemma 1.1.6, but the generalization to n > 2 requires more subtle
arguments. In order to find an approximation to a fundamental domain for
G L(n, Z)\hn , we shall introduce for every t, u ≥ 0 the Siegel set t,u .

Definition 1.3.1 Let a, b ≥ 0 be fixed. We define the Siegel set a,b ⊂ hn to

be the set of all
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1 x1,2 x1,3 ··· x1,n y1 y2 · · · yn−1
⎜
⎜ 1 x2,3 ··· x2,n ⎟ ⎜
⎟ ⎜ y1 y2 · · · yn−2 ⎟
⎟
⎜ .. .. ⎟ ⎜ .. ⎟
⎜ . . ⎟·⎜ . ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 xn−1,n ⎠ ⎝ y1 ⎠
1 1

with |xi, j | ≤ b for 1 ≤ i < j ≤ n, and yi > a for 1 ≤ i ≤ n − 1.

Let Ŵ n = G L(n, Z) and Ŵ∞ n

⊂ Ŵ n denote the subgroup of upper triangular
matrices with 1s on the diagonal. We have shown in Proposition 1.2.10 that Ŵ n
acts on hn . For g ∈ Ŵ n and z ∈ hn , we shall denote this action by g ◦ z. The
following proposition proves that the action is discrete and that  √3 , 1 is a good
2 2
approximation to a fundamental domain.

Proposition 1.3.2 Fix an integer n ≥ 2. For any z ∈ hn there are only finitely
many g ∈ Ŵ n such that g ◦ z ∈  √3 , 1 . Furthermore,
2 2

(
G L(n, R) = g ◦  √3 , 1 . (1.3.3)
2 2
g∈Ŵ n
√
Remarks The bound 23 is implicit in the work of Hermite, and a proof can
be found in (Korkine and Zolotareff, 1873). The first part of Proposition 1.3.2
is a well known theorem due to Siegel (1939). For the proof, we follow the
exposition of Borel and Harish-Chandra (1962).

Proof of Proposition 1.3.2 In order to prove (1.3.3), it is enough to show that

(
S L(n, R) = g ◦  ∗√3 1 , (1.3.4)
2 ,2
g∈S L(n,Z)

∗
where t,u denotes the subset of matrices t,u · Z n which have determinant 1
∗ ∗
and ◦ denotes the action of S L(n, Z) on 0,∞ . Note that every element in a,b
16 Discrete group actions

is of the form
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1 x1,2 x1,3 ··· x1,n dy1 y2 · · · yn−1
⎜
⎜ 1 x2,3 ··· x2,n ⎟ ⎜
⎟ ⎜ dy1 y2 · · · yn−2 ⎟
⎟
⎜ .. .. ⎟ ⎜ . .. ⎟
⎜ . . ⎟·⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 xn−1,n ⎠ ⎝ dy1 ⎠
1 d
(1.3.5)
where the determinant
⎛ ⎞
dy1 y2 · · · yn−1
⎜
⎜ dy1 y2 · · · yn−2 ⎟
⎟
⎜
Det ⎜ .. ⎟
⎟ = 1,
⎜ . ⎟
⎝ dy1 ⎠
d
so that
n−1 −1/n

d= yin−i .
i=1

In view of the Iwasawa decomposition of Proposition 1.2.6, we may identify

∗
0,∞ as the set of coset representatives S L(n, R)/S O(n, R), where S O(n, R)
denotes the subgroup O(n, R) ∩ S L(n, R).

In order to prove (1.3.4), we first introduce some basic notation. Let

e1 = (1, 0, . . . , 0), e2 = (0, 1, . . . , 0), ..., en = (0, 0, . . . , 1),

denote the canonical basis for Rn . For 1 ≤ i ≤ n and any matrix g ∈

G L(n, R), let ei · g denote the usual multiplication of a 1 × n matrix with
an n × n'matrix. For an arbitrary v = (v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ) ∈ Rn , define the norm:
||v|| := v12 + v22 + · · · + vn2 . We now introduce a function

φ : S L(n, R) → R>0

from S L(n, R) to the positive real numbers. For all g = (gi, j )1≤i, j≤n in S L(n, R)
we define
'
2 2 2 .
φ(g) := ||en · g|| = gn,1 + gn,2 + · · · + gn,n

Claim The function φ is well defined on the quotient space

S L(n, R)/S O(n, R).
 1.3 Siegel sets 17

To verify the claim, note that for k ∈ S O(n, R), and v ∈ Rn , we have
& √ √
||v · k|| = (v · k) · t (v · k) = v · k · t k · t v = v · t v = ||v||.

This immediately implies that φ(gk) = φ(g), i.e., the claim is true.
∗
Note that if z ∈ 0,∞ is of the form (1.3.5), then

n−1 −1/n

φ(z) = d = yi(n−i) . (1.3.6)
i=1

∗
Now, if z ∈ 0,∞ is fixed, then

en · S L(n, Z) · z ⊂ Ze1 + · · · + Zen − {(0, 0, . . . , 0)} · z, (1.3.7)

where · denotes matrix multiplication. The right-hand side of (1.3.7) consists

of non–zero points of a lattice in Rn . This implies that φ achieves a positive
minimum on the coset S L(n, Z) · z. The key to the proof of Proposition 1.3.2
will be the following lemma from which Proposition 1.3.2 follows immediately.
∗
Lemma 1.3.8 Let z ∈ 0,∞ . Then the minimum of φ on S L(n, Z) ◦ z is
∗√
achieved at a point of  3 1 .
2 ,2

Proof It is enough to prove that the minimum of φ is achieved at a point of

 ∗√3 because we can always translate by an upper triangular matrix
2 ,∞

⎛ ⎞
1 u 1,2 u 1,3 ··· u 1,n
⎜
⎜ 1 u 2,3 ··· u 2,n ⎟
⎟
⎜
u=⎜ .. .. ⎟
. . ⎟ ∈ S L(n, Z)
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 u n−1,n ⎠
1

to arrange that the minimum of φ lies in  ∗√3 1 . This does not change the
2 ,2
value of φ because of the identity φ(u · z) = ||en · u · z|| = ||en · z||. We shall
use induction on n. We have already proved a stronger statement for n = 2
in Example 1.1.9. Fix γ ∈ S L(n, Z) such that φ(γ ◦ z) is minimized. We set
γ ◦ z = x · y with
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1 x1,2 x1,3 · · · x1,n dy1 y2 · · · yn−1
⎜
⎜ 1 x2,3 · · · x2,n ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ dy1 y2 · · · yn−2 ⎟
⎟
x =⎜
⎜ .. . ⎟
.. ⎟ , y = ⎜ ⎜ .. ⎟
. . ⎟,
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 xn−1,n ⎠ ⎝ dy1 ⎠
1 d
18 Discrete group actions

)n−1 n−i −1/n √

3
with d = ( i=1 yi ) as before. We must show yi ≥ 2
for i = 1, 2, . . . ,
n − 1. The proof proceeds in 3 steps.
√
3
Step 1 y1 ≥ 2
.
⎛ ⎞
In−2
This follows from the action of α := ⎝ 0 −1 ⎠ on γ ◦ z. Here In−2
1 0
denotes the identity (n − 2) × (n − 2)–matrix. First of all

φ(α ◦ γ ◦ z) = ||en · α ◦ γ ◦ z|| = ||en−1 · x · y|| = ||(en−1 + xn−1,n en ) · y||

'
= d y12 + xn−1,n
2
.

Since |xn−1,n | ≤ 12 we see that φ(αγ z)2 ≤ d 2 (y12 +41 ). On the other hand, the
assumption of minimality forces φ(γ z)2 = d 2 ≤ d 2 y12 + 14 . This implies that
√
3
y1 ≥ 2
.
 
′ g′ 1
Step 2 Let g ∈ S L(n − 1, Z), g = . Then φ(gγ z) = φ(γ z).
0 1
This follows immediately from the fact that en · g = en .
√
3
Step 3 yi ≥ 2
for i = 2, 3, . . . , n − 1.
 ′ ′ 
z ·d ∗
Let us write γ ◦ z = with z ′ ∈ S L(n − 1, R) and d ′ ∈ Z n−1
d
a suitable diagonal matrix. By induction, there exists g ′ ∈ S L(n − 1, Z) such
that g ′ ◦ z ′ = x ′ · y ′ ∈  ∗√3 1 ⊂ hn−1 , the Siegel set for G L(n − 1, R). This is
2 ,2
equivalent to the fact that
⎛ ⎞
an−1
⎜ an−2 ⎟
y′ = ⎜
⎜ ⎟
.. ⎟
⎝ . ⎠
a1

and
√
a j+1 3
≥ for j = 1, 2, . . . , n − 2. (1.3.9)
aj 2
 
g′ 0
Define g := ∈ S L(n, Z). Then
0 1
   ′ ′   
g′ 0 z ·d ∗ g′ ◦ z′ · d ′ ∗
g◦γ ◦z = ◦ = = x ′′ · y ′′ ,
0 1 d 0 d
 1.4 Haar measure 19

   
y′d ′ 0 x′ ∗
where y ′′ = , x ′′ = . The inequalities (1.3.9) applied to
0 d 0 1
⎛ ⎞
y1 y2 · · · yn−1 d

y′d ′ 0
 ⎜ .. ⎟
y ′′ =
⎜
=⎜ . ⎟
⎟,
0 d ⎝ y1 d ⎠
d
√
3
imply that yi ≥ 2
for i = 2, 3, . . . , n − 1. Step 2 insures that multiplying by
√
3
g on the left does not change the value of φ(γ z). Step 1 gives y1 ≥ 2
.

1.4 Haar measure

Let n ≥ 2. The discrete subgroup S L(n, Z) acts on S L(n, R) by left multipli-
cation. The quotient space S L(n, Z)\S L(n, R) turns out to be of fundamental
importance in number theory. Now, we turn our attention to a theory of inte-
gration on this quotient space.
We briefly review the theory of Haar measure and integration on locally
compact Hausdorff topological groups. Good references for this material are
(Halmos, 1974), (Lang, 1969), (Hewitt and Ross, 1979). Excellent introductary
books on matrix groups and elementary Lie theory are (Curtis, 1984), (Baker,
2002), (Lang, 2002).
Recall that a topological group G is a topological space G where G is also
a group and the map

(g, h) → g · h −1

of G × G onto G is continuous in both variables. Here · again denotes the

internal group operation and h −1 denotes the inverse of the element h. The
assumption that G is locally compact means that every point has a compact
neighborhood. Recall that G is termed Hausdorff provided every pair of distinct
elements in G lie in disjoint open sets.

Example 1.4.1 The general linear group G L(n, R) is a locally compact

Hausdorff topological group.

Let gl(n, R) denote the Lie algebra of G L(n, R). Viewed as a set, gl(n, R)
is just the set of all n × n matrices with coefficients in R. We assign a topology
20 Discrete group actions

to gl(n, R) by identifying every matrix

⎛ ⎞
g1,1 g1,2 ··· g1,n
⎜ g2,1 g2,2 ··· g2,n ⎟
⎜ ⎟
g=⎜ . .. ⎟
⎝ .. ··· . ⎠
gn,1 gn,2 ··· gn,n
with a point
2
(g1,1 , g1,2 , . . . , g1,n , g2,1 , g2,2 , . . . , g2,n , . . . , gn,n ) ∈ Rn .

This identification is a one–to–one correspondence. One checks that gl(n, R) is

a locally compact Hausdorff topological space under the usual Euclidean topol-
2
ogy on Rn . The determinant function Det : gl(n, R) → R is clearly continuous.
It follows that

G L(n, R) = gl(n, R) − Det−1 (0)

must be an open set since {0} is closed. Also, the operations of addition and
multiplication of matrices in gl(n, R) are continuous maps from

gl(n, R) × gl(n, R) → gl(n, R).

The inverse map

Inv : G L(n, R) → G L(n, R),

given by Inv(g) = g −1 for all g ∈ G L(n, R), is also continuous since each entry
of g −1 is a polynomial in the entries of g divided by Det(g). Thus, G L(n, R)
is a topological subspace of gl(n, R) and we may view G L(n, R) × G L(n, R)
as the product space. Since the multiplication and inversion maps: G L(n, R) ×
G L(n, R) → G L(n, R) are continuous, it follows that G L(n, R) is a topological
group.
By a left Haar measure on a locally compact Hausdorff topological group
G, we mean a positive Borel measure (Halmos, 1974)

µ : {measurable subsets of G} → R+ ,

which is left invariant under the action of G on G via left multiplication. This
means that for every measurable set E ⊂ G and every g ∈ G, we have

µ(g E) = µ(E).

In a similar manner, one may define a right Haar measure. If every left invariant
Haar measure on G is also a right invariant Haar measure, then we say that G
is unimodular.
 1.4 Haar measure 21

Given a left invariant Haar measure µ on G, one may define (in the usual
manner) a differential one-form dµ(g), and for compactly supported functions
f : G → C an integral

f (g) dµ(g),
G

which is characterized by the fact that


dµ(g) = µ(E)
E

for every measurable set E. We shall also refer to dµ(g) as a Haar measure.
The fundamental theorem in the subject is due to Haar.

Theorem 1.4.2 (Haar) Let G be a locally compact Hausdorff topological

group. Then there exists a left Haar measure on G. Further, any two such Haar
measures must be positive real multiples of each other.

We shall not need this general existence theorem, because in the situations
we are interested in, we can explicitly construct the Haar measure and Haar
integral. For unimodular groups, the uniqueness of Haar measure follows easily
from Fubini’s theorem. The proof goes as follows. Assume we have two Haar
measures µ, ν on G, which are both left and right invariant. Let h : G → C be
a compactly supported function satisfying

h(g) dµ(g) = 1.
G

Then for an arbitrary compactly supported function f : G → C,

  
f (g)dν(g) = h(g ′ )dµ(g ′ ) f (g)dν(g)
G
G  G

= h(g ′ ) f (g)dν(g)dµ(g ′ )
G G
 
= h(g ′ ) f (g · g ′ ) dν(g) dµ(g ′ )
G G
= h(g ′ ) f (g · g ′ ) dµ(g ′ ) dν(g)
G G
 
= h(g −1 · g ′ ) f (g ′ ) dµ(g ′ ) dν(g)
G G
 
= h(g −1 · g ′ ) f (g ′ ) dν(g) dµ(g ′ )
G G

=c· f (g ′ ) dµ(g ′ )
G
* −1
where c = G h(g )dν(g).
22 Discrete group actions

Proposition 1.4.3 For n = 1, 2, . . . , let

⎛ ⎞
g1,1 g1,2 · · · g1,n
⎜ g2,1 g2,2 · · · g2,n ⎟
⎜ ⎟
g=⎜ . .. ⎟ ∈ G L(n, R),
⎝ .. ··· . ⎠
gn,1 gn,2 ··· gn,n
where g1,1 , g1,2 , . . . , g1,n , g2,1 , . . . , gn,n are n 2 real variables. Define
)
dgi, j
1≤i, j≤n
dµ(g) := , (wedge product of differential one-forms)
Det(g)n
where dgi, j denotes the usual differential one–form on R and Det(g) denotes
the determinant of the matrix g. Then dµ(g) is the unique left–right invariant
Haar measure on G L(n, R).
Proof Every matrix in G L(n, R) may be expressed as a product of a diagonal
matrix in Z n and matrices of the form x̃r,s (with 1 ≤ r, s ≤ n) where x̃r,s denotes
the matrix with the real number xr,s at position r, s, and, otherwise, has 1s on
the diagonal and zeros off the diagonal. It is easy to see that
dµ(g) = dµ(ag)
for a ∈ Z n . To complete the proof, it is, therefore, enough to check that
dµ(x̃r,s · g) = dµ(g · x̃r,s ) = dµ(g),
for all 1 ≤ r, s ≤ n. We check the left invariance and leave the right invariance
to the reader.
It follows from the definition that in the case r = s,
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ) ⎟ )
⎝ dgi, j ⎠ d(gr, j + gs, j xr,s )
1≤i, j≤n 1≤ j≤n
i =r
dµ(x̃r,s · g) = .
Det(x̃r,s · g)n
First of all,
Det(x̃r,s · g) = Det(x̃r,s ) · Det(g) = Det(g)
because Det(x̃r,s ) = 1.
Second, for any 1 ≤ j ≤ n,
⎛ ⎞
⎜  ⎟
⎝ dgi, j ⎠ ∧ dgs, j = 0
1≤i, j≤n
i =r
 1.5 Invariant measure on coset spaces 23

⎛ ⎞
⎜ ) ⎟
because gs, j also occurs in the product ⎝ dgi, j ⎠ and dgs, j ∧ dgs, j = 0.
1≤i< j≤n
i =r
Consequently, the measure is invariant under left multiplication by x̃r,s .

On the other hand, if r = s, then

⎛ ⎞
⎜ ) ⎟ )
⎝ dgi, j ⎠ (xr,s · dgr, j )
1≤i, j≤n 1≤ j≤n
i =r
dµ(x̃r,s · g) =
Det(x̃r,s · g)n
n
xr,s
= dµ(g) ·
Det(x̃r,s )n
= dµ(g).

1.5 Invariant measure on coset spaces

This monograph focusses on the coset space
G L(n, R)/(O(n, R) · R× ).
We need to establish explicit invariant measures on this space. The basic prin-
ciple which allows us to define invariant measures on coset spaces, in general,
is given in the following theorem.
Theorem 1.5.1 Let G be a locally compact Hausdorff topological group, and
let H be a compact closed subgroup of G. Let µ be
* a Haar measure on G, and let
ν be a Haar measure on H , normalized so that H dν(h) = 1. Then there exists
a unique (up to scalar multiple) quotient measure µ̃ on G/H . Furthermore
   
f (g) dµ(g) = f (gh) dν(h) d µ̃(g H ),
G G/H H

for all integrable functions f : G → C.

Proof For a proof see (Halmos, 1974). We indicate, however, why the formula
in Theorem 1.5.1 holds. First of all note that if f : G → C, is an integrable
function on G, and if we define a new function, f H : G → C, by the recipe

f H (g) := f (gh) dν(h),
H

then f (gh) = f (g) for all h ∈ H. Thus, f H is well defined on the coset
H H

space G/H. We write f H (g) = f H (g H ), to stress that f H is a function on

24 Discrete group actions

the coset space. For any measurable subset E ⊂ G/H , we may easily choose
a measurable function δ E : G → C so that

1 if g H ∈ E,
δ E (g) = δ EH (g H ) =
0 if g H ∈ E.

We may then define an H –invariant quotient measure µ̃ satisfying:

 
µ̃(E) = δ E (g) dµ(g) = δ EH (g H ) d µ̃(g H ),
G G/H

and
 
f (g) dµ(g) = f H (g H ) d µ̃(g H ),
G G/H

for all integrable functions f : G → C.

Remarks There is an analogous version of Theorem 1.5.1 for left coset spaces
H \G. Note that we are not assuming that H is a normal subgroup of G. Thus
G/H (respectively H \G) may not be a group.

Example 1.5.2 (Left invariant measure on G L(n, R)/(O(n, R) · R× ))

For n ≥ 2, we now explicitly construct a left invariant measure on the

generalized upper half-plane hn = G L(n, R)/(O(n, R) · R× ). Returning to the
Iwasawa decomposition (Proposition 1.2.6), every z ∈ hn has a representation
in the form z = x y with
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1 x1,2 x1,3 · · · x1,n y1 y2 · · · yn−1
⎜
⎜ 1 x2,3 · · · x2,n ⎟⎟
⎜
⎜ y1 y2 · · · yn−2 ⎟
⎟
⎜
x =⎜ .. .. ⎟ , ⎜
y=⎜ .. ⎟
. . ⎟ . ⎟,
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 1 xn−1,n ⎠ ⎝ y1 ⎠
1 1

with xi, j ∈ R for 1 ≤ i < j ≤ n and yi > 0 for 1 ≤ i ≤ n − 1. Let d ∗ z denote

the left invariant measure on hn . Then d ∗ z has the property that

d ∗ (gz) = d ∗ z

for all g ∈ G L(n, R).

 1.5 Invariant measure on coset spaces 25

Proposition 1.5.3 The left invariant G L(n, R)–measure d ∗ z on hn can be

given explicitly by the formula
d∗z = d∗x d∗ y
where
 n−1

d∗x = d xi, j , d∗ y = yk−k(n−k)−1 dyk . (1.5.4)
1≤i< j≤n k=1

 
y x d xd y
For example, for n = 2, with z = , we have d ∗ z = y2
, while for
0 1
n = 3 with
⎛ ⎞
y1 y2 x1,2 y1 x1,3
z= ⎝ 0 y1 x2,3 ⎠ ,
0 0 1

we have
dy1 dy2
d ∗ z = d x1,2 d x1,3 d x2,3 .
(y1 y2 )3

Proof We sketch the proof. The group G L(n, R) is generated by diagonal

matrices, upper triangular matrices with 1s on the diagonal, and the Weyl group
Wn which consists of all n × n matrices with exactly one 1 in each row and
column and zeros everywhere else. For example,
   
1 0 0 1
W2 = , ,
0 1 1 0
⎧⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎨ 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
W3 = ⎝ 0 1 0 ⎠ , ⎝ 0 0 1 ⎠ , ⎝ 1 0 0 ⎠ ,
⎩
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎫
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 ⎬
⎝0 0 1⎠,⎝1 0 0⎠,⎝0 1 0⎠ .
⎭
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0

Note that the Weyl group Wn has order n! and is simply the symmetric group on
n symbols. It is clear that d ∗ (gz) = d ∗ z if g is an upper triangular matrix with
1s on the diagonal. This is because the measures d xi, j (with 1 ≤ i < j ≤ n) are
all invariant under translation. It is clear that the differential d ∗ z is Z n -invariant
where Z n ∼= R× denotes the center of G L(n, R). So, without loss of generality,
26 Discrete group actions

we may define a diagonal matrix a with its lower-right entry to be one:

⎛ ⎞
a1 a2 · · · an−1
⎜
⎜ a1 a2 · · · an−2 ⎟
⎟
⎜
a=⎜ .. ⎟
⎟.
⎜ . ⎟
⎝ a1 ⎠
1

Then

az = ax y = (axa −1 ) · ay
⎛ ⎞
1 an−1 x1,2 an−1 an−2 x1,3 · · · an−1 · · · a1 x1,n
⎜
⎜ 1 an−2 x2,3 · · · an−2 · · · a1 x2,n ⎟
⎟
=⎜
⎜ .. .. ⎟
⎜ . . ⎟
⎟
⎝ 1 a1 xn−1,n ⎠
1
⎛ ⎞
a1 y1 · · · an−1 yn−1
⎜ .. ⎟
⎜
×⎜ . ⎟
⎟.
⎝ a1 y1 ⎠
1
n−1 
)
∗ −1
Thus d (axa ) = akk(n−k) d ∗ x. It easily follows that
k=1

d ∗ (az) = d ∗ (axa −1 · ay) = d ∗ z.

It remains to check the invariance of d ∗ z under the Weyl group Wn . Now, if

w ∈ Wn and
⎛ ⎞
dn
⎜
⎜ dn−1 ⎟
⎟
d=⎜ .. ⎟ ∈ G L(n, R)
⎝ . ⎠
d1

is a diagonal matrix, then wdw −1 is again a diagonal matrix whose diagonal

entries are a permutation of {d1 , d2 , . . . , dn }. The Weyl group is generated
by the transpositions ωi (i = 1, 2, . . . n − 1) given in Proposition 1.2.9 which
interchange (transpose) di and di+1 when d is conjugated by ωi . After a tedious
calculation using Proposition 1.2.9 one checks that d ∗ (ωi z) = d ∗ z.

 1.6 Volume of S L(n, Z)\S L(n, R)/S O(n, R) 27

1.6 Volume of S L(n, Z)\S L(n, R)/S O(n, R)

Following earlier work of Minkowski, Siegel (1936) showed that the volume
of

S L(n, Z)\S L(n, R)/S O(n, R) ∼

= S L(n, Z)\G L(n, R)/(O(n, R) · R× )
∼
= S L(n, Z)\hn ,
can be given in terms of

ζ (2) · ζ (3) · · · ζ (n)

where ζ (s) is the Riemann zeta function. The fact that the special values (taken
at integral points) of the Riemann zeta function appear in the formula for the
volume is remarkable. Later, Weil (1946) found another method to prove such
results based on a direct application of the Poisson summation formula. A vast
generalization of Siegel’s computation of fundamental domains for the case of
arithmetic subgroups acting on Chevalley groups was obtained by Langlands
(1966). See also (Terras, 1988) for interesting discussions on the history of this
subject.
The main aim of this section is to explicitly compute the volume

d ∗ z,
S L(n,Z)\S L(n,R)/S O(n,R)
∗
where d z is the left–invariant measure given in Proposition 1.5.3. We follow
the exposition of Garret (2002).

Theorem 1.6.1 Let n ≥ 2. As in Proposition 1.5.3, fix

 n−1

d∗z = d xi, j yk−k(n−k)−1 dyk
1≤i< j≤n k=1

to be the left S L(n, R)–invariant measure on hn = S L(n, R)/S O(n, R). Then
 n
 ζ (ℓ)
d ∗ z = n 2n−1 · ,
S L(n,Z)\hn ℓ=2
Vol(S ℓ−1 )

where
√
2( π)ℓ
Vol(S ℓ−1 ) =
Ŵ (ℓ/2)
∞
+
denotes the volume of the (ℓ − 1)–dimensional sphere S ℓ−1 and ζ (ℓ) = n −ℓ
n=1
denotes the Riemann zeta function.
28 Discrete group actions

Proof for the case of S L(2, R) We first prove the theorem for S L(2, R). The
more general result will follow by induction. Let K = S O(2, R) denote the
maximal compact subgroup of S L(2, R). We use the Iwasawa decomposition
which says that

  1
 ,

1 x y2 0
S L(2, R)/K ∼

= z = 1  x ∈ R, y > 0 .
0 1 0 y− 2 

Let f : R2 /K → C be an arbitrary smooth compactly supported function.

Then, by definition, f ((u, v) · k) = f ((u, v)) for all (u, v) ∈ R2 and all k ∈ K .
We can define a function F : S L(2, R)/K → C by letting

F(z) := f ((m, n) · z).
(m,n)∈Z2

 
a b
If γ = ∈ S L 2(Z), then
c d
   

a b
F(γ z) = f (m, n) · ·z
c d
(m,n)∈Z2


= f (ma + nc, mb + nd) · z
(m,n)∈Z2
= F(z).

Thus, F(z) is S L(2, Z)–invariant.

Note that we may express

-  .
{(m, n) ∈ Z2 } = (0, 0) ∪

ℓ · (0, 1) · γ  0 < ℓ ∈ Z, γ ∈ Ŵ∞ \S L(2, Z) ,
(1.6.2)

where
   
1 r 
 r ∈Z .
Ŵ∞ =
0 1 

We now integrate F over Ŵ\h2 , where h2 = S L(2, R)/K , Ŵ = S L(2, Z),

and d xd y/y 2 is the invariant measure on h2 given in Proposition 1.5.3. It
 1.6 Volume of S L(n, Z)\S L(n, R)/S O(n, R) 29

immediately follows from (1.6.2) that


d xd y
F(z) 2 = f ((0, 0)) · Vol(Ŵ\h2 )
y
Ŵ\h2



 d xd y
+ f ℓ(0, 1) · γ · z
ℓ>0 γ ∈Ŵ∞ \Ŵ
y2
Ŵ\h2

  d xd y
= f ((0, 0)) · Vol(Ŵ\h2 ) + 2 f ℓ(0, 1) · z .
ℓ>0
y2
Ŵ∞ \h2

 
The factor 2 occurs because −1 −1 acts trivially on h2 . We easily observe
that
1  
 y2 0 1
f ℓ(0, 1) · z = f ℓ(0, 1) · − 12
= f 0, ℓy − 2 .
0 y

It follows, after making the elementary transformations

y → ℓ2 y, y → y −2

that
 ∞
d xd y
F(z) 2 = f ((0, 0)) · Vol(Ŵ\h2 ) + 22 ζ (2) f ((0, y)) ydy. (1.6.3)
y
Ŵ\h2 0

Now, the function

 f ((u, v)) isinvariant under multiplication by k ∈ K on the
sin θ − cos θ
right. Since ∈ K , we see that
cos θ sin θ

f ((0, y)) = f ((y cos θ, y sin θ))

for any 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π. Consequently

 ∞  2π  ∞
1
f ((0, y)) ydy = f ((y cos θ, y sin θ)) dθ ydy
0 2π 0 0

1
= f ((u, v)) dudv
2π
R2
1 ˆ
= f ((0, 0)). (1.6.4)
2π
30 Discrete group actions

Here fˆ denotes the Fourier transform of f in R2 . If we now combine (1.6.3)

and (1.6.4), we obtain

d xd y 2ζ (2) ˆ
F(z) 2 = f ((0, 0)) · Vol(Ŵ\h2 ) + f ((0, 0)). (1.6.5)
y π
Ŵ\h2

To complete the proof, we make use of the Poisson summation formula (see
appendix) which states that for any z ∈ G L(2, R)

1

F(z) = f ((m, n)z) = fˆ (m, n) · (t z)−1
(m,n)∈Z2
|Det(z)| (m,n)∈Z2


= fˆ (m, n) · (t z)−1 ,
(m,n)∈Z2

1 1
y2 y− 2 x
since z = 1 and Det(z) = 1. We now repeat all our computations
0 y− 2
with the roles of f and fˆ reversed. Since the group Ŵ is stable under transpose–
inverse, one easily sees (from the Poisson summation formula above), by letting
z → (t z)−1 , that the integral

d xd y
F(z) 2
y
Ŵ\h2

is unchanged if we replace f by fˆ.

Also, since fˆˆ (x) = f (−x), the formula (1.6.5) now becomes

d xd y 2ζ (2)
F(z) 2 = fˆ((0, 0)) · Vol(Ŵ\h2 ) + f ((0, 0)). (1.6.6)
y π
Ŵ\h2

If we combine (1.6.5) and (1.6.6) and solve for the volume, we obtain
  2ζ (2)
f ((0, 0)) − fˆ((0, 0)) · vol(Ŵ\h2 ) = f ((0, 0)) − fˆ((0, 0)) · .
π
Since f is arbitrary, we can choose f so that f ((0, 0)) − fˆ((0, 0)) = 0. It
follows that
2ζ (2) π
Vol(Ŵ\h2 ) = = .

π 3
Proof for the case of S L(n, R) We shall now complete the proof of
Theorem 1.6.1 using induction on n.

The proof of Theorem 1.6.1 requires two preliminary lemmas which we

straightaway state and prove. For n > 2, let Un (R) (respectively Un (Z)) denote
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