BCH 415 NOTE

COURSE CONTENT

BCH 415: ADVANCED BIOCHEMICAL METHODS (3 UNITS) L:O P:3 T:0

A. The purpose of this course is to familiarize students with operations of latest

biochemical equipment and with methods of research, assimilation and dissemination
of information. Students will therefore go round lecturers and laboratories housing
specialized equipment with the aim of exposing them to such equipment under the
supervision of the lecturers.

B. Part of the course will also cover

 the effective use of the library,

 preparation of dissertations or thesis,
 preparation of papers for journal publications and journal reviews,
 Special assignments and essays will be given to students.

THE USE OF THE LIBRARY

WHAT IS A LIBRARY?
Traditionally, a library is defined as physical space (building) emphasizing physical (print)
collections. Emphasis is on storage and preservation of physical items particularly books and
periodicals. Information is physically assembled in one place and users must visit the library
to use the materials. However, the introduction of ICT, which brought about the introduction
of new formats of information, has given the concept of library a new definition. It is now
defined as: A place where information resources are accessed and information services are
rendered by professionals who specialize in identifying, collecting, organizing, processing
information sources as well as interpreting information needs.
The word ‘place’ could be physical or virtual. Physical place refers to a library building or
library collection. The concept of a virtual library place emphasizes on remote access to
digital information resources and services through computer terminals.

TYPES OF LIBRARY
There are different types of libraries. Categorization is based on the parent institution that
established them, type of materials they manage, the subject matter of the materials and users
of the library. Hence, libraries are categorized into:
1. Academic libraries – Academic libraries are those libraries attached to institutions of
higher learning of the status of a tertiary institution. In other words, academic libraries
are found in post-secondary institutions such as Universities, polytechnics and
colleges of education. Academic libraries are primarily established to provide
literature support to the programmes of their parent institution, to aid lecturers,
students and researchers in teaching, learning, research and recreation purposes. For
instance, if a tertiary institution is offering Degree, Diploma and Certificate courses,
its library is expected to provide educational, research and information materials in
the relevant subjects to suit each level of the institution’s academic programmes.
2. School Libraries – These are libraries established in primary and secondary schools
3. Public libraries – These are libraries established and funded by government to serve
members of the general public.
 4. Research libraries – These are libraries established and funded by research institutes
to provide collections that are specific to the research focus of their parent institutions.
5. Special libraries – These are libraries owned by private or public institutions that
render services in specialized fields of the society. Examples are law libraries,
hospital libraries, church etc.

FUNCTIONS UNITS OF A LIBRARY

The library has several Units that work together to collect, receive, process and deliver
information products and services. They are categorized into three namely: administrative,
technical services and readers’ services units.
Administrative Unit – It plans, organizes, leads and controls the activities of the library and it
is headed by the University Librarian.
Technical Services Unit – has sub-units which are: acquisitions, cataloguing and
classification, serials and documents and systems unit. –
Acquisition unit– responsible for the selection, ordering and acquisition of library materials
Cataloguing and classification unit – processes acquired materials.
Serials unit - this unit selects, orders, receives, processes and shelves serials publications.
The readers’ services unit/public services unit – in this unit, patrons/users have direct
relationship or contact with the library. It comprises of circulation and reference sub-units.
Circulation sub-unit – responsible for charging and discharging books to patrons/users.
Charging and discharging means books are lent out to (charging) and returned by
(discharging) patrons/users as at when due.
- It registers new users and serves as inquiry desk for library visitors.
- It keeps records and statistics of users and library holdings
- Keeps library management abreast of the state of the library collections
- It handles and curbs all forms of delinquent practices and difficult user behaviours.
Reference sub-unit – As the name implies, the materials in this unit are for reference only.
- The unit exists to support users to find, access, retrieve, evaluate and use information.
Main services are:
- Current awareness
- Selective dissemination of information (SDI)
- Compilation of reading lists and subject guides
- Library orientation and information literacy training.

CATEGORIES OF LIBRARY STAFF

 Librarians
 Library Officers
 Library Assistants
 Library Porters

TYPES OF LIBRARY MATERIALS

Library materials, also known as library stock, can be grouped under two sub-topics namely:
1. Books
2. Non-book materials.
Library materials are not limited to books as it is assumed in some quarters. The break-down
is as follows:
(1.) BOOK MATERIALS: Book materials are those materials in printed form that can be
read and understood by the readers. Thus, a book can be defined as a number of printed or
written pages of not less than 49pages, bound together along one edge and usually protected
by either hardback or paperback paper cover. When it is less than 49pages,it is not a book,
but a pamphlet or a booklet. The list of book materials includes:
 TEXTBOOKS —These are books on different subject areas (disciplines) also known
as non-fiction materials while literature books are the fiction materials, such as novels
or short stories which are literary works, invented by imagination.
 REFERENCE MATERIALS — These are books that provide clue to reference
queries (questions), such as : What? Which? How? Why? etc. Reference books
(materials) are: Dictionaries, Encyclopaedias, Directories, Yearbooks, Handbooks,
Gezettes, Gazetteers, Indexes, Atlases, Almanacs, Bibliographies, Biographies etc
Reference books are not meant to be read from page to page, cover to cover like other
books. Rather, reference books provide answer to questions, terms or terminologies
and they are usually alphabetically arranged, and are mostly in volumes.
 PERIODICALS — These are publications which are issued at regular or an irregular
intervals, usually with volume and date, with the intention of being continued
indefinitely, which could be daily, weekly, monthly, bi-annually or annually.
Examples are Daily Newspapers (Dailies), Weekly Magazines, Journals, Theses and
Dissertations, Reports, Past question papers etc.
(2). NON-BOOK MATERIALS: Non-book materials are variously called : -visual materials
-print media or Non-book media. Non-book materials help in solving communication
problem and enhance instructional efficiency during teaching and learning process, as it
enables students to see those things being taught in real life situations, as seeing is believing.

ORGANIZATION OF LIBRARY RESOURCES

A library is a collection of sources, resources, and services, and the structure in which it is
housed. A library is a collection of useful materials for common use. However, with the sets
and collection of media and other books for storing information, many libraries are now also
repositories and access points for maps, prints, or other documents and various storage media
such as microform, audio tapes, CDs, cassettes, videotapes, DVDs, and video games. Modern
libraries are increasingly being redefined as places to get unrestricted access to information in
many formats and from many sources. They are understood as extending beyond the physical
walls of a building, by including material accessible by electronic means, and by providing
the assistance of librarians in navigating and analyzing tremendous amounts of information
with a variety of digital tools. (Wikipedia, 2010) Libraries also provide facilities to access
subscription databases and the Internet. Academic libraries differ from each other in many
respects but they all have the same basic function, which is to aid the parent institution in
carrying out its objectives in the areas of teaching, research and community development.
The library contributes to the realization of these objectives and supports the total programme
by acquiring and making available the books, materials, services that are needed.
LIBRARY COLLECTIONS: In order to make these resources more easily accessible and
retrievable, library resources are organized into various collection using online catalogues.
Online cataloguing has greatly enhanced the usability of catalogues, thanks to the Machine
Readable Cataloguing-MARC standard in the 1960s. MARC was originally used to automate
the creation of physical catalogue cards; now the MARC computer files are accessed directly
in the search process. Online Public Access Catalogues (OPACs) operations- have enhanced
usability over traditional cards formats.
LIBRARY CATALOGUE: The university library information resources are classified and
shelved using the Library of Congress classification scheme. The resources are catalogued
using the internationally recognized conventions such as Anglo America Cataloguing Rules.
The processed bibliographic data is presented in two formats, printed catalogue cards and
automated Online Public Access Catalogues (OPACs). The catalogue is available for
concurrent use by several users of the library. The catalogue cards are stored in a catalogue
cabinet with dimensions and structure that allow quick and easy access by most users. The
cabinet drawers are conspicuously labelled in alphabetical order. To enable a person to find a
book of which either through: the author, the title, the subject. Secondly, to show what the
library has: by a given author, on a given subject and in a given kind of literature.
ONLINE PUBLIC ACCESS CATALOGUES (OPACs): The automated catalogue is
through computers for easy access and retrieval of information in the library. The computers
access points are situated next to the catalogue cabinets to provide users with options of using
either format to access the library collection. The Online Public Access Catalogues (OPACs)
is available in the campus wide information network. The content of library information
resources are made accessible through indexes in printed or computer based formats. The
university library catalogue allows for appropriate editing to keep abreast with modern
technology, contemporary practices and changing international information.

HOW TO ACCESS INFORMATION FROM CATALOGUE

1. Author catalogue: sorted alphabetically to the authors’ or editors’ names of the entries.
2. Title catalogue: sorted alphabetically according to the title of the entries.
3. Dictionary catalogue: a catalogue in which all entries (author, title, subject, and series) are
interfiled in a single alphabetical order.
4. Reference Library catalog: Retrieved from www.wikipedia on 26th July, 2010.

LIBRARY E-RESOURCES AND DATABASES

The university library has lots of e-resources and databases for the use of academic staff and
both undergraduate and postgraduate students. These resources are e-journals, e-books,
databases and internet connectivity. The university library also subscribes to lots of websites
which is available to users at the library. These resources can be accessed at the serials
section and e- library of the university library.
1. Databases are arranged and stored in formats that permit efficient searches. There are
many types of databases- including databases for looking up numerical information, such as
statistics, and bibliographies and holding information on books and periodicals, and databases
that allow the user to search and use academic papers and article from journals and
newspapers, encyclopaedias, dictionaries, and case law digest. Some databases come on CD-
ROMs or DVD-ROMs to be used with a single computer, although today online databases
available over the internet are widely used.
2. E-journals are digital versions of articles from journals that allow you to read the full text
on the internet. The advantages of online e-journals are as follows:
Academic papers can be accessed on the web before publication of the printed edition.
It is easier to find individual academic papers online than in printed edition.
e-journals are accessible anytime from campus terminals and laboratory terminals and outside
the campus.
3. E-books are digital versions of books that allow you to read the full text on the internet. At
the same time, you can download the e-books free. Old literary, scientific work,
encyclopaedias, and dictionaries are available as e-books.
4. Internet based service: Internet contains the biggest resources of information in the entire
world; secondly, it enables users to obtain an interactive mechanism to instantly
communicate with each other. Once connected to the internet, everyone can enjoy the
unparallel richness of global information resources including textual, audio, graphic
information. The internet information resources are constantly expanding at a great speed-one
can only make a rough estimate. The types of information on the internet are also wide
ranging, from scientific research, education, public policy, legal regulations to commerce,
arts and entertainment.

E-RESOURCES COLLECTION OF UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

1. HEALTH INTERNATIONAL NETWORK ACCESS TO RESEARCH INITIATIVES
(HINARI) URL: www.who.int/hinari
2. EBSCOHOST URL: http://search.ebscohost.com User ID: ns083634 Password: password
3. ACCESS TO GLOBAL ONLINE RESEARCH IN AGRICULTURE (AGORA) URL:
http://www.aginternetwork.org/
4. JOINT SYSTEM TO ORDER RESOURCES (JSTOR) URL: www.jstor.org
5. Emerald Journals URL: http://www.emeraldinsight.com Username: NigUnaab Password:
library
6. Popline Journals URL: www.popline.org
7. AFRICAN JOURNAL ONLINE (AJOL) URL: http://ajol.info/
8. BIOLINE INTERNATIONAL URL: http://www.bioline.org.br/journals
9. DIRECTORY OF OPEN ACCESS JOURNALS (DOAJ) URL: http://www.doaj.org/
10. THE ESSENTIAL ELECTRONIC AGRICULTURAL LIBRARY (TEEAL)
11. E-GRANARY DIGITAL LIBRARY
12. NATIONAL VIRTUAL LIBRARY OF NIGERIA URL: www.nigerianvirtuallibrary.com
Username: UNAAB Password: Abeokuta
13. BioOne URL: http://www.bioone.org. Email: [email protected] Password:
password Areas of coverage: All disciplines
15. Intuite URL: www.intute.com Areas of coverage: Sciences, Social sciences and Health
education.
16. NIGERIA US EMBASSY URL: http://nigeria.usembassy.gov/
http://nigeria.usembassy.gov/hr_office.html http://nigeria.usembassy.gov/irc.html

E-LIBRARY
Information technology has revolutionized the concept of libraries. Each and every library is
getting digitized. There are many definitions of an e-library; terms such as virtual library,
electronic library and digital library are often used synonymously. The e-library is nothing
but a large database for the researchers who are working on hypertext environment. It is an
environment, which supports the full cycle of creation, storage, preservation, dissemination
and use of data, information and knowledge. According to Arms (2007) an e-library is a
managed collection of information with associated services where the information is stored in
digital format and accessible over a network. An e-library is an organized collection of
digitized material or its holding in the digital form, which can be accessible by a computer on
the network by using TCP/IP or other protocol. The e-library is an organized collection of
multimedia and other types of resources, resources are available in computer processable
form, the function of acquisition, storage, preservation, and retrieval is carried out through
the use of digital technology. Access to the entire collection is globally available directly or
indirectly across a network, supports users in dealing with information objects and helps in
the organization and presentation of the above objects via electronic / digital means etc.
ADVANTAGES: E-library is not confined to a particular location or so called building, it is
virtually distributed all over the world. The user can get his/her information on his own
computer screen by using the internet. Actually, it is a network of multimedia system, which
provides fingertip access.
1. No physical boundary: The user of an e-library need not go to the library physically;
people from all over the world could gain access to the same information, as long as an
internet connection is available.
2. Round the clock availability: E- libraries can be accessed at any time, 24 hours a day and
365days of the year.
3. Multiple accesses: The same resources can be used at the same time by a number of users.
4. Structured approach: E-library provides access to much richer content in a more structured
manner. We can easily move from the catalog to the particular book then to a particular
chapter and so on.
5. Information retrieval: The user is able to use any search term bellowing to the word or
phrase of the entire collection. E-library will provide every user-friendly interface, giving
click able access its resources.
6. Preservation and conservation: An exact copy of the original can be made any number of
times without any degradation in quality.
7. Space: Whereas traditional libraries are limited by storage of space, e-library has the
potential to store much more information, simply because e-information requires very little
physical space to contain them. When the library had no space for extension digitization is
the only solution.
8. Networking: A particular e-library can provide the link to any other resources of other e-
library very easily thus to a seamlessly integrated resource sharing can be achieved.
9. Cost: The cost of maintaining an e-library is much lower than of a traditional library. A
traditional library must spend large sums of money paying for staff, book maintenance. E-
libraries do away with these fees.
DISADVANTAGES: The computer viruses, lack of standardization for digitized
information, quick degrading properties of digitized materials and its associated problem,
health hazard nature of the radiation from monitor etc. makes e-libraries at times handicap.
1. Copyright: Virtualization violates the copyright law as other can freely transfer the thought
content of one author without his acknowledgement. So one difficulty facing e-library is the
way to distribute information. How does an e-library distribute information at will, while
protecting the copyright of the author?
2. Speed of access: As more and more computer are connected to the internet its speed of
access reasonably decreasing. If new technology will not evolve to solve the problem in near
future internet will be full of error messages.
3. Bandwidth: E-library will need high band for transfer of multimedia resources but the band
width is decreasing day by day due to its over utilization.
4. Initial cost is high: The infrastructure cost of an e-library i.e. the cost of hardware,
software, leasing communication circuit is generally very high.
5. Efficiency: With the much larger volume of e-information, finding the right material for a
specific task becomes increasingly difficult.
6. Environment: E-libraries cannot reproduce the environment of a traditional library. Many
researchers still finds reading printed material to be easier than reading material on a
computer screen.

LIBRARY RULES AND REGULATIONS

INTRODUCTION: There are rules and regulations which are meant to guide the use and
conduct of users of the library. It is very important that students should be familiar with such
rules and regulations in order not to violate any of them. The rules and regulations are usually
contained in the Readers’ Guide or Students’ Handbook of some tertiary institutions. These
are to guide the conduct and behaviours of the readers in the library and to assist the library to
achieve its set goals and objectives and for the users to make maximum use of the library
services. Defaulters of these rules and regulations are to be sanctioned (penalized) for it, to
serve as deterrent to others. Some of the rules and regulations are:
1) Possession of identification card when visiting the library
 2) Any materials leaving the library must be properly borrowed.
3) Books in the Reference Section, Serials or Reserved Units may not be removed from
the library.
4) It is an offence to keep materials (books) beyond the date specified for return.
5) Penalties (fine) will be charged for over-due books.
6) Returned books must be delivered at the Loans’ Desk.
7) All consulted books must be left on the Reading Tables.
8) No Readers may enter any part of the library marked ‘Private or Work-room’ unless
by permission.
9) Any person who is suspected to be security risk may be ordered out of the library.
10) Indecent dressing will not be allowed into the library.
11) The use of naked light is not allowed in the library.
12) Marking or underlining of library books is not allowed
13) Briefcases, luggage, umbrella, camera etc are not allowed into the library
14) Smoking, eating etc is not allowed in the library
15) Pets must not be brought into the library
16) Silence must be maintained in and around the library
17) Only registered users are allowed to use the library resources
18) Users must present whatever materials they are carrying to the security personnel at
the entrance for checking while leaving the library.
19) The use of cell phone is prohibited in the library
20) Reservation of seat in the library is prohibited
21) Book mutilation, pilfering, theft are all prohibited

RATIONALE FOR THIS COURSE

The library provides different information resources and services geared towards the
enhancement of academic achievement. To efficiently and effectively exploit the library
resources and service, it is:
Important for students to acquire some knowledge of the working of the library.
learn skills necessary for locating, sifting, evaluating and sorting information sources
The course is designed to enable students acquire the required skills.

PRIMARY USES OF THE LIBRARY

People use the Library, primarily for three purposes:
1. To get to know it as a general purpose resource they can use over time.
2. To find a type of resource to solve a current problem, achieve a goal or meet an
interest.
3. To learn how various topics can conventionally be categorized and integrated with
each other.

References
1) Arms, L.C. (2007). Virtual Library: Needs, Technology and Benefit. ILA Bulletin,
38(3),pp22-26
2) E-library and resources. (2010) Retrieved from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/digitallibrary.
3) Okeh, E.G.ed. (2008). Understanding the Use of the Library and Information
Services. Ibadan: Euniprints International Media.
4) Imam, A., Adeyoyin, S.A., Jegede, O.R. & Adesanya, O. (2008). Library and
Information Studies: An Introductory Text for Students in Tertiary Institutions.
Abeokuta: Eagle Publishers.
 5) Lawal, O.O. (2010). Library Information Practice and Education in Nigeria: Current
Trends and Issues. Calabar: University of Calabar Press

PREPARATION OF DISSERTATIONS OR THESES

(Adapted from How to write dissertations and theses by OOU PG School)

STRUCTURE AND CONTENT ARRANGEMENT

The approved organizational sequence for all theses and projects is as follows:
1. Cover (hard cover binding with the appropriate colour)
2. Fly leaf
3. Title page
4. Abstract
5. Certification by Supervisor(s)
6. Dedication
7. Acknowledgments
8. Table of Contents
9. List of Tables
10. List of Figures (like Photographs, Illustration and Diagrams)
11. List of Abbreviations, acronyms, glossary and definitions (optional)
12. Chapter One-Introduction
13. Chapter Two-Literature Review
14. Chapter Three-Materials and Methods
15. Chapter Four-Result and Discussion
16. Chapter Five-Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations
17. References as specified
18. Appendices

Expected Content of the Various Sub topics

The following would be expected to be the content of the various sub-headings:
1. The Fly Leaf
The Fly leaf shall be blank and as such reserved for official signature of the Secretary of the
PG School testifying that the thesis was accepted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for
the specified degree in particular Faculty at a specified date.

2. Title Page:
The title page should be in capital letters, not more than 22 words. This shows or reflects the
contents of work and should be typed in Times New Roman "18" point bold, and must not
extend more than 5 lines, and centred. This is followed by the full name of the authors
(Surname first) Times New Roman "14" point bold and underneath this comes the
matriculation number "10" point centred and degree obtained. The line spacing 2.5 lines, the
statement: "A project/dissertation/thesis submitted to the Department of Biochemistry "In
partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of B.Sc (Hons) Biochemistry of Olabisi
Onabanjo University," After leaving some lines: a date is given comprising month and year
only in "14" point bold e.g. April, 2016. The date is centred, as stated in Appendix 1.

3. Abstract
This section gives an overview of the project/dissertation/thesis. The abstract should come
before certification. The abstract should be concisely and lucidly written to summarize the
whole project in a maximum of 500 words of four paragraphs.
The abstract should briefly state:
i. the problem and purpose of the study;
ii. describe the methodology in a nutshell mentioning the type of physical
equipment/instruments used and procedure adopted in collecting the specified type of
data and statistics or computer programmes utilized in the data analyses.
iii. results (the major findings of the study and discussion);
iv. The Summary, conclusion and recommendations.
After reading the abstract, the examiners must be able to understand what you have done,
how you have done it, and what you have found out from the research work and
consequently, based on your findings: what you are recommending to the public/audience as
a discovery or new innovation which is an improvement to what previously exists in other
words what you have contributed to knowledge.

Key words: should be minimum of three (3) and maximum of five (5) words in number.

4. Certification by Supervisor(s)
The page shall present a statement duly signed by all the stipervisor(s) members to the effect
that materials contained in the thesis resulted from the research carried out by the candidate
under supervision.
The dissertation/thesis supervisors should be a minimum of two (2) namely Main supervisor
and co-supervisor

5. Acknowledgments
This contains a brief note of appreciation on technical, financial and emotional/moral
assistance received from people by the author during the conduct of the research and the
preparation of the thesis.

6. Table of Contents
This shall contain the lists of all the sections of the thesis starting from the title page and
indicating the first pages of the items listed. It includes the chapter titles and the major
subdivisions of the chapters. The chapter titles are typed "14" points bold and capitalized.
Other subdivisions are typed 12" points not bold but capitalized and double-spaced

7. List of Tables, Figures and Plates

Comprehensive lists of all tables, figures and plates to which references must have been made
in the text of the thesis shall be given. The title of each table and the pages where they appear
in the text shall be indicated in numerical order. All figures in the main body of the thesis
must have a suitable self-explanatory title written below "Figures and Plates" but above the
"Table".

8. Abbreviations, acronyms, glossary, definitions

List of abbreviations and their full forms, and acronyms and their full meanings, glossary of
foreign words, technical words, etc shall be given with their corresponding interpretations.

9. Chapter Formation
All theses and dissertations from all Faculties and Colleges shall be divided into five chapters
as follows:
  Chapter 1 - Introduction
 Chapter 2 - Literature Review
 Chapter 3 - Materials and Methods
 Chapter 4 - Results and Discussion
 Chapter 5 - Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations
 References - The Chapter five would then be followed with a references list titled
"References" typed "14" point bold and centred. All references listed here must have
been cited within the text. This should be the only reference listing throughout the
thesis No other reference listing shall follow any previous chapteris) Appendices
should then follow the Reference listing.

Chapter 1-Introduction
This chapter must provide the relevant background information on the need and importance
of the present research topic (title) to be embarked upon and its value or expected
contribution to solving an identified nagging problem.
It is expected that this section of the thesis would highlight the

(i) Background to study

(ii) Statement of the problem
(iii) Aim and Objectives of the Study
(iv) Justification/Significance of the Study

The introduction must be able to convince the readers that the research is worth pursuing and
that it would contribtite knowledge to the specific area of discipline and that information to
be gathered would be beneficial in solving the identified prevailing problem. The aims and
objectives of the project must be well spelt out here

Chapter 2-Literature Review

This chapter should present in summarized form current information (at least two years
preceding the period of study) in books, journals (international and local), magazines, annual
reports, newspapers etc. that are relevant to the study bringing out the conceptual frame work,
or theory, precepts and present extent of knowledge on the subject area, to which present
study seeks to add further and new information or confirm similar information on present
location/situation or refute the validity of such concept in the present period or locality or
situation.

The present state of knowledge on the subject should be highlighted. The last portion should
highlight the missing gap in the state of knowledge, which the present study seeks to fill. The
chapter should present an adequate systematic and critical review of current literature
relevant to the study. The presentation should be subject oriented and comparative in nature.
The review should bring out clearly the missing gap in knowledge and thus indicate the need
for the present study to bridge the gap. The reviewed literature could also indicate the
methodology used by various researchers to study similar problems.

Chapter 3-Materials and Methods

This chapter should describe in details the experimental materials and the procedure such that
another independent research can repeat the procedures and processes exactly. The detailed
information on how the study will be carried out should be included by the researcher.
The statistical tools adopted should be properly explained and the type of statistical package
software, e.g. SAS. SPSS used in the analysis of data should be specified and the results
should conform to acceptable standard.
All calculations, equations, formulae, must be clearly shown. Statistical tools and computer
software programmes employed in the analysis of data must be clearly indicated.
This chapter, which is the most important, in achieving the aims and objectives of the study,
must address the following:
-the methodology must be relevant to the field of study
-the design must be adequate and statistically analysable;
-the research instrument must be validated and the reliability must be established;

Chapter 4-Result and Discussion

This is also a very important chapter since it presents new and hitherto unknown facts. It
should be written clearly and in simple words for easy comprehension. Hypothesis must be
tested with appropriate statistics and rejection or acceptance criteria with levels of
significance of the tests highlighted in the presentation and indicated in table. The results are
presented in descriptive, graphical, tabular and pictorial forms. The results must be well
described and supported with self-explanatory tables, graphs, figures and pictures, as
appropriate. All data must have been statistically analysed and significant levels of the
parameters highlighted in the presentation and as well as in the tables and or as footnotes,
Appropriate inferences must be drawn from the data from which the specific nature of
contribution that the study is making to existing knowledge in the discipline must be clearly
highlighted
The results, findings and inferences should be adequately discussed by comparing and
contrasting with previous research findings and thus bringing out the originality in the present
work. Appropriate inferences drawn from the analysis of data should be presented. The
specific contributions to knowledge in the discipline must be clearly highlighted. Discussion
of the results should be related to previously published and unpublished works, international
standards, as well as the drawing of appropriate scientific inferences from the results are also
to be included in this section.
The tables must be self-explanatory, with headings or tiltes at the top of the tables and
appropriate statistics, and with no mathematical error in the computations of averages. The
figures (Graphs, diagrams, and pictures) must have appropriate titles which should be written
below the figures:

Chapter 5- Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations

Summary should be a brief presentation of the results of the study.
The conclusion should contain inferences made from the findings, Inferences not supported
by data and findings from this present research, and which must have been properly discussed
in the text, should not now be brought in as inference. The recommendations should be based
on the data you actually collected and findings of the present study.

Referencing
Referencing is a standardized method of acknowledging sources of information and ideas that
have been used in your thesis in a way that uniquely identifies their sources. Direct
quotations, facts and figures, as well as ideas and theories, from both published and
unpublished works must be acknowledged and referenced according to the current American
Psychological Association (APA) system. Supervisors are to acquaint themselves with the
current APA Format. Candidates are to ensure that all the authors cited in the work are
properly cited under reference.
Citation in text
All references shall normally be cited within the text by names of authors with dates of
publication in parenthesis e.g. Kajola (1998) determined the mineral contents of water from
hand-dug wells at Ijebu North Local Government area and found the values to be within
acceptable ranges. OR The mineral contents of water from Ijebu North hand-dug wells were
determined and found to be within acceptable ranges (Kajola, 1998).
When the work has two authors, include both names each time the reference is cited within
the text, with the year of publication.

When the work cited had 3, 4 or 5 authors cited only the surname of the first mentioned
author, followed by et al. in italics and the year eg: A publication by Hassan, Oyedeji,
Balogun, Ogundare, and Ajayi (2001), should be simply cited within the text as Hassan et al.
(2001), but fully written out in the reference listing. Where reference is made to more than
one publication by the same author in the same year, the suffixes a, b, c, etc shall be used
after the year: e.g. Dairo, 1966a, Dairo 1996b.

Arrangement of References/Footnotes with Examples

All references cited within the text should be included in the reference list and arranged
alphabetically by surname of the single author or the first author in the case of multi-authored
publications. The APA style requires that the second and subsequent lines of the reference be
indented.
The following examples illustrate the sequence of arrangement that is recommended:

Publication in Book:
Single author
Author (surname and initials). (Year of Publication). Title or work (in italics), Volume
Number applicable, Place of Publication (city or town): Publisher
Matthews, J. (1999). The art of childhood and adolescence: The construction of meaning.
London: Falmer Press. p.
Oluyede, P.A.O. (1989). Modern Nigerian Land Law (Ibadan: Evans Brothers (Nigeria
Publishers) Ltd.) p. 29.

Two authors
Colclough, B. & Colclough, J. (1999). A challenge to change. London:Thorsons.p.
Ball, S. and Bell, S. (1994). Environmental Law (2nd ed., New Delhi: Universal Law
Publishing) p. 10.

Three authors and above

For three authors, list all the authors and cite as follows:
Rosenthal, R., Rosnow, R.L. & Rubin, D.B. (2000). Contrasts and effect sizes in behavioural
research: A correlational approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. P.

For more than three authors, cite the name of the first author followed by et al.e,g Andreyev,
E.P., et al. (1988). The International Law of the Sea (1" ed.. Moscow: Progress
Publishers) p. 15.
Note: For more than three authors, while the use of the above citation is permitted only in the
text or footnotes, you should cite the names of all the authors in the list of
references/bibliography.
Articles/Chapters in a book:
Bibliographic details are arranged in the sequence
Author or the Chapter, (Year of Publication), Chapter Title, (Editor/s), Titles of the book,
Articles onchapter pages, Place of Publication, Publisher e.g.

Berndt, TJ (1996). Exploring the Effects of Friendship Quality on Social Development in

M.W. Bukowski, A.P. Newcomb, & W.M. Hartup. (Eds.), The Company They Keep:
Friendship in childhood and Adolescence, (pp. 346-365). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press.
Piaget, J. (1970). The Stages of the Intellectual Development of the Child. In P. H. Mussen, J.
J. Congor & J. Kagan (eds.), Readings in child Development and Personality, New
York: Harper & Row, pp. 291-302
Ayanlaja, S. A. (2001), Geo-organic Farming, benefits and Prospects. In O.L. Oludimu (ed.)
Investment and Business Promotion Among Diverse Business Organization. Ibadan:
Asogun Books Publishers, pp. 107-133.
Adekoya, C.O. (2003). "Land Use Act and Constitutional Matters Arising" in Smith L.O.,
(ed.). The Land Use Act-Twenty Five Years After (Lagos: Folar Prints) p. 60,

Electronic books
Eckes, T. (2000). The developmental social psychology of gender. Retrieved 16 March, 2014
from net Library: http://www.netlibrary.com
Bass, L., Clements, P., & Kazman, R. (2003). Software architecture in practice (2nd ed.).
Retrieved 14 March, 2014 from Safari: http://proquest.safaribooksonline.com/

Chapter from an electronic book

Jones, N. A., & Gagnon, C. M. (2007). The neurophysiology of empathy. In T. F. D. Farrow
& P. W. R. Woodruff (Eds.), Empathy in mental illness. Retrieved 22 October, 2012
from EBL: http://reader.eblib.com.au

Publication in Journal:
Author of Article, Year of Publication, Title of Article, Journal/Serial title, Volume number,
Issue number and Page numbers on which the article appears eg.

Ayanlaja, S. A. (1984), Forms and Pedogenic Distribution of Extractable Manganese in Some

Soils of South Western Nigeria. Communication in Soil Science and Plant Analysis,
5(1), 65-79.
Adekoya, C.O. (2010) "Poverty, Human Rights and International Assistance in Africa", (1)
Law in Africa, 16.
Hanna, K. (2007). Adsorption of aromatic carboxylate compounds on the surface of
synthesized iron oxide-coated sands. Applied Geochemistry, 22, 2045-2053.
Kyratsis, A. (2004). Talk and interaction among children and the co construction of peer
groups and peer culture. Annual Review of Anthropology, 33(4), 231-247.
Parker, G., & Roy, K. (2001). Adolescent depression: A review. Australian and New Zealand
Journal of Psychiatry, 35, 572-580.
Zhang, B., Cohen, J., Ferrence, R., & Rehm, J. (2006). The impact of tobacco tax cuts on
smoking initiation among Canadian young adults. American Journal of Preventive
Medicine, 30, 474-479.
B.S. Fagbohunka, R.E. Okonji,and Z. A. Ayinla (2017) Purification and Characterization of
Cellulase from Termite Ametermes eveuncifer (Silverstri) Soldiers. International
Journal of Biology. 9(1):1-9
Journal Article (no author)
Anorexia nervosa. (1969), British Medical Journal, 1, 529-530
The pain of being a caffeine freak (2001, October 6), New Scientist, 172 (2311), 27.

E-Journal
Journal article from a full text database
Altobelli, T. (2009). Family violence and parenting: directions in practice. Australian
Journal of Family Law, 23, 194. Retrieved 22 January, 2010, from LexisNexis AU..
Borman, W.C., Hanson, M. A., Oppler, S. H., Pulakos, E. D., & White, L. A. (1993). Role of
early supervisory experience in supervisor performance. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 78, 443-449. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.78.3.443
Gilbert, D.G., Mc Clerrion, J. F., Rabinovich, N. E., Sugai, C., Plath, L.C., Asgaard, G.....
Botros, N. (2004). Effects of quitting smoking on EEG activation and attention last
for more than 31 days and are more severe with stress, dependence, DRD2 A1 allele,
and depressive traits. Nicotine and Tobacco Research, 6,249-267.
doi:10.1080/14622200410001676305
Patton, G.C., et al. (1996). Is smoking associated with depression and anxiety in teenagers?
American Journal of Public Health, 86. 225+, Retrieved 20 November, 2001, from
ProQuest.
Vogels, A. G. C., Crone, M. R., Hoekstra, F., & Reijneveld, S.A. (2009). Comparing three
short questionnaires to detect psychosocial dysfunction among primary school
children: a randomized method. BMC Public Health, 9, 489.
doi:10.1186/1471-2458-9-489

Journal article from the internet

Bond, L... Carlin, J. B., Thomas, L., Rubin, K., & Patton, G. (2001). Does bullying cause
emotional problems? A prospective study of young teenagers. BMI, 323, 480-484
doi:10.1136/bmj.323.7311.480
Sillick, T. J. & Schutte, N.S. (2006). Emotional intelligence and self- esteem mediate
between perceived early parental love and adult happiness. E-Journal of Applied
Psychology, 2(2), 38-48 Retrieved 10 February, 2011 from http://ojs.lib.swin.edu.au
/index.php/siap/article/view/71/100
Bonine, J.E. Standing to Sue: The First Step In Access to Justice, available at:
http://www.law.mercer.edu/elaw/ standingtalk. html> last visited 10 July, 2007.

Referencing from electronic information has the sequence

Author/editor, Year of publication, Article Title, Joum The type of medium (eg CD ROM,
motion picture, etc), Pages for length (e.g. 6-14.7 pp. 25 paragraphs, 30 as given)
"Retrieved" statement (e.g.
www address (must include webpage), supplier and name of electronic de email address, etc)
and access date.
Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, "OHCHR and NHRIS". Available at:
<http://www.ohchr.org/en/ countries/nhri/pages/nhrimain.aspx> last accessed 11
October 2013.

Secondary citation/in-text citation:

Within the text, name the original source and provide a citation for the secondary source.
If you read an article by Alex Reid, in which he cites information from a previous study by
Seidenberg and McClelland, and you wish to refer to this information in your work:
Seidenberg and McClelland's study (Reid, 2007). Study of multiple paranormal phenomena.
You would acknowledge Seidenberg and McClelland in the text:
Seidenberg and McClelland's study (Reid, 2007) found that the paranormal...
In your reference list at the end of your assignment, your entry would be a reference for
Reid's article because that is where you sourced the information:
Reid, A. S. (2007). Study of multiple paranormal phenomena. Journal of Abnormal
Psychology, 45, 13-26.
A Reference List contains all the references cited in the work. In contrast, a bibliography
cites work for background and further reading. The Reference List is arranged alphabetically
by author. Where an item has no author it is cited by its title, and ordered in the reference list
or bibliography in sequence by the first significant word of the title.
Note: Footnotes and bibliography should be used for Law and other related programmes.

Article in an Encyclopedia
Bergman, P.G. (1993) Relativity, In the new Encyclopedia Britannica (26501-508) Chicago
Encyclopedia Britannica

Article or Chapter in a Book (no author)

Antiviral drugs (1999) Van Nostrand's Sontific Encyclopedia (ed. 1) New York Van
Nostrand Reinhold p. 202

Magazine Article
Posner, M. 1 (1993, October 29). Seeing the mind. Science, 262, 673-674
Mobre, C. "Empowering Developing Countries" Global Change Newsletter, No.64
(December, 2005) p. 12

Newspaper Article
Summers, A. (1975, December 22-27). How women live, National Times, 12-14
Madunagu, E., Shobiye, H. and Olugbile, S. "Corruption: I'm ready for trial-Obasanjo" The
Punch, 20 March, 2009 p. 12

Personal Communication E-Mail

Personal Communication includes letters, memos, conversations and electronic mail. Any
entry which is not added to your reference list, but an in-text citation is still required. You
must include the initials and surname of the communicator as well as the date thus: Smith
stipulated on one occasion that the air conditioning system was maintained far too
"periodically" (personal communication, 19 April, 1998), OR the Company's policy on
refunds was contrary to that of State law (L Noel. Personal Communication, 2 May, 2000).

Internet Article Based on a Print Source

VandenBos, G., Knapp, S. & Doe, J. (2001). Role of Reference Elements in the Selection of
Resources by Psychology Undergraduates (Electronic Version), Journal of
Bibliographic Research, 5, 117-123.

Full Text Journal Article from CD-ROM (BPO)

La Rosa, S. M. (1992), Marketing Slays the Downsizing Dragon. Information Today 9 (3),
58-59. Retrieved 15 January, 1999 from UMI/Business Periodicals Ondisc

Full Text Journal Article from Electronic Database

Borman, W.C. Hanson, M. A., Oppler S. H., Pulakon, E. D., & White L. A. (1993). Role of
 Early Supervosry Experience in Supervisor performance. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 78, 43-449. Retrieved 23 October, 2000 from Psych ARTICLES
database.

Full Text Journal Article from an Internet-only Journal

Fredrickson, B. L. (2000, March 7). Cultivating Positive Emotions to Optimize Health and
Well-Being Prevention & Treatment, 3, Article 0001a. Retrieved 20 November, 2000,
from http://journals, spa.org/ prevention/ volume3/ pre0030001a.html

Article from an electronic encyclopaedia

Lai, M.C.C. (1999). Hepatitis delta virus. In A. Granoff & R. Webter (Eds.), Encyclopedia of
virology (2nd ed.).doi:10.1016 /8978-012374410-4.00417-9

Article from an electronic encyclopaedia: No author

Depression (psychology) (2001). In Microsoft Encarta online encyclopedia 2002. Retrieved
11 March, 2010 from http://encarta.ninemsr..com.au

Article from an electronic dictionary: No author

Suffragettes. (2003). In J. Palmowski (Ed.), A dictionary of contemporary world history,
Retrieved 13 April, 2014 from Oxford Reference Online.

Article from Curtin Electronic Reserve

Averou, C, Siemer, J. & Bjorn-anderson, N. (1999). The academic field of Information
system in Europe. European Journal of Information Systems, 8, 136-153. Retrieved 2
February, 2001, from Curtin Library and Information: Service E-Reserve
/dc60005019.
CD-ROM (Stand alone Multimedia disc.)
AA.D.A.M., Animated Dissection of Anatomy for Medicine. (1995). Retrieved 10 January,
1999, from A.D.A.M.Software.

World Wide Web Page

Beckleheimer, J. (1994). How do you cite URL's in a Bibliography? Retrieved 13 December,
1995, from http://www.nrissc.y.mil/meta/bibliography.html.

Worlds Wide Web Page (no author)

Educational America for the 21" century: Develoing a Strategic Plan for Educational
Leadership for Columbia University- 1993-2000 (Initial Workshop draft). (1994).
Retrieved 16 May, 1995, from http://www.ilt Columbia.edu/CONF/EDPlan.html.

Worlds Wide Web Page (no Publication date)

Prizker, T.J. (n.d.), An Early Fragment from Central Nepal. Retrieved 12 December,
1996, from http://www.IngressCom/ astanart/pritzker.Html.

World Wide Web Homepage

Cutting University of Technology Home page. (1999). Retrieved 11 February, 1999 from
http://www.curtin.edu.au
Video Recording
Young, T. (Director), & McClory, K. (Producer). (1965) Thunderball (Motion Picture), USA:
Warner Home Video.
You will need to provide the names of principal contributors, with their functions in round
brackets; indicate the medium in square brackets after the title, and write the location and
name of the distributor.

Electronic document
Murray, G. (2005). A duty of care to children and young people in Western Australia: Report
on the quality assurance and review of unsubstantiated allegations of abuse in care: 1
April 2004 to 12 September 2005. Retrieved 17 August, 2011 from Western
Australia, Department of Child Protection website: http://
www.community.wa.gov.au/NR/rdonlyres/851183A4 A822-4592-AB66
C410E453AFEC/0/DCDRPTG wenn Murray report with cover 2006.pdf

Electronic document: no author

How to cite references (1996). Retrieved 22 January, 2015 from Murdoch University Library:
http://wwwlib.murdoch.edu.au/find/citation/

Government publication: Australian Bureau of Statistics document

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (1997). Mental health and wellbeing: Profile of adults,
Western Australia (cat. no. 4326.5). Retrieved 10 March, 2013 from AusStats:
http://www.abs.gov.au ausstats

Government publication: Government department

Australia. Department of Health and Aged Care. (2000). National youth suicide prevention
strategy. Retrieved 18 April, 2014 from
http://www.health.gov.au/hadd/mentalhe/sp/nysps /about.htm

Whole Internet site

Goldberg, I. (2000). Dr. Ivan's depression central. Retrieved from 20 May,
2014http://www.psycom.net/depression central. html

Conference Paper in Print Proceedings

Rowling, L. (1993). Schools and grief: How does Australia compare to the United States. In
Wandarna coowar: Hidden grief. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 8th
National Conference of the National Association for Loss and Grief (Australia),
Yeppoon, Queensland (pp. 196-201). Turramurra, NSW: National Association for
Loss and Grief.
Wilkinson, R. (1999). Sociology as a marketing feast. In M. Collis, L. Munro, & S. Russell
(Eds.), Sociology for the New Millennium. Paper presented at The Australian
Sociological Association, Monash University, Melbourne, 7-10 December, Churchill,
VIC: Celts. (pp. 281-289)

Conference Paper from the Internet

Balakrishnan, R. (2006). Why aren't we using 3d user interfaces, and will we ever? Paper
presented at the IEEE Symposium on 3D User Interfaces. 25-26, March
doi:10.1109/VR.2006.148
Unpublished Conference Paper
Brown, S., & Caste, V. (2004). Integrated obstacle detection framework. Paper presented at
the IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symposium.Detroit, MI. May.

Conference Proceedings
Bickman, L., & Ellis, H. (Eds.). (1990). Preparing psychologists for the 21st century:
Proceedings of the National Conference on Graduate Education in Psychology,
University of Utah, 1988. Hillsdale, NJ: LErlbaum

Thesis in print: Unpublished

Hos, J. (2005). Mechanochemically synthesized nanomaterials for intermediate temperature
solid oxide fuel cell membranes. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Western
Australia, Crawley, Western Australia.p
Milnes, G. M. (1998). Adolescent depression: The use of generative instruction to increase
rational beliefs and decrease irrational beliefs and depressed mood. Unpublished M.
Appl. Psy, thesis. Murdoch University, Perth, Western Australia.

Thesis in print: Published

May, B. (2007). A survey of radial velocities in the zodiacal dust cloud, Bristol: Canopus
Publishing. p.

Thesis from a full text database

Bari, M. (2006). A distributed conceptual model for stream salinity generation processes:
Asystematic data-based approach. Retrieved 15 May, 2014 from Australasian Digital
Theses Program (WU2006.0058)

Titles of Nobility, Office, and Anonymous and Pseudonymous Works

Sovereigns, princes and members or religious orders who do not use surnames are entered
under the official names adopted by them, in the languages of the thesis. Chosen as the basis
of the leading for a person, the name by which he is commonly known. This may be a
person's real name, pseudonym, title of nobility, nickname, initials or other appellation. If a
person's name consists of several parts, select as the entry element that part of the name under
which the person would normally be listed in authoritative alphabetical lists in his own
language or country eg. Adanbilde II: Ebumawe of Ago-lwoye: 1998. The history of the
people of Ago Iwoye. Abeokuta:Government Printer 20 pp.

Corporate Authors/Government Agency

Government publications are usually listed under the official agency responsible for their
publications. The reference should be entered with name of the corporate author with year,
followed by the title. The country, state, city and other area of jurisdiction should be
included. The name of the major division of the government and possible further sub-division
should be included, eg Nigeria, Ministry of Finance, Director General's office.
PREPARATION OF PAPERS OF JOURNAL PUBLICATIONS.
One of the most important parts of professionalization is being able to publish your research.
Publishing the results of your research is a critical part of your academic career. By following
the advice and guidance here, you’ll be able to produce a paper that’s a great fit for your
chosen journal.

Know who you’re writing for

Before you start writing up your research, it’s important to have a good idea of which journal
you want your paper to be published in. When writing your paper you should keep the journal
you are targeting in mind, to make sure the style, structure and audience are all a good fit.
This helps the editor to see how your work matches with the aims and scope of the journal,
and make it more likely to be accepted for publication. (Make sure you’ve read the aims and
scope for your target journal before you start writing, it will tell you what types of article are
accepted.)

Read the guidelines

You need to understand what the editor of your target journal will be looking for. By
understanding the expectations of both the journal and the publisher, you can write your
paper to meet those standards from the start.
Familiarizing yourself with your chosen journal’s instructions for authors (IFAs) is a key part
of writing your paper and preparing to submit. The IFAs tell you exactly what the journal’s
editorial board expects to see, including details of specific processes to follow to make sure
there are no problems should your article be accepted.
It’s important to familiarize yourself with the journal’s own policies, but in addition, you
should also review the Taylor & Francis Editorial Policies that apply across our whole
portfolio of journals. Editorial Policies clearly lay out the standards of reporting expected by
the journal/publisher, as well as covering everything from ethics standards to use of third-
party material.

Structuring your article

The best way to determine how to structure your article is to study your target journal.
Look through the journal’s instructions for authors, but also take the time to read a selection
of articles already published there to see how they are structured. This will help you to
understand what the editor may be looking for.
You could also make use of an article template. Check the instructions for authors for your
chosen journal to see if they accept templated articles, then download the article template and
instructions.
Sometimes there are specific templates available to use, for example the Article Template and
Software Tool Article Template for LaTeX users submitting to F1000Research via Overleaf.

Writing your manuscript

Every article is unique, and the structure and the sections you need to include depends on the
type of article you’re writing and the subject of study.
Here’s a helpful step by step guide to take you through the standard sections that many
researchers need to include when writing a manuscript, in the order in which you would
normally write them.

Introduction: The purpose of this section is threefold. First, you want to trace previous work
on the subject and set up the problem. Second, you need to identify how your paper addresses
that problem. That is key: explaining what you do to address the gaps of literature or problem
 of the paper. Finally, you should note the broader contributions and implications of the piece.
The contributions of a paper can be theoretical, empirical and/or policy relevant, although
often the papers published in top journals have all three.
Literature Review: This is commonly referred to as a literature review, but I don’t like the
term because it implies that you are just doing a passive review of what others have said
about your topic. Reviewing previous work is necessary but not sufficient. The purpose of
this section goes beyond an accounting of what others have done but it is the Theoretical
Framework.
One way to understand the purpose of the theoretical framework is to see it as leading your
reader through gaps in the literature that your paper addresses. See the theme? It’s specific to
what you are doing in the paper. It also includes information that your reader needs to know
in order to understand your argument.
For example, you should incorporate any relevant foundational texts. One of the things you
see in general journals is that the theoretical framework is often divided into two sections,
precisely because general journals want papers that speak to multiple audiences. So one
section of your theoretical framework can deal with one set of literature, while the next
section deals with another. Part of your contribution can be uniting and filling in the gaps in
both sets.
The theoretical framework often gets a bad reputation in the peer-review process, because
reviewer comments often make suggestions regarding the theoretical framing of a
manuscript. But I see the framework of a paper to be one of its most central parts. If we view
research as a conversation, then the framework signals who you are in conversation with --
that is, the relevant audience and broader contributions of your work.
Sometimes a case-study section that gives background information on your specific case
follows the theoretical framework. For example, for a 2015 City and Community article, I
created a section dedicated just to explaining the history of the Subic Bay Freeport Zone in
the Philippines, because it was background that my readers needed to understand the data but
not part of my results.
Data and methods. This section answers the question “How do you know what you know?”
That can be further broken down into three parts:
 On what kind of information or material are you basing your findings (e.g., interviews,
statistics, documents)?
 How did you find that information, or where did it come from (e.g., U.S. Census, National
Archives, fieldwork)?
 How did you analyze that information? That is, what software or analytic strategies did you
use to come up with your findings?
Results. This section contains the meat of the paper, where you present the findings from
your work, and you should keep two points in mind. First, make sure that your results speak
to the theoretical and empirical questions that your paper raises in the front half -- in other
words, that your paper is cohesive throughout. Second, and particularly for qualitative papers,
organize your results analytically or thematically -- not, for example, in chronological order
or according to some other simple accounting. You should be thoughtful about how to
present your results to get the most out of your findings. (For some reason, academics like the
number three, so you will often see three main results in a given paper.)
Discussion or conclusion. You may also find a combined discussion and conclusion at the
end of the paper. What are the differences between a discussion and a conclusion? That can
vary by author or paper, and it depends on how you’ve written up your results section. One
way you can think about it is that the discussion section allows you to step back from the
results section and reflect on the broader story or themes of your results and how they tie
together. If you see a discussion section this way, then you can think about a conclusion as
addressing three things: 1) summarizing what you did in the paper, including its main
findings, 2) acknowledging the limitations of your work and 3) proposing steps for future
research that builds on what you’ve done in the paper.
These tips will not guarantee you publication in a given journal. Your paper’s research
question, data and methods, findings, and broader significance need to be original, clear and
well integrated in discussions in the field. In addition, you also still have to do your due
diligence about where to send your paper, including which journal is a good fit, the specific
format of its articles and the types of conversations that are within its pages. Nevertheless, the
tips I’ve provided can serve as a foundation from which to start to understand and break
down the sometimes-mystifying format of a published journal article.
REFERENCES
1. Victoria Reyes (2017) Demystifying the Journal Article
https://www.insidehighered.com/advice/2017/05/09/how-write-effective-journal-
article-and-get-it-published-essay

PREPARATION OF PAPERS OF JOURNAL REVIEWS.

What is a review article?

A review article, also called a literature review, is a survey of previously published research
on a topic. It should give an overview of current thinking on the theme and, unlike an original
research article, won’t present new experimental results.
The objective of a literature review is to provide a critical evaluation of the data available
from existing studies. Review articles can identify potential research areas to explore next,
and sometimes they will draw new conclusions from the existing data.

What do review articles do?

Provide a comprehensive foundation on a topic
Explain the current state of knowledge
Identify gaps in existing studies for potential future research
Highlight the main methodologies and research techniques
NOTE: There are some journals that only publish review articles, and others that do not
accept them. Make sure you check the aims and scope of the journal you’d like to publish in
to find out if it’s the right place for your review article.

What is the difference between a research article and a review article?

Research article Review article
Viewpoint Presents the viewpoint of the Critiques the viewpoint of other
author authors on a particular topic
Content New content Assessing already published content
Length Depends on the word limit Tends to be shorter than a research
provided by the journal you article, but will still need to adhere to
submit to word limits

8 key things to consider when writing a review article:

1. Check the journal’s aims and scope
Make sure you have read the aims and scope for the journal you are submitting to and follow
them closely. Different journals accept different types of articles and not all will accept
review articles, so it’s important to check this before you start writing.
2. Define your scope
Define the scope of your review article and the research question you’ll be answering,
making sure your article contributes something new to the field.
As award-winning author Angus Crake told us, you’ll also need to “define the scope of your
review so that it is manageable, not too large or small; it may be necessary to focus on recent
advances if the field is well established.”
3. Finding sources to evaluate
When finding sources to evaluate, Angus Crake says it’s critical that you “use multiple search
engines/databases so you don’t miss any important ones.”
For finding studies for a systematic review in medical sciences, read advice from NCBI.
4. Writing your title, abstract and keywords
Spend time writing an effective title, abstract and keywords. This will help maximize the
visibility of your article online, ensuring the right readers find your research. Your title and
abstract should be clear, concise, accurate, and informative.
For more information and guidance on getting these right, read our guide to writing a good
abstract and title and our researcher’s guide to search engine optimization.
5. Introduce the topic
Start with an overview of the topic and give some context, explaining why a review of the
topic is necessary. Gather research to inform your introduction and make it broad enough to
reach out to a large audience of non-specialists. This will help maximize its wider relevance
and impact.
Don’t make your introduction too long. Divide the review into sections of a suitable length to
allow key points to be identified more easily.
6. Include critical discussion
Make sure you present a critical discussion, not just a descriptive summary of the topic. If
there is contradictory research in your area of focus, make sure to include an element of
debate and present both sides of the argument. You can also use your review paper to resolve
conflict between contradictory studies.
“Once you have the core review section written, take a step back and look for common trends
that emerge. Highlight key advances that have been made and areas where more focused
research may lead to high impact. These are crucial to show where the field is heading, and
any common pitfalls people have struggled with.”
– Angus Crake, researcher
7. Sum it up
“You should aim to write a review that leaves a clear impression of what is ‘well
understood’, and what still remains a ‘mystery’ to be solved.”
– Diptak Bhattacharya, researcher
This can include making suggestions for future research on the topic as part of your
conclusion.
8. Use a critical friend
One last check. Always perform a final spell and grammar check of your article before
submission.
You may want to ask a critical friend or colleague to give their feedback before you submit.
If English is not your first language, think about using a language-polishing service. Find out
more about the Taylor & Francis Editing Services.
To get the latest news, insights, tips and more straight to your inbox, sign up for the Taylor &
Francis Insights newsletter.
Review article checklist

Complete this checklist before you submit your review article:

Have you checked the journal’s aims and scope?
Have you defined the scope of your article?
Did you use multiple search engines to find sources to evaluate?
Have you written a descriptive title and abstract using keywords?
Did you start with an overview of the topic?
Have you presented a critical discussion?
Have you included future suggestions for research in your conclusion?
Have you asked a friend to do a final spell and grammar check?

REFERENCES
1. https://authorservices.taylorandfrancis.com/publishing-your-research/writing-your-
paper/how-to-write-review-article/

ASSIGNMENT
Get 5 recent journal articles (From 2000 to 2021) each on either cellulase or waste
management. Bind and submit. Make sure it has title page, following the pattern in this note.
Note: Don’t copy anybody.
This is part of you CA.

PRODUCTION, ISOLATION, PURIFICATION AND CHARACTERISATION OF

ENZYMES
INTRODUCTION
The sources of proteins are plant, animal, or microbial cells. Certain tissues such as pancreas
glands or liver are particularly rich in enzymes. However, some of the enzymes in the
mixture when cells are disrupted are proteases. They digest proteins. Enzymes are proteins,
and proteases can digest themselves. We can take advantage of the change in enzyme activity
with pH by changing to a pH where the protease activity is low. The disruption of cells to
release enzymes can be carried out at low pH and cold temperatures to minimize losses due to
proteolytic activity.
Proteins have great specificity that can be used to attach them to other molecules. Attaching a
protein to a solid by exploiting this specificity is called affinity chromatography. Sometimes
quite pure enzymes can be recovered from a mixture by affinity chromatography, but more
often there is a preliminary separation. Each binding site can attach to only one enzyme
molecule, so it can be expensive to provide enough of the binding agent.
A very common preliminary separation comes from adding ammonium sulfate in stages.
Different proteins precipitate at different salt concentrations, and this divides the enzymes
and other proteins into fractions. There are other salts for precipitation, and polyethylene
glycol is an effective organic precipitant.
The fraction with the desired enzyme also contains much salt. Enzymes form colloidal
suspensions rather than true solutions, but we make the common mistake of saying that the
enzyme is "redissolved" in water. Dialysis with membranes through which the enzyme
cannot pass is the popular method for removing the salt.
Chromatographic separation is covered in much detail in other pages and will not be
discussed here. New techniques such as displacement chromatography can actually
concentrate the enzyme, but conventional chromatography that flushes it through the column
causes much dilution. After concentration by means such as forcing the water out through a
finely pored membrane, freeze drying is a popular method for producing a stable product.

OBTAIN CELLS BY FERMENTATION OR PURCHASE OF PLANT OR ANIMAL

ORGAN

RELEASE PROTEINS FROM CELLS (RUPTURE BY SHEAR, HOMOGENIZATION,

SONICATION ETC.)

REMOVE CELL DEBRIS (BY FILTRATION OR CENTRIFUGATION)

PRECIPITATE PROTEINS (WITH AMMONIUM SULPHATE OR POLYETHYLENE

GLYCOL)

COLLECT PRECIPITATE AND RESUSPEND FOR SALT REMOVAL (BY DIALYSIS

OR ULTRAFILTERATION)

PURIFICATION (BY CHROMATOGRAPHIC)

CONCENTRATED (BY DIALYSIS OR ULTRAFILTERATION) IF DILUTED BY

CHROMATOGRAPY

FREEZE DRYING

METHODS OF PROTEIN PURIFICATION

The methods used in protein purification can roughly be divided into analytical and
preparative methods. The distinction is not exact, but the deciding factor is the amount of
protein that can practically be purified with that method. Analytical methods aim to detect
and identify a protein in a mixture, whereas preparative methods aim to produce large
quantities of the protein for other purposes, such as structural biology or industrial use. In
general, the preparative methods can be used in analytical applications, but not the other way
around.
EXTRACTION
Depending on the source, the protein has to be brought into solution by breaking the tissue or
cells containing it. There are several methods to achieve this: Repeated freezing and thawing,
sonication, homogenization by high pressure, filtration , or permeabilization by organic
solvents. The method of choice depends on how fragile the protein is and how sturdy the cells
are. After this extraction process soluble proteins will be in the solvent, and can be separated
from cell membranes, DNA etc. by centrifugation. The extraction process also extracts
proteases, which will start digesting the proteins in the solution. If the protein is sensitive to
proteolysis, it is usually desirable to proceed quickly, and keep the extract cooled, to slow
down proteolysis.
PRECIPITATION AND DIFFERENTIAL SOLUBILIZATION
In bulk protein purification, a common first step to isolate proteins is precipitation with
ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4. This is performed by adding increasing amounts of
ammonium sulfate and collecting the different fractions of precipitate protein. Ammonium
sulphate can be removed by dialysis.The hydrophobic groups on the proteins gets exposed to
the atmosphere and it attracts other protein hydrophobic groups and gets aggregated. Protein
precipitated will be large enough to be visible. One advantage of this method is that it can be
performed inexpensively with very large volumes.
The first proteins to be purified are water-soluble proteins. Purification of integral membrane
proteins requires disruption of the cell membrane in order to isolate any one particular protein
from others that are in the same membrane compartment. Sometimes a particular membrane
fraction can be isolated first, such as isolating mitochondria from cells before purifying a
protein located in a mitochondrial membrane. A detergent such as sodium dodecyl sulfate
(SDS) can be used to dissolve cell membranes and keep membrane proteins in solution
during purification; however, because SDS causes denaturation, milder detergents such as
Triton X-100 or CHAPS can be used to retain the protein's native conformation during
complete purification.
ULTRACENTRIFUGATION
Centrifugation is a process that uses centrifugal force to separate mixtures of particles of
varying masses or densities suspended in a liquid. When a vessel (typically a tube or bottle)
containing a mixture of proteins or other particulate matter, such as bacterial cells, is rotated
at high speeds, the angular momentum yields an outward force to each particle that is
proportional to its mass. The tendency of a given particle to move through the liquid because
of this force is offset by the resistance the liquid exerts on the particle. The net effect of
"spinning" the sample in a centrifuge is that massive, small, and dense particles move
outward faster than less massive particles or particles with more "drag" in the liquid. When
suspensions of particles are "spun" in a centrifuge, a "pellet" may form at the bottom of the
vessel that is enriched for the most massive particles with low drag in the liquid. Non-
compacted particles still remaining mostly in the liquid are called the "supernatant" and can
be removed from the vessel to separate the supernatant from the pellet. The rate of
centrifugation is specified by the angular acceleration applied to the sample, typically
measured in comparison to the g. If samples are centrifuged long enough, the particles in the
vessel will reach equilibrium wherein the particles accumulate specifically at a point in the
vessel where their buoyant density is balanced with centrifugal force. Such an "equilibrium"
centrifugation can allow extensive purification of a given particle.
Sucrose gradient centrifugation — a linear concentration gradient of sugar (typically sucrose,
glycerol, or a silica based density gradient media, like Percoll) is generated in a tube such that
the highest concentration is on the bottom and lowest on top. Percoll is a trademark owned by
GE Healthcare companies. A protein sample is then layered on top of the gradient and spun at
high speeds in an ultracentrifuge. This causes heavy macromolecules to migrate towards the
bottom of the tube faster than lighter material. During centrifugation in the absence of
sucrose, as particles move farther and farther from the center of rotation, they experience
more and more centrifugal force (the further they move, the faster they move). The problem
with this is that the useful separation range of within the vessel is restricted to a small
observable window. Spinning a sample twice as long doesn't mean the particle of interest will
go twice as far, in fact, it will go significantly further. However, when the proteins are
moving through a sucrose gradient, they encounter liquid of increasing density and viscosity.
A properly designed sucrose gradient will counteract the increasing centrifugal force so the
particles move in close proportion to the time they have been in the centrifugal field. Samples
separated by these gradients are referred to as "rate zonal" centrifugations. After separating
the protein/particles, the gradient is then fractionated and collected.
CHROMATOGRAPHIC METHODS
Chromatographic equipment. Here set up for a size exclusion chromatography. The buffer is
pumped through the column (right) by a computer controlled device.
Usually a protein purification protocol contains one or more chromatographic steps. The
basic procedure in chromatography is to flow the solution containing the protein through a
column packed with various materials. Different proteins interact differently with the column
material, and can thus be separated by the time required to pass the column, or the conditions
required to elute the protein from the column. Usually proteins are detected as they are
coming off the column by their absorbance at 280 nm. Many different chromatographic
methods exist:
1. SIZE EXCLUSION CHROMATOGRAPHY
Chromatography can be used to separate protein in solution or denaturing conditions by using
porous gels. This technique is known as size exclusion chromatography. The principle is that
smaller molecules have to traverse a larger volume in a porous matrix. Consequentially,
proteins of a certain range in size will require a variable volume of eluent (solvent) before
being collected at the other end of the column of gel.
In the context of protein purification, the eluant is usually pooled in different test tubes. All
test tubes containing no measurable trace of the protein to purify are discarded. The
remaining solution is thus made of the protein to purify and any other similarly-sized
proteins.

2. SEPARATION BASED ON CHARGE OR HYDROPHOBICITY

(a) Hydrophobic Interaction Chromatography

Resin used in the column are amphiphiles with both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions.
The hydrophobic part of the resin attracts hydrophobic region on the proteins. The greater the
hydrophobic region on the protein the stronger the attraction between the gel and that
particular protein.
(b) Ion exchange chromatography
Ion exchange chromatography separates compounds according to the nature and degree of
their ionic charge. The column to be used is selected according to its type and strength of
charge. Anion exchange resins have a positive charge and are used to retain and separate
negatively charged compounds, while cation exchange resins have a negative charge and are
used to separate positively charged molecules.
Before the separation begins a buffer is pumped through the column to equilibrate the
opposing charged ions. Upon injection of the sample, solute molecules will exchange with
the buffer ions as each competes for the binding sites on the resin. The length of retention for
each solute depends upon the strength of its charge. The most weakly charged compounds
will elute first, followed by those with successively stronger charges. Because of the nature of
the separating mechanism, pH, buffer type, buffer concentration, and temperature all play
important roles in controlling the separation.
Ion exchange chromatography is a very powerful tool for use in protein purification and is
frequently used in both analytical and preparative separations.
(c) Affinity chromatography
Affinity Chromatography is a separation technique based upon molecular conformation,
which frequently utilizes application specific resins. These resins have ligands attached to
their surfaces which are specific for the compounds to be separated. Most frequently, these
ligands function in a fashion similar to that of antibody-antigen interactions. This "lock and
key" fit between the ligand and its target compound makes it highly specific, frequently
generating a single peak, while all else in the sample is unretained.
Many membrane proteins are glycoproteins and can be purified by lectin affinity
chromatography. Detergent-solubilized proteins can be allowed to bind to a chromatography
resin that has been modified to have a covalently attached lectin. Proteins that do not bind to
the lectin are washed away and then specifically bound glycoproteins can be eluted by adding
a high concentration of a sugar that competes with the bound glycoproteins at the lectin
binding site. Some lectins have high affinity binding to oligosaccharides of glycoproteins that
is hard to compete with sugars, and bound glycoproteins need to be released by denaturing
the lectin.

Nickel-affinity column. The resin is blue since it has bound nickel.

Metal binding
A common technique involves engineering a sequence of 6 to 8 histidines into the N- or C-
terminal of the protein. The polyhistidine binds strongly to divalent metal ions such as nickel
and cobalt. The protein can be passed through a column containing immobilized nickel ions,
which binds the polyhistidine tag. All untagged proteins pass through the column. The
protein can be eluted with imidazole, which competes with the polyhistidine tag for binding
to the column, or by a decrease in pH (typically to 4.5), which decreases the affinity of the
tag for the resin. While this procedure is generally used for the purification of recombinant
proteins with an engineered affinity tag (such as a 6xHis tag or Clontech's HAT tag), it can
also be used for natural proteins with an inherent affinity for divalent cations.
Immunoaffinity chromatography
A HPLC. From left to right: A pumping device generating a gradient of two different
solvents, a steel enforced column and an apparatus for measuring the absorbance.
Immunoaffinity chromatography uses the specific binding of an antibody to the target protein
to selectively purify the protein. The procedure involves immobilizing an antibody to a
column material, which then selectively binds the protein, while everything else flows
through. The protein can be eluted by changing the pH or the salinity. Because this method
does not involve engineering in a tag, it can be used for proteins from natural sources.
Purification of a tagged protein
Adding a tag to the protein such as RuBPS gives the protein a binding affinity it would not
otherwise have. Usually the recombinant protein is the only protein in the mixture with this
affinity, which aids in separation. The most common tag is the Histidine-tag (His-tag), that
has affinity towards nickel or cobalt ions. Thus by immobilizing nickel or cobalt ions on a
resin, an affinity support that specifically binds to histidine-tagged proteins can be created.
Since the protein is the only component with a His-tag, all other proteins will pass through
the column, and leave the His-tagged protein bound to the resin. The protein is released from
the column in a process called elution, which in this case involves adding imidazole, to
compete with the His-tags for nickel binding, as it has a ring structure similar to histidine.
The protein of interest is now the major protein component in the eluted mixture, and can
easily be separated from any minor unwanted contaminants by a second step of purification,
such as size exclusion chromatography or RP-HPLC.
Another way to tag proteins is to engineer an antigen peptide tag onto the protein, and then
purify the protein on a column or by incubating with a loose resin that is coated with an
immobilized antibody. This particular procedure is known as immunoprecipitation.
Immunoprecipitation is quite capable of generating an extremely specific interaction which
usually results in binding only the desired protein. The purified tagged proteins can then
easily be separated from the other proteins in solution and later eluted back into clean
solution.0
When the tags are not needed anymore, they can be cleaved off by a protease. This often
involves engineering a protease cleavage site between the tag and the protein.
HPLC
High performance liquid chromatography or high pressure liquid chromatography is a form
of chromatography applying high pressure to drive the solutes through the column faster.
This means that the diffusion is limited and the resolution is improved. The most common
form is "reversed phase" hplc, where the column material is hydrophobic. The proteins are
eluted by a gradient of increasing amounts of an organic solvent, such as acetonitrile. The
proteins elute according to their hydrophobicity. After purification by HPLC the protein is in
a solution that only contains volatile compounds, and can easily be lyophilized.[3] HPLC
purification frequently results in denaturation of the purified proteins and is thus not
applicable to proteins that do not spontaneously refold.
Concentration of the purified protein
A selectively permeable membrane can be mounted in a centrifuge tube. The buffer is forced
through the membrane by centrifugation, leaving the protein in the upper chamber.
At the end of a protein purification, the protein often has to be concentrated. Different
methods exist.
Lyophilization
If the solution doesn't contain any other soluble component than the protein in question the
protein can be lyophilized (dried). This is commonly done after an HPLC run. This simply
removes all volatile component leaving the proteins behind.
Ultrafiltration
Ultrafiltration concentrates a protein solution using selective permeable membranes. The
function of the membrane is to let the water and small molecules pass through while retaining
the protein. The solution is forced against the membrane by mechanical pump or gas pressure
or centrifugation.

Analytical
Denaturing-Condition Electrophoresis
Gel electrophoresis is a common laboratory technique that can be used both as preparative
and analytical method. The principle of electrophoresis relies on the movement of a charged
ion in an electric field. In practice, the proteins are denatured in a solution containing a
detergent (SDS). In these conditions, the proteins are unfolded and coated with negatively
charged detergent molecules. The proteins in SDS-PAGE are separated on the sole basis of
their size.
In analytical methods, the protein migrate as bands based on size. Each band can be detected
using stains such as Coomassie blue dye or silver stain. Preparative methods to purify large
amounts of protein, require the extraction of the protein from the electrophoretic gel. This
extraction may involve excision of the gel containing a band, or eluting the band directly off
the gel as it runs off the end of the gel.
In the context of a purification strategy, denaturing condition electrophoresis provides an
improved resolution over size exclusion chromatography, but does not scale to large quantity
of proteins in a sample as well as the late chromatography columns.
Non-Denaturing-Condition Electrophoresis
An important non-denaturing electrophoretic procedure for isolating bioactive
metalloproteins in complex protein mixtures is termed 'quantitative native continuous
polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (QPNC-PAGE).

QUESTIONS
1. How will you obtain the crude extract of a known enzyme?
2. Enumerate the steps involved in purifying enzymes to homogeneity.
 3. Explain the steps involved in purifying enzymes to homogeneity.
4. Write short notes on 5 chromatographic methods that can be used in
purifying enzymes.

ENZYME CHARACTERISATION
En zyme characterisation simply refers to the determination of the various chemical and
physical properties (characteristics) of an enzyme. It involves the use of a series of laboratory
procedures. Examples of assays for commonly characterised enzyme properties in
biochemical researches include:
1) Determination of the effect of changes in temperature on enzyme’s activity and optimum
temperature.
2) Determination of enzyme’s thermal stability.
3) Determination of the effect of changes in pH on enzyme’s activity and optimum pH.
4) Determination of pH stability.
5) Determination of the effect of changes in substrate concentration on enzyme’s activity and
kinetic constants e.g Vmax, Km, Kcat, Km/Kcat etc.
6) Determination of substrate specificity
7) Determination of molecular weight (Mw) of enzyme
8) Determination of the effect of metal ions, chelating agent or denaturating agents.
9) Determination of enzyme’s isoelectric point (pI)
10) Determination of the effect of duration of incubation.
11) Determination of active site fractional saturation (V/Vmax) at a particular substrate
concentration.
12) Determination of Enzyme’s turnover number (Vmax/ET)
13) Determination of activation energy (Ea)
14) Determination of salt tolerance