ECWA THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY

KAGORO, KADUNA STATE.

NOTES ON
INTRODUCTION TO OLD TESTAMENT
PROPHETIC BOOKS/PROPHETS IN
ANCIENT ISRAEL
CRS308

PREPARED BY: Past. Hosea Simon

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INTRODUCTION

Norman L. Geisler uses a Christological lens in reading the Old Testament which led him to
describe the collection of the books of the prophets as “the expectation of Christ.” 1 His
description of the books of the prophets as ‘the expectation of Christ’ is no doubt an attempt to
simplify the purpose or function of what prophecy might have entailed in an overarching sense.
It thus summarizes the work of prophecy as virtually doing one thing and looking into one
particular direction. This is not very likely if we are to be conscious of the diverse messages of
the prophets as could be explored in this note. We do not deny Geisler’s description but that in a
sense is very tempting to only be stuck within prophecy as a long gaze into the future, thus the
“foretelling” aspect is here more emphasized to the neglect of the “forth-telling” that directly
affected the immediate life and contexts of the prophets even as they looked into the future and
some of them gave prophecies that were actually preparatory for the Christ event.

Prophecy in our understanding, and as could be seen in many other and more elaborate
discussions, is the presentation of the presence of God by, in and through the prophet. The
prophet becomes the paradigm(model/pattern/standard/example) or an embodiment of the
presence of God in words and deeds.2 It is not far from the truth to traditionally describe him/her
as the “mouthpiece” of God. They serve as the mouthpiece of God indeed but in a way that is
more concrete than being an angel. They were real human beings with all human limitations and
expectations, yet, they are being animated by the Spirit of God whenever God wants to use them
as instruments of instruction for the creation of history of moral consciousness at any given
point, place and time. The prophets present the “Word of God” that is living and active (Heb.
4:12) to inform the human mind and to even create history as has been explained by Gerhard von
Rad (cf. Heb.1:1-4.).3

In this study we shall see the prophets as embodiments of the presence of God in their various
but connected contexts and times. There are not many traditional differences in terms of
function between the priest and the prophet. It is a two-way traffic in doing the same thing. This
could be seen in the fact that many prophets like Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Zechariah (and to some
extent Isaiah) are actually coming from priestly families. 4 This helps us to see the interface
between the two traditions by means of corollary (consequence) activities not
antagonism(hatred). Nevertheless, the prophets definitely spoke and condemned the ideological
dogmas that grew strong enough to have captured the minds of the people into lives of injustice
and unfaithfulness to Yahweh (cf. Isa. 1 and Jer. 7).

There is no doubt that prophets appear in categories in the Old Testament. There were itinerant
(wandering) prophets like Elijah, Elisha, and Samuel which are popularly known as the non-
1
Norman L. Geisler, A Popular Survey of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House,
[1977] 1994), 226.
2
Sheldon H. Blank, “The Prophet as Paradigm.” In James L. Crenshaw and John T. Willis (eds), Essays in
Old Testament Ethics [J. Philip Hyatt, In Memorium] (New York: KTAV Publishing House, 1994), 111-130; cf.
Erhard Gerstenberger, “Jeremiah’s Complaints. Observations on Jer. 15:10-21,” Journal of Biblical Literature, 82
(1963), 393-408.
3
Cf. Gerhard Von Rad, God at Work in Israel. Translated by John H. Marks (Nashville: Abingdon Press,
1980).
4
Cf. Jeremiah 1:1, Ezekiel 1:1f, Zechariah 1:1f.

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writing or non-classical prophets. These are prophets that von Rad describes as acting before the
classical era of prophetism.5 It is interesting to note that in his discussion of the pre-classical
prophets he did not include Moses. The inclusion and/or exclusion of Moses is actually debatable
because he has been recognized as a great prophet of God within whose ministerial tradition is
given the clues for discerning the true prophets from the false. In fact, Moses should be seen as
the pioneer of what could be described as “classical prophecy” in the first place. Nevertheless,
we can give von Rad and others who closely follow him in their trend of thinking the benefit of
the doubt seeing that his (von Rad) methodological framework in doing OT theology is
Deuteronomistic, thus he had more eyes for the understanding of theology and history within
Deuteronomistic History (DrtH) more specifically. Be that as it may (for now), our focus in this
note is to provide an exploration of the books of the prophets namely, the writing prophets (or
the latter prophets). Walter Brueggemann in a creative reflection on the nature and the function
of the prophetic books saw two dimensions of the materials. 6 Firstly, the former prophets
namely, from Joshua to the end of Kings, present the reader with a theological commentary from
the perspective of the formation and flow of history. Secondly, the latter prophets, namely the
major and minor prophetic books serve as the presentation of the convictions of the people of
God (Israel and later Israel and Judah) in the midst of the problems, temptations and tragedies of
life and history.

THREE ERAS OF PROPHETS7

The prophets spoke to Israel in times of crisis. In fact, historical and moral crisis, if the list of
canonical prophets is any indication, called them forth. Had there been no crisis, there would
have been little need for the prophets. When the list of literary prophets is posted, it will be noted
that they are clustered around critical historical events or eras. The historical continuum(range)
of Israel’s history from the eighth to the fifth centuries B.C. can be sketched, even if roughly, in
the literary prophets. Three centers, corresponding to the three international eras, bring them into
sharp focus. Or, it might as accurately be said that the literary prophets bring three historical
centers into sharp focus. The first category includes those of the Neo-Assyrian period, whose
attention fell upon the circumstances leading up to and the conditions following the fall of the
Northern Kingdom (Israel) in 722 B.C. The constellation of prophets who assessed the moral and
theological climate that led to the end of Israel was constituted by Amos, Hosea, Micah, and
Isaiah. In varying ways but with sympathetic insight, they saw the end of Israel and its
implications for Judah. The critical nature of this era had much to do with the preservation of the
prophetic oracles as sacred literature. Although Jonah was not preoccupied with that event and
obviously belongs on the periphery of this era, it might be said that the judgment he reluctantly
saw submerged in Yahweh’s compassionate nature reemerged in the era of this prophetic
constellation.

The second group of prophets is composed of those of the Neo-Babylonian era, whose focus
marked out the attendant circumstances and succeeding conditions of the fall of the Southern
Kingdom (Judah) in 586 B.C. At the end of the Assyrian period, when the shifting lines of
international domination blurred and then cleared again with the rise of the Chaldean-inspired
5
Cf. G. von Rad, Old Testament Theology; The Theology of Israel’s Prophetic Traditions. Volume II.
Translated by D. M. G. Stalker (Edinburg, 1965),6-32.
6
Brueggemann, (2003: 136).
7
C. Hassel Bullock, An Introduction to the Old Testament Prophetic Books, (Chicago: Moody Press,
2007), 782

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Babylonian empire, some of the most powerful and discerning voices of history addressed the
developing crisis. Zephaniah, Jeremiah, Habakkuk, Nahum, Ezekiel, and Obadiah contributed
their distinctive insights to their contemporaries and delivered their message from the Lord to
Judah. The tragic model of Israel and her adamant persistence in idolatry was like a dark,
foreboding cloud that settled over Judah. With the passing of time historical memory faded; the
tragedy of 722 diminished as a moral example, and Judah stood on the same treacherous
precipice(height) as had her sister Israel. This group of prophets, with irresistible compulsion,
tried to coax Judah away from the edge of the abyss(depth) and announced the bad news of what
would happen if she did not move back into the safety zone of covenantal observance. Yet
thankfully the news was not all bad, for the fall of Jerusalem, at a certain point as inevitable as
Samaria’s fall, carried a message of hope that Judah would miraculously revive.

After the Exile, during the Persian period, the third group of prophets built upon that hope.
They set forth Yahweh’s new order as Babylonian austerity passed into Persian indulgence. With
a new landlord, Judah’s fortunes, partly smothered in the long exile but kept alive by religious
enthusiasts, took a turn for the better. The decree of Cyrus in 538 B.C. marked the beginning of
that era. The first faint flurry of hope might even be traced to the release of Jehoiachin from
prison after the death of Nebuchadnezzar in 562 B.C. Daniel, Haggai, Zechariah, Joel, and
Malachi in their respective ways articulated the hope and implicated the changing conditions of
the first hundred years of post-exilic life in Judah. The ebbing tide of history had fallen to its
lowest mark in the fall of Jerusalem, a disaster once popularly thought to be impossible. The rise
of Cyrus after the Exile represented the incoming tide of Judean history.

Four terms were applied to individuals, both men and women, who demonstrated prophetic
traits: “man of God” (’îsh hā-elōhîm), “seer” (rō’eh), “visionary” (hozeh), and “prophet” (nābî’).
The word “diviner” or “soothsayer” (qōsōm) is used of those who practiced formal divination,
perhaps using lots or other methods of discerning the will of the deity, but that term was not
applied to those prophets who receive legitimate sanction in the OT. The terms “seer” and
“visionary” (rō’eh and hōzeh) are descriptive of the individual’s experience, the first
emphasizing the extraordinary insight that came to the prophets, and the second the method of
reception by means of visions or dreams. The terms “seer” and “man of God” are both attested in
the case of Samuel (1 Sam. 9:9). The implication of the phrase “man of God” is that the person
was possessed by God for special service.

In the transition period between the nonliterary (those whose words have not been preserved in
books that carry their names) and literary prophets (those whose words have been preserved in
written form under their respective names), little distinction can be detected between the terms
“man of God” and “prophet” (nābî). With the dawn of literary prophecy, however, the Hebrew
term nābî became the common name for the prophet. Some scholars believe the word came into
disrespect in the time of Amos, inciting him to protest the allegation that he was a nābî. His
protestation, however, was more likely provoked by the motives that the priest Amaziah
attributed to his ministry in Bethel—that he was there to earn his bread. The reply of Amos in
which he explains his real occupation supports that interpretation (Amos 7:14–15).8

8
Bullock, An introduction to the Old Testament Prophetic Books, 783

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KINGS AND PROPHETS9
Within Israelite society the strongest power structure with which the prophets had to deal was the
monarchy, first of the United Kingdom (Saul, David, and Solomon) and then of the separate
monarchies of Israel and Judah. The kingship came into being through the intermediate agency
of the prophet Samuel (1 Sam. 8); Saul, the nation’s first king, participated in the ecstatic
practices of the prophets of his day (1 Sam. 10:1–13). The importance of Samuel as a transition
figure is strongly emphasized in the first book of Samuel, and his precedent-setting role of
making the kingly office responsive to the prophet should be noted well. The model can be seen
in the reign of David with Nathan’s transmission of Yahweh’s master plan for building the
Temple (2 Sam. 7) and his aggressive role in putting Solomon on the throne (1 Kings 1:22–48).
Amidst the uncertainties that marked the end of Solomon’s reign, Ahijah of Shiloh fanned the
fire of secession and offered Jeroboam a five-sixths share of tribal loyalty (1 Kings 11:29–40).
When civil war threatened to deepen the division after Solomon’s death, Shemaiah, the man of
God, sued for peace and averted Rehoboam’s plans for war against the north (12:21–24).
Jeroboam’s religious apostasy, centralized in Dan and Bethel, brought the anonymous man of
God from Judah to announce that a Judean king would bring an end to the apostate priesthood (1
Kings 13:1–10).

The interaction of prophets and kings in the preliterary stage came to a climax in the relations
between Elijah and Elisha and the Israelite kings. Especially did Elijah’s zealous ministry for
Yahwism concentrate upon restoring national loyalty to the ancient God of Israel. With
unprecedented success against Baalism, aided by the reform movement of the Rechabite
Jehonadab (2 Kings 10:15– 17), Elijah dealt a devastating blow to the alliance between the
northern monarchy and Baalism. Sadly, however, it did not endure. It has been proposed that the
prophets after the division of the kingdom, at least down to the eighth century, were proponents
of national reunion. That element was likely an integral part of their platform, but their interests
were broader than that. They were basically religious, calling for the purge of pagan elements
from the national religion. They were politically inclined but religiously motivated. The two
were paired.

The role of the preliterary prophets in national emergencies is indisputable, but we should
reiterate that their motive was basically religious. Samuel, architect of a new age and
government, recalled Yahweh’s miraculous deliverance from Egypt and His ensuing care. He
asserted the principle that faithfulness to Yahweh’s commandment was the path to national
prosperity (1 Sam. 12:6–17). As already noted, Elijah’s theological diplomacy called for the
same platform (1 Kings 18:18). It should be no surprise, therefore, that the first of the classical
prophets, Amos, Hosea, Micah, and Isaiah, were intensely interested in the monarchy. Amaziah
of the Bethel priesthood sized up Amos’s message as conspiracy against Jeroboam II (Amos
7:10). Hosea condemned the northern monarchy as illegitimate (Hos. 8:4), and Micah envisioned
the rise of a future ruler from the unpretentious town of Bethlehem (Mic. 5:2). Isaiah, among
those prophets, was most directly involved with the monarchy. He personally challenged Ahaz to
ask a sign of Yahweh (Isa. 7:3–17) and was chief prophetic counsel to Hezekiah (36–39). Yet it
should be noted, as will be developed further in the discussion on Jonah, that with the literary
prophets the addressees of the divine oracles were less frequently kings and more often the
population at large. It is very likely that the prophets carried their message directly to the people
9
BULLOCK, An introduction to the Old Testament Prophetic Books, 789

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in the hope that they would repent and instigate national reform. That strategy was logical in
view of the failure of the monarchy to instigate lasting reform. As noted above, the author of
Kings saw the Judean monarchy as a source of religious reform, but at the same time the
monarchy, particularly as represented by Manasseh, was the cause of the fall of the state. In its
hands was the power to turn the nation toward good or evil.

GOD AND THE PROPHETS10

The books of Kings and the majority opinion of the literary prophets agree that the fall of the
Judean state was a result of idolatry in its various forms. After Hezekiah’s courageous reforms
that turned Judah in a divergent direction from the recently fallen Israelite state, his son
Manasseh’s reversal of the reforms inalterably determined the fate of the nation (2 Kings 21:10–
16; 23:26–27; 24:3–4). Especially was the prophetic opposition strong against the form of
idolatry known as Baalism, a fertility cult that the Israelites found deeply rooted in the native
culture of Canaan at the time of the settlement. The alleged suzerainty of the god Baal over the
land of Canaan came into conflict with prophetic belief that Yahweh was Lord of the land. The
prophets were keenly aware that He had brought the Israelites out of Egypt and caused them to
inherit the Promised Land.

The Exodus and the conquest were lodged in prophetic memory and belonged to that same line
of tradition that gloried in the rise of Nazirites and prophets as Yahweh’s agents (Amos 2:9–12).
Both the prophetic view and that of Kings were grounded in the Mosaic understanding of the
sovereignty of the Lord and His demand for exclusive worship (Ex. 20:3–6; Deut. 5:7–10). In
fact, the fundamental problem with idolatry was its defiance of God’s sovereign rule over
His world. Isaiah, for example, emphasized the Creator’s right to rule the world and to
demand honor from His creatures (Isa. 40:12–31).

The worship of idols violated another critical principle in OT religion. It disregarded the ethical
undergirding of Yahwism. Basic human relationships, defined and guarded in the Pentateuch,
were broken down in the Baal cult. The boundaries that secured family ties, especially sexual
regulations, were erased by the fertility rites performed in the pagan sanctuaries. The ethical
demands of justice and righteousness, with their implications for the court of law and the
marketplace, lost their tenacity within Baalism. Its fundamental moral assumptions were in
contradiction to those of prophetic persuasion. Idolatry summed up all that was wrong with
Israel. The popular religion set forth in the Pentateuch was basically a priestly religion. It did not
develop in the Exile, as the Wellhausen school has propagandized. (Julius Wellhausen’s
formalization of critical thinking on the Pentateuch, known as the documentary hypothesis,
advanced the idea that four distinct documents—J, E, D, and P—went into the final composition
of the Pentateuch in the postexilic era. In his view, the prophets were strongly influential in
shaping OT religion that had its crowning expression in the Pentateuch.) The relationship of the
prophets to it has been explained as a creative role. That we can readily affirm, for the prophets
were not mere reflectors of an ancient theology. With creative insight they proclaimed the Word
of God. Among their theological developments was the eschatology that described Israel’s future
as the renewal of historical events, such as the Exodus, wilderness, and conquest. However, the
prophets’ role was not genetic in the sense that they created OT religion. Although it is
legitimate to speak of prophetic religion, it should be remembered that its base rested upon
10
Bullock, An Introduction to the Old Testament Prophets, 791

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Mosaic foundations. The monotheism of Mosaism moved the prophets to announce judgment
and salvation oracles within the context of the faith. Whether they formally engaged the curse-
blessing literary form for their oracles is an arguable point. However, the curse-blessing motif
was inscribed on the prophetic mind, and the assumption that the people of God accepted that
theological premise is clear, for the literary prophets did not try to prove the premise.

SOCIAL REFORM AND THE PROPHETS 11

The Israelite settlement in Canaan and the gradual assimilation of Canaanite civilization created
a social problem for the fledgling nation, that of a new class. Thus, the people could develop
their agricultural or pastoral production. Julian Morgenstern suggests that that was the period
when Israel began producing more than her people utilized for their own needs. Such
commodities could be bartered for things the people did not themselves produce. The merchant
interest would explain the motives of David’s and Solomon’s friendly relations with the
Phoenicians (cf, e.g., 1 Kings 5).12 Yet not all of the people enjoyed the same prosperity. Cities
became more important as business and cultural centers of exchange. A definite class interest
began to assert itself. The rich became richer and the poor became poorer. A society that only
two or three centuries earlier had been seminomadic with, ideally at least, no class distinctions
among its citizens, now accommodated the wealthy and the poor. And as is generally the case,
the economic differences gave rise to social distinctions that bred corruption, oppression, and
injustice. Samuel warned Israel that the monarchy would introduce alarming social change (1
Sam. 8:11–18). The thought of an aristocracy was most distasteful(unpleasant/disgusting) to
Samuel.

The prophets were not social reformers. They were theological reformers, for their basic
motivation was generated within their commitment to the fundamental laws of God. Their
reaction against the developing social order can be seen as early as Elijah and his defense of
Naboth against Ahab and Jezebel (1 Kings 21). The king as chief guarantor of justice to his
people was a common understanding in the ancient Near East. Yet he had taken on the reverse
role. Having no channel of authority except Yahweh’s Word, the prophets stepped forth to
defend the oppressed, the widow, the orphan, the poor, and the resident alien. Abraham
Heschel has stated that justice was important to the prophets because it was God’s stake in
human life. It is in man-to-man relations that the life of God is expressed, and it is between
man and man that the reputation of God is at its greatest risk. The poor did not in any sense
constitute a party or a social class in the modern sense of the word; nor is there any evidence that
the prophets were members of that class in whose behalf they spoke. Further, there is no
indication that the poor had asked for a spokesman; but the prophets arose to their defense as a
consequence of the call from a God whose nature demanded justice. They bore no hatred of their
society; rather, they wanted to see the social decay reversed and devotion to Yahweh
restored. That social concern, which was keenest among the pre-exilic prophets, was an index to
covenant loyalty. At some point the prophets believed that the ills of the society could be
cured in part by a reversal of social behavior, particularly by caring for and ensuring
justice to the poor. Security was to be found in making others secure—” Here is rest, give
rest to the weary” (Isa. 28:12a). Nowhere was the decay of the society better registered than
in the neglect of the poverty-stricken poor, and nowhere was the true nature of Israel’s
God more faithfully conveyed than in the words of the prophets for the disadvantaged and
11
Bullock, An Introduction to the Old Testament Prophetic Books, 793

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oppressed. The most fatal consequence of poverty was to be without defense, and where the
king and officials, either because of apathy or inaccessibility, stepped out of their expected role,
the prophets stepped in. They saw justice as the golden thread that bound Yahweh’s society
together in wholeness.

A DESCRIPTION OF THE PROPHETIC LITERATURE12

The books of the prophets are for the most part collections of various kinds of utterances made
on different occasions and called forth by varying circumstances. As a rule, the ancient
compilers of these books did not have the same reverence for chronology that a modern
collector might have. They were far more interested in getting a message across. Thus, a
book like Jeremiah cannot be read consecutively with any chronological appreciation unless the
reader takes that fact into account. The prophets of the Assyrian period had very little interest in
chronology. Basically, the superscription to the book provided the major time clues, and many
scholars are of the opinion that they were editorial. If that is true, the editor was quite well aware
of the period of the prophet’s ministry; “editorial” is not a euphemism(rewording) for
inaccurate. With the Babylonian period, however, we see a heightening interest in chronology.
It first becomes evident in the prophecies of Jeremiah and then becomes a more general method
of recording prophecies in Ezekiel, Daniel, Haggai, and Zechariah. Yet that developing interest
in dating oracles still did not become the principal criterion for their arrangement in the final
collected editions. The contents of the prophetic books fall into five literary classifications:
oracles, visions, poetry, biographical narrative, and autobiographical narrative. Those
categories are condensed by Claus Westermann to three (accounts, prophetic speeches, and
prayers) and by Geo Widengren to four (oracles, poetry, autobiographical prose, and
biographical prose), and one will encounter other variations in the literature on the prophets.

LITERARY FORMS/CLASSIFICATION OF THE PROPHETIC LITERATURE

1. Prophetic oracles. These are commonly introduced by “Thus says the Lord,” “The
Word of the Lord was to (the prophet),” or a similar messenger formula verifying the
message as Yahweh’s Word to the prophet. These oracles, which make up the major part
of the prophetic books, generally contain a word of judgment against Israel or Judah or a
comforting message of salvation. In addition to oracles addressed to the nation, there are
a few oracles directed to individuals. Westermann has observed that in the books of
Kings the judgment oracles are without exception pronounced against individuals rather
than the nation as a whole. It is in the literary or classical prophets that we first encounter
judgment oracles against the nation. In view of the fact that the judgment speeches arise
out of social situations that represented violations of the old law, it is not surprising that
eventually the prophets came to pronounce judgment against the nation rather than
individuals. It is Yahweh’s legal proceedings against an erring people, and perhaps the
judgment speeches are best understood against the backdrop of legal proceedings in the
court of law. Prophetic theology was based upon the ancient revelation of God in the
lives of the patriarchs and His special revelation at Sinai, and the element of divine grace
was part of those revelations. As prophetic theology took form and eschatology acquired
its detail, the word of salvation was an integral part of it. Hosea testified to that as early
as the middle of the eighth century. Having doomed Israel by canceling the Mosaic
covenant with her (Hos. 1:9), he followed it with words of restoration under the
12
Bullock, An Introduction to the Old Testament Prophetic Books, 789

8
 patriarchal covenant, which he may have considered to be the primary and unconditional
covenant. In Israel a single prophet normally incorporated both theological aspects
into his preaching. zIn addition to oracles against Israel and Judah, there are
numerous oracles against foreign nations, often gathered together in special
collections in the prophetic books (Isa. 13–23; Jer. 46–51; Ezek. 25–32; Amos 1:3–
2:3; Zeph. 2:5–15).

Some of those oracles were occasioned by historical circumstances. The nation addressed had
turned against Israel and created a situation that caused the prophet to address the nation with
words of judgment. Other national oracles, however, arose from the general eschatology
espoused and preached by the prophets. No particular historical occasion prompted the oracle,
but the general relationship of Israel to the Gentile world, and especially the Gentile world to the
God of Israel and His law, occasioned the oracle. It was not because the prophet hated the
foreign nation that he spoke, but because Yahweh would not tolerate evil. Zephaniah may
provide the best illustration of that kind of national oracle.

As indicated above, it was out of their eschatological and theological understanding that the
prophets issued their oracles against the nations. They were not occasioned by specific
historical events. Were the oracles ever delivered to the Gentile nations with which they
were concerned? Generally, scholars answer that question negatively. It has been suggested
that the oracles functioned more as comfort to Israel than judgment against the foreign
nation. That function cannot be denied, but still the explanation is far too simple. In the case of
Amos, for example, the foreign oracles led to a denunciation of Israel too. So, comfort was
hardly one of their purposes. Two passages in Jeremiah may suggest that sometimes (even
though it may have been the exception) the oracles were transmitted to the rulers of the
foreign nations. When foreign envoys had gathered in Jerusalem for consultations with
Zedekiah, Yahweh instructed Jeremiah to make straps and yoke-bars and send them to the
kings of Edom, Moab, Ammon, Tyre, and Sidon with a warning about plotting against the
king of Babylon (Jer. 27). In a second but quite different incident Jeremiah sent one of his
prophecies to be read by the Euphrates River and then cast into it (51:59–64).
2. Vision. Sometimes the prophet was merely a spectator/observer (as with Amos), whereas
in other cases he was a participant in the action of the vision (as with Isaiah, Ezekiel, and
Zechariah). As a rule, the accounts are related in autobiographical form. In the later
period the presence of an interpreter was also a feature. Amos records five visions (7:1–3,
4–6, 7–9; 8:1–3; 9:1–4), even though they are not specifically called “visions” (the verbal
form does occur in 1:1). Isaiah and Jeremiah both received their calls in visions (Isa. 6;
Jer. 1), and the popularity of the visionary form in the Babylonian and Persian periods is
attested in Ezekiel (1; 8–11:4; 37; 40–48), Daniel (7–12), and Zechariah (1:7–6:15).
3. Poetry. As has been recognized since Robert Lowth’s famous work on Hebrew poetry,
much of the prophetic materials are written in poetic style. However, this category is
those compositions that are poetic and do not fall into the category of oracles, such as
doxologies (e.g., Amos 4:13; 5:8–9; 9:5–6), short sayings (e.g., Ezek. 18:2), and
prayers (e.g., Amos 7:2b, 5; Isa. 6:11a; and Jeremiah’s prayers).
4. Autobiographical narrative. This literary form shows how important the individual
prophets believed their words and experiences to be. The very fact that they recorded
them points up their personal assessment of the gravity of their call and ministry. By the

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 personal nature of the form, it follows that it is written in the first person. The call
narratives generally fall into this category (e.g., Hos. 3; Isa. 6; Jer. 1).
5. Biographical narrative. This is the record about the prophet composed in prose style.
Isaiah 37– 39 and the biographical narratives of Jeremiah (26–29 and 32–45) are among
the fine illustrations of this literary component. If autobiographical prose was a clue to
the prophet’s own assessment of the value of his work, this form may be evidence of the
value of the prophet’s work in the eyes of those who were closely associated with him.
All of these five components have a place in the larger collections of the prophetic works.
Therefore, when we talk about prophetic literature, we must think in terms of all these
literary forms rather than oracles only.

THE FORMATION OF THE PROPHETIC LITERATURE13

When we have spoken of the literary forms, we have still only detailed the literature as it has
reached us. The actual process by which the forms have taken shape and assumed written status
is a much more complicated and elusive matter. It involves recording, collecting, preserving,
and diffusing the literature. Daniel I. Block gives seven stages in this process:
1. The prophetic event—the prophet’s reception of the message from God.
2. The Oratorical/rhetoric event—the prophet’s transmission of the message to his audience.
3. The transcriptional event—the writing of the oracle.
4. The narratorial event—the circumstances of the prophetic event are added to the oracle,
thus producing a complete unity (for example, the addition of the prophetic formula,
“The word of the Lord came to me saying,” and other forms of the formula).
5. The compilation event—the gathering of the literary units.
6. The editorial event—the oracles are organized and given some kind of structure,
producing a “book.”
7. The nominal event—a formal name is given to the book, often identifying the prophet
and the circumstances in which he prophesied, sometimes giving a name to the genre of
the collection.
While these stages of the process seem logical, they should not necessarily be seen as so distinct
that they could each be described as a separate process. For example, steps 6 and 7—the editing
and naming of the book—could easily occur together, as could also the compilation and editorial
events. The process, from speaking to the completion of the book, should probably be viewed in
a much narrower time frame than is allowed by many scholars. The normal practice was to write
down the prophecies or to commemorate the victories in writing very soon after the event,
leaving little place for the process of oral transmission as assumed and propagated by modern
scholars. Thus, the centuries-wide expanse for the formation of the prophetic books as described
in the secondary literature may very well be an exaggeration. In this regard, the motivational
factor behind the formation of the literature is important.

The most significant motivational factor was the nature of the Word of the Lord. The prophets
understood how serious was the will of God, and they knew that man could not survive
without it, much less flourish. When Yahweh had spoken, who could keep from
prophesying (Amos 3:8; Jer. 20:9)? God’s Word would outlast nature (Isa. 40:8), and
whatever the Lord sent it out to do, it would accomplish without fail (45:23; 55:11). Given

13
Bullock, An Introduction to the Old Testament Prophetic Books, 799

10
that understanding of the eternal significance of the divine Word, we should expect the prophets
to commit their words to writing.

A second motivational factor was the need that the prophet be vindicated. This can be seen in
two dimensions. First of all, from the earliest period of the prophetic movement there was a
general concern for the legitimacy of the prophet. As we have already noted, a popular and
lucrative profession of prophets offered its verbal products to the highest bidder. Moreover, such
prophets operated alongside the true prophets, making public differentiation most difficult. The
fear of having one’s words disqualified ran high among the prophets. So, the value of
committing their words to written form so that they might pass the test of time and experience
was of much importance to them. It is also widely recognized that in the ancient Near East a
messenger customarily carried his message in written form. In addition to delivering it
orally it could be verified against the written document. Further, with the passing of the
age in which prophets spoke mainly to kings and officials and their oracles were preserved
in the court annals The second dimension of vindication was the prophets’ future predictions
and the need for history to verify their accuracy. That may be involved in Yahweh’s command to
Isaiah to write the words “Belonging to Maher-shalal-hash-baz” on a large tablet (Isa. 8:1).

There would later be evidence that Ahaz had indeed heard the words of Isaiah. Perhaps also that
motive is involved in Isaiah’s sealing his teaching among his disciples (8:16). It was definitely
the concern of Habakkuk (2:2–3), Daniel (12:4), and Jeremiah (28:5–9); Deuteronomy (18:20–
22) also emphasized the test. If the prediction came true, the prophet was exonerated of any false
pretenses. The prophet’s role in the formation process included the activities of speaking,
writing, and dictating. No more proof is needed than is found on the face of the prophetic
literature to establish the prophets as speakers. Not even the most radical critic would deny
that. However, not as much consensus can be found on the matter of the prophets as
writers. However, the general use of writing in the period of literary prophecy and the
references to writing within the books themselves bolster the idea that the oral and written
stages of the literature were simultaneous.

The evidence that others were involved in the writing and transmission of the prophets’ words is
more difficult to collect. Gehazi, Elisha’s servant, transmitted stories about his master (2 Kings
8:4– 6). The warrant for assuming that the prophets had disciples is based in part upon the
practice among the nonliterary prophets and in part upon the reference to “disciples” in Isa. 8:16.
But the extent to which those devotees assisted their masters is impossible to determine. There is
also some evidence in Jer. 26 that the elders of the nation had a part in transmitting, whether
orally or in written form, the prophetic words, for they came to Jeremiah’s defense with the
words of Micah (Jer. 26:17–18). It should not be underemphasized that the prophet himself was
the major means of retrieval of his words. As has been observed, after about two decades
Jeremiah dictated many of his prophecies to Baruch, and when Jehoiakim had burned the scroll,
he added still more words to the second edition. He obviously remembered his prophecies well
and was capable of recalling them. The transmission process, therefore, began with the prophet
himself, a fact that is attested also by Isa. 8:16, Ezek. 43:11, Dan. 12:4, and Hab. 2:2.27 It is
wrong to build too great a contrast between the oral and written stages of prophecy. The two
aspects of the process were taking place at the same time

11
In summary, the prophets committed many of their words to writing, among them oracles,
poetry, and autobiographical narratives. Whereas the time lapse between speaking and
writing was in some cases brief, in others it may have been as long as a decade or two. But
the prophet remembered his words and could recall them. The written (and not the oral)
form was the principal form of the prophetic materials.

When oral transmission did occur, it sometimes could be checked against a written document.
When it could not, other controls over accuracy included the prophet himself, or his associates,
and perhaps even the people who had heard him. It is quite possible that some of the prophets
lived long enough to collect their own oracles and give their books their final form. The
ministries of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel were long enough that they could recognize the
need to put their prophecies in basic form for preservation. In other cases, however, the task
of editing must have fallen to their close associates or disciples. But it is unlikely that more than
a generation intervened between the life of the prophet and the final edition of his book. That is
not to deny that minor editorial changes have occurred in the transmission of the documents, but
generally those were of little import. In view of the data available to us, the extensive editing
presupposed by modern scholarship, particularly the tradition criticism, is incredible. The books
in the forms as we have them are reliable sources of the prophets’ words and activities.

APPROACHES FOR THE STUDY OF OLD TESTAMENT PROPHETS

1. Timeline approach. This divides the Old Testament prophets into two categories. This
approach allows the reader to study the non-classical prophets separately, and then
classical prophets separately. (writing and non-writing prophets.
2. Approach based on Kingdoms. This approach classified the prophets into two
categories. This suggests the study of the Old Testament prophets based on the kingdom
they belong. (prophets from the northern kingdom and those from the southern kingdom).
One of the limitations to this approach is, it has nothing to do with the non-classical
prophets. This is a one-sided approach because its emphasis is on/after the divided
monarchy
3. Periodic approach. This approach classifies the prophets into three categories namely;
the pre-exilic prophets, the exilic prophets, and the post-exilic prophets.
4. Empire based approach. This classified the prophets into three. This approach dicided
the Old Testament prophets into, those who served or ministered during the Neo-
Assyrian empire, Neo-Babylonian empire, and Neo-Persian empire.
5. Voluminous considerate approach. This approach divides the Old Testament prophets
into two. The major and the Minor prophets. Considering some books major and others
minor does not mean superiority and inferiority of some prophets over another, but it
because of the volume or the lengthy of their preserved prophetic oracles. All prophets
were equal in the eyes of YHWH and each prophet had a unique message he was called
and was given to deliver. One of the limitations of this approach is, it also exludes the
non-writing prophets.

While number 3 is the most acceptable approach, we shall combine it with number 4 as we study
the prophets one after the other. It is important to note that, the primary aim of this course is to
study the writing prophets, with little interest in the non-writing prophets as we have discussed
before now.

12
 THE PRE-EXILIC PROPHETS

JOEL (835-796 BCE When Joash became a King).

The Historical Background of the Book
The book of Joel is part of the Twelve Minor Prophets in the Hebrew Bible and is often
categorized as apocalyptic literature. Joel was a prophet who lived in Judah and his book is
comprised of three chapters.
Authorship. The prophet Joel is identified by name as “Joel the son of Pethuel” (1:1) as the
presenter of the message and most probably the author of the book that bears his name.
Some scholars argue that the book was written by Joel, a prophet who lived in Judah. As H.G.M.
Williamson states: "The name Joel is associated with two other biblical persons: one a son of
Samuel, the other a descendant of Reuben; but it is difficult to identify either of these as the
author of book of Joel"14. However, it is important to note that there is no internal evidence
within the book that directly identifies its author.
Dating. It is believed that Joel was active during the ninth century BCE during the reign of
Joash, King of Judah. Others place Joel in the fifth century BCE during the period of Jerusalem's
reconstruction after the Babylonian exile. As Leslie C. Allen argues: "The prophet Joel addressed
himself to a people whose experiences took place in an age of stress and trauma. This was a time
when the people of Judah had suffered warlike devastation and were suffering the irrecoverable
loss of their homeland"15. Furthermore, the text of Joel does not contain any references to
specific historical events or dates, which makes it difficult to reliably determine when the book
was written.
Recipients. Some argue that the book was primarily addressed to the inhabitants of Judah, while
others suggest it may have been written for a wider audience. As James D. Nogalski argues "The
oracle in Joel 3:1-3 refers to YHWH's plan to assemble all the nations for judgment and suggest
that Joel's message was at least partially addressed to non-Judahite residents of Palestine" 16
However, it is important to note that the text of Joel does not give any clear indication of the
book's intended audience.
Purpose. The purposes of the book of Joel are varied and complex. Some scholars argue that the
book's primary purpose was to provide a message of hope to the people of Judah during a time of
crisis. Others suggest that the book was written as a warning to the people of Judah to repent and
return to God. As David W. Baker argues: "The main message of the Book of Joel is probably
spiritual and religious in nature; calling for a national act of repentance by the people of Judah" 17.
Furthermore, the book of Joel also contains elements of prophecy which provide a glimpse into
the future.

Historical Context
The historical context of the life and ministry of Joel like in any of the books of the Bible is
gleaned from its contents. Many scholars generally agree that the book of Joel was written during

14
Williamson, H. G. M. The Book Called Joel. Oxford University Press. 1986
1986, p. 5
15
Allen, 1981, p. 14
16
Nogalski, J. D. The Book of the Twelve: Micah-Malachi. Abingdon Press. 1998
17
Baker, D. W. The Minor Prophets: An Exegetical and Expository Commentary: Joel, Obadiah, Jonah,
Micah, and Nahum. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. 1988, p. 11

13
the reign of the young King Joash of Judah because there is no mention of any “King” in his
book.18 This argument is actually inconclusive because the time of the ministry of Joel may not
be the actual time of its writing. This draws more attention and ambiguity to any close reader of
the book, in that there is no mention of Babylon in the book, this makes scholars to place it in the
pre-exilic period even before the coming of the Assyrians.19 But the reference to what
prophetically symbolized the “Assyrian invasion which ultimately captured northern Israel in
722 B.C”20 actually makes Geisler to either directly contradict himself or to nonetheless remain
ambiguous.2122 The argument as in Geisler’s contribution on the dating of the book of Joel to
around 830 BCE (cf. 2 Kings 12) based on textual correlations between the books of Joel and
Amos is not very convincing because of the uncertainty of the actual history of many
vocabularies between them. But the fact that both prophets present messages that focus on
similar time and even place context is in no doubt. Nevertheless, the history of the ministry and
writing of the book of Joel is actually problematized by the mention of the Greeks (3:6) who
happened to be the late comers in terms of being historic world-powers in the history of the Old
Testament.23 But thanks to Geisler’s thought on the same problem which helps us to note that the
Greeks in the book of Joel must not actually be understood as the representation of a “major
world power of the fourth century” but rather could be understood as “a remote country involved
in slave-trading.”24 There are other countries also in the ancient Near East that have been
mentioned especially in Joel 3. It is very difficult to know the exact period and the extent of their
aggression or enmity with Israel.25 There absence of the mention of the Assyrians and the
Babylonians may be an indication of their non-existence of their hegemony (domination and
control) especially with aggressive actions against the Israelites.26

Many scholars come to accept the consensus that suggest that reign of the young king Joash
because of the absence of the mention of any definite royal power in active service in the land
(cf. 1:2, 13; 2:16). It is a historical surprise to notice the reference to Judah (the Southern
Kingdom) as Israel (2:17; 3:2, 16). This has been the popular designation of the northern
Kingdom. At this stage the point may only be that the northern kingdom has already been carried
away into exile and is presumably lost among the nations. The mention of the movement of the
Israelites to other lands (3:1-2) suggests to many scholars that the dating of the section would be
better understood as the postexilic period. Nevertheless, there is still point of critical
reconsideration of that point before any final conclusion is drawn about it. Dillard and Longman
suggestively argue that, “Population relocation was a routine policy of the Assyrians; the annals

18
“This was the case in the ninth century BC, when Joash was a child and real power was in the hands of
Jehoiada, the high priest and husband of the King’s aunt (2 Kgs. 11-12; 2 Chr. 22:10-24:16).”Yoilah Yilpet, “Joel.”
In Tokunboh Adeyemo (ed), Africa Bible Commentary (Nairobi: Word Alive Publishers, 2006), 1027.
19
Geisler, 235.
20
Cf. Joel 2 (cf. Geisler).
21
Cf. Geisler, 236. It is agreeably observed that the book of Joel “is profoundly enigmatic.” See Walter
Bruggemann, An Introduction to the Old Testament; The Canon and Christian Imagination (Louiusville & London:
Westminster John Knox Press, 2003), 219.
22
“The lack of time indicators in the book suggests that the correct interpretation of the book is not
dependent on knowing the historical situation.” McCain, 328.
23
Cf. Dan. 2 ff.
24
Geisler, 235.
25
Dillard and Longman, 411, 412.
26
Dillard and Longman, 412.

14
of Sennacherib report that he had already subjected Judah to a major deportation, so that
references to a Diaspora need not refer to the Babylonian captivity alone.”27 Many scholars base
their arguments on linguistic evidences. This is not a very strong point of any certain historical
argumentation. There are scholars who are still divisive and inconclusive about it still. 28 There
are interesting literary similarities between Joel and Amos which helps to keep them next to each
other (cf. Joel 3:16, 18 with Amos 1:2; 9:13).

The book of Joel is understood to have been written to the people of Jerusalem in Judah
especially to the priestly population when the temple of Yahweh was still standing and
functional.2930 As typical of OT prophets the book of Joel contains double-edged messages of
both judgment and blessing. That Yahweh is coming to judge the unfaithfulness and pride of the
world and also pour his Spirit to bless all flesh.

Literary Structure:

The nature of the messages in Joel is both historical and prophetic. The historical aspect is found
in chapter 1:1-2031 on the stubbornness of the people, and the prophetic aspect is found in chapter
2:1-17 on the coming judgment that was mirrored in the past. The book of Joel is a practical
poetry. It presents a liturgical paradigmatic (model) system or tradition that agrees with the
didactic purpose of the book and the actual need of the people in history. There are liturgical
elements as found in Dillard and Longman that are worth our close considerations;
1. The tradition of solemn assembly to fast at the sanctuary in response to a natural disaster
(Joel 1:13-14; 2:15-17).
2. A prayer which presents the calamity to God and reminds him of his past mercies (Joel
1:2-12, 15-20; 2:1-11).
3. A call for repentance from the people (Joel 1:13-14, 2:13-14)
4. The response of the Lord either by weal (wound) or woe (Joel 2:12-3:21).

The book may have an intentional purpose of teaching and guiding the people of Israel to learn
how to lament for their sins before God (1:12-14). Thus, we can call this a dialogical literature,
or a conversational liturgical poetry. There have been critical considerations on the nature of the

27
Dillard and Longman, 413.
28
Cf. Kapelrud, (1948) and Ahlstrom, (1971); “Arguments from style and date of language are largely
inconclusive. While many linguistic features features of Joel are held in common with late biblical books, we lack
sufficient date to determine whether these features were innovations later in the development of the Hebrew or
simply coincidences. Arguments from language can have a corroborative role for other arguments, but we lack a
sufficient corpus to use them with confidence.” (Dillard and Longman, 413).
29
Cf. 1:9, 13, 14; 2:15.
30
“Joel primarily ministered to Judah and Jerusalem though the location of his ministry is not an important
point in the book.” McCain, 328.
31
The mention of the plague here makes the understanding of the history around the book very ambiguous,
thus some scholars oscillate between taking the “locust” either as literal or figurative. McCain (p. 328-29) agreeably
argues on the literal idea (cf. 1:6-12; 2:2ff). Nevertheless, it could serve a double edged function as the case may be.
The horrifying effect of the locust in both literal and figurative terms is well portrayed by Harvey Shapiro, “Joel.” In
Congregation: Contemporary Writers Read the Jewish Bible , edited by David Rosenberg, xiv, 526 (San Diego:
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1987), 202ff. cf. Brueggemann, 220. Thus “[t]his book teaches us how to deal with
natural disasters-things that are beyond one’s control” (McCain, 329).

15
Locust plague that remains an ambiguous framework for the book. Dillard and Longman point us
to three interesting possibilities.
1. The history of the locust plague was not one and the same at once (2:25).
2. The Locust may be a polemical metaphor for foreign, Gentile armies (cf. 2:17; see their
judgment 3:4-14, 19 and God’s promise to Judah never to be humiliated again by foreign
enemies 2:19, 26-27).
3. The third option is that the Locust do not signify any historic enemies but that they
symbolize all of evil and the armies are those of the Lord (2:11).

This leads to the eschatological judgment of God upon all nations, peoples, and evil. Salvation
would only be by absolute trust in the name of the Lord (2:32). Joel 2:28-3:21 is a special form
in the entire book, it is an apocalyptic literary form that envisaged the judgment of the entire
universe. The Lord would be the salvation and the refuge of his people (3:16). The entire
literature then is between a confrontational forth telling to an eschatological apocalypse.
i. To take the structure into more details. We see (a) the locust plague as the immediate
disaster that was meant to awoken the people of the coming judgment to of God (1:1-
20). And (b) the Day of the Lord as the future disaster ( 2: 1-17). (c) the Lord’s
response to the cry of the people (2:18-3:21).
ii. The blessed deliverance of the Lord is presented as coming to all flesh in chapter
2:18-3:21. There is a promise to presently bless the repentant people of God in
chapter 2:18-27 and another extended promise for future blessing of all flesh for
renewal, restoration32 and justice.33

The Theology of the Book of Joel:

1. Revelation: The idea of revelation was at the heart of all the metaphors and actions in the
book of Joel. As typical of God’s revelation in the Old Testament history, it all came gradually
and didactically to the people of Israel in Joel’s day. “God did not reveal himself to Israel all at
once, but instead gradually unfolded the nature of his relationship to Israel over a period of time
through the prophets.”34
2. Yahweh and History: Joel is understood as a true “preacher” of the truth of God and reveals
the nature of God in terms of God’s “sovereignty, holiness, and compassion of God.”35
3. The Day of the LORD. “Joel portrays not simply the victory of Israel over a particular
historical foe, as was often the case in oracles against foreign nations in other prophetic books,
but a decisive universal and eschatological cosmic battle against evil on the Day of the Lord.” 36
This is a time when Yahweh will judge the nations and bring about the end of the world as we
know it. The Day of the Lord is described in Joel 2:1-11 as a day of darkness, terror, and
destruction. Joel 3:14-16 further describes the Day of the Lord as a time when the Lord will "roar
from Zion and utter his voice from Jerusalem, and the heavens and the earth shall shake."
According to Tchavdar S. Hadjiev, "the Day of the Lord is a decisive moment in the outworking
of Yahweh's redemptive purposes for humanity, when evil will be judged and defeated and God's

32
Cf. Joel 3:18, 20, 21. “All will be well, and all will be well!” (Brueggemann, 222).
33
Cf. 2:28-3:21. For more detail on these see Geisler, 236-37.
34
Dillard and Longman, 412.
35
Dillard and Longman, 417.
36
Dillard and Longman, 417.

16
rule will be established in its fullness"37. The Day of the Lord is not just a time of judgment, but
also a time of salvation. Joel 2:32 states, "Everyone who calls on the name of the Lord shall be
saved." This means that anyone who repents and turns to Yahweh will be saved from judgment
on the Day of the Lord.
4. Cosmic Judgment. The coming judgment of God over all evil people and national structures
would be demonstrated as his absolute sovereignty and as the end of history. The history of evil
and human failure. The new time of God’s perfection and vengeance against the nations would
be inaugurated (cf. 3).
5. Repentance. Joel 2:12-13 states, "Yet even now, says the Lord, return to me with all your
heart, with fasting, with weeping, and with mourning; rend your hearts and not your clothing.
Return to the Lord, your God, for he is gracious and merciful, slow to anger, and abounding in
steadfast love, and relents from punishing." According to Cheryl B. Anderson, "Joel's message is
not only about the Day of the Lord, but also about the need for self-examination and
repentance"38. Repentance is necessary to be ready for the coming Day of the Lord. Joel 2:15-16
states, "Blow the trumpet in Zion; sanctify a fast; call a solemn assembly; gather the people.
Sanctify the congregation; assemble the aged; gather the children, even infants at the breast."
Restoration
6.Restoration. The book of Joel also speaks about restoration. After the coming Day of the Lord
and the judgment of the nations, Yahweh will restore his people. Joel 2:18-27 states, "Then the
Lord became jealous for his land and had pity on his people. The Lord answered and said to his
people, 'Behold, I am sending to you grain, wine, and oil, and you will be satisfied; and I will no
more make you a reproach among the nations.'" According to David L. Petersen, "Joel's
prophecy speaks of the restoration of Israel and the vindication of Yahweh" 39. The restoration of
Israel is not just physical, but also spiritual. Joel 2:28-32 states, "Then afterward I will pour out
my spirit on all flesh; your sons and your daughters shall prophesy, your old men shall dream
dreams, and your young men shall see visions. Even on the male and female slaves, in those
days, I will pour out my spirit."

New Testament Reception: In relation to the New Testament we see that Jesus Christ is
presented as the fulfillment and the open promise of this oracle in Joel especially in areas that
relates to future fulfillment. Christ is presented as the one who gives the Holy Spirit to all flesh. 40
“Peter saw the fulfilment of Joel’s prophecy in the event of the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:14-21)
with its accompanying fire theophany (Joel 2:30). The fire of divine presence would not be a
threat to the new Israel, the church, but rather would empower their speech.”41The coming of the
Holy Spirit is the time of God’s indwelling presence, a great revival in the Church and through
the Church. Jesus Christ is the one who will judge the nations and be the salvation of his
people.4243 The “all people” of 2:28 is revolutionary especially to sociological and cultural
barriers. Patriarchy has been the dominant culture of the ancient people’s sociology. Male
37
Hadjiev, T. S. Joel. In T. Longman III & D. E. Garland (Eds.), The Expositor's Bible Commentary,
Revised Edition: Abridged (Vol. 1, pp. 151-169). Grand Rapids: Zondervan. 2012, p. 154
38
Anderson, C. B. Joel. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press. 2003, p. 45
39
Petersen, D. L. Joel: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. Garden City: Doubleday
1995, p. 163
40
Cf. Joel 2:28 & Acts 2:1ff, 17. Cf. McCain, 329.
41
Dillard and Longman, 418.
42
Cf. Joel 3:2, 12, 16. See also Geisler, 236.
43
For more on the Christian reception of the book of Joel see Brueggemann, 223.

17
persons are more recognized and honored with public privileges while the female others and
slaves are kept to the extreme corners of things. But in Joel’s revolutionary vision the power to
be the mouthpiece of God would not be limited to a privileged few because of their gender or
social status. But rather all people would be given such great privilege and being led by the Spirit
of God who stirs them and empowers them to good actions (cf. Gal. 3:28). “The same Spirit that
empowered the prophets of old would also empower the church, for it too would receive power
to bear witness for God after the Spirit came upon it (Acts 1:8).”44 In Paul’s argument on no
difference between Jews and Gentiles he quoted Joel 2:32 in Romans10:12-13 and the door is
opened for “all who call on the name of the Lord” and they shall be saved. Even though Joel
applied his prophecy on salvation to the people of Israel, Paul reception of the same text opened
it much wider to even the Gentiles who trust in the salvific power of the Lord. There is a direct
link of fulfilment between the name of God (Joel 2:32) and the name of Jesus (Acts 4:12) as the
only name given under the heavens (or in the whole world) by which humanity would be saved.
The salvation in Joel looks not only to this-worldly calamity but as seen in the history of Jesus
also leads to spiritual and cosmic salvation.

AMOS (760-750 BCE)

The Historical Background of the Book.
The book of Amos presents a prophetic message that addresses social and political issues
affecting the Northern Kingdom of Israel.
Authorship. The author of the book of Amos is identified as Amos himself, who was a shepherd
and dresser of sycamore trees (Amos 7:14). According to Andersen and Freedman, "the evidence
from the text, the historical situation, and the tradition supports the authorship of Amos the
prophet"45.
Dating. The book of Amos was written during the reigns of King Uzziah of Judah and King
Jeroboam II of Israel, who ruled between 783-743 BC and 793-753 BC, respectively. Hill and
Walton explain that "Amos's ministry probably began around 760 BC during the prosperous
period of Jeroboam II's reign"46.
Recipients. The primary recipients of Amos' message were the people of the Northern Kingdom
of Israel. Hill and Walton state that Amos "proclaimed his message in a time when the Northern
Kingdom was enjoying a period of relative stability and prosperity" 47. However, the prosperity
was built on economic exploitation, social injustice, and religious syncretism.
Purpose. The book of Amos has two primary purposes: to expose Israel's sins and to call for
repentance. Amos addressed issues such as social injustice, economic exploitation, religious
syncretism, and false worship. He condemned the Israelites for oppressing the poor and for their
disobedience to God's laws. Amos proclaimed that God would punish Israel for her sins, but
there was still room for repentance. According to Smith Jr, "Amos delivered a message of
judgment with the hope of repentance and faith in Yahweh"48.

Historical Context
44
Dillard and Longman, 418.
45
Andersen, F. I., & Freedman, D. N. Amos. In A. Berlin & M. Z. Brettler (Eds.), The Jewish Study Bible
(pp. 901-944). Oxford University Press. 1989. p. 902
46
Hill, A. E., & Walton, J. H A Survey of the Old Testament (3rd ed.). Zondervan. 2009. p. 405
47
Hill, A. E., & Walton, J. H A Survey of the Old Testament (3rd ed.). Zondervan. 2009. P. 405
48
Smith Jr., R. L. Amos: An Exegetical and Theological Exposition of Holy Scripture (The New American
Commentary). B&H Publishing Group. p. 28

18
Amos introduced himself as a humble and serious servant of the Lord. He was neither a prophet
nor the son of a prophet. But rather he was one of the shepherds of Tekoa, a town near
Bethlehem,49 He was called by the Lord to become a prophet even without any prophetic training
(cf. 1:1, 7, 10, 14, 15).50 Dillard and Longman observed the following about Amos, saying,
“Traditionally, he has been thought to have come from the lower social classes of ancient
Israel.”51 Thus he was “not from a priestly family lineage and had no claim to royal parentage
like some of the prophets.”52 Amos was only a shepherd and a farmer (Amos 7:10-17). Amos
arouse as a mouth piece of God probably for a short period of time before the great earthquake
that demonstrate the judgment of God in history (cf. 1:1 and Zech.14:5).

Amos’ ministry is generally agreed by scholars to have been during the reign of King Jeroboam
II of Israel.53 The land of Israel has already spilt into north and south, with Jeroboam in the north
and Uzziah in the south. The kingdoms of Israel and Judah grew so powerful because of great
military success and territorial expansion which led to the abuse of wealth and humanity. It was
“a time great military success and materialism for the northern times,” 54 to the extent that human
worth is not taken more than that of material things.

Even though Amos was originally from Judah in the south (1:1),55 his message was directed to
the northern Kingdom of Israel (cf. Amos 3:1, 12; 7:10, 14, 15). Nevertheless, it has great
implication also to his own southern people.56 Amos’ message came to the people in the
“shadow” of ominous (gloomy or worrying) Assyrian invasion (see Amos 3:11; 5:3, 27; 6:7-14;
7:9, 17; 9:4).

Literary Form:
Courtroom motifs57 and confrontation. The main genre is poetry and some apocalypses. The
book of Amos is categories into three main sections;
1. Oracles (strong messages to the nations, chaps 1 & 2),
2. Confrontational Judgments against Israel (chaps.3-6), and
3. Apocalyptic Visions of Purification and Judgement (chaps. 7-9).

49
Tekoa is 10 kilometers south of Bethlehem (McCain, 330). On his comment on the agricultural
engagement of Amos, Daniel Bitrus in Adeyemo (p. 1033) observed that, “Sycamore fig trees, which produce fruit
once every three months, do not grow around the highlands around Tekoa, and so Amos must have worked in the
warmer lowlands and fertile oases in the Jordan Valley as it approaches the Dead Sea.” This could the more tenable
in the modern contextual perspective but has less or nothing to say about the past even in conversation with the
Amos text before our eyes.
50
Geisler, 237.
51
Dillard and Longman, 423.
52
McCain, 330.
53
Brueggemann, 224 cf. Amos 1:1 cf. II Kings 14.
54
Geisler, 237.
55
It is noteworthy here that, “Israel was located in the northern half of Palestine. Bethel, the center of idol
worship, was singled out by Amos for God’s judgment (4:4f; 7:13).” Geisler, 238.
56
Amos 2:4, 5.
57
L. A. Sinclair, “The Courtroom Motif in the Book of Amos,” JBL 85 (1966): 351–53; A. van der Wal,
“The Structure of Amos,” JSOT 26 (1983): 107–13; L.Walker, “The Language of Amos,” SWJT 9 (1966): 37–48; J.
Ward, “The Eclipse of the Prophet in Contemporary Prophetic Studies,” USQR 42 (1988): 97–104;

19
There are interesting metaphors and mostly agrarian imagery through the book. This reflect his
vocation as a shepherd and farmer ( 1:3, 2:13; 4:9; 5:11, 16-17: 7:1-2,14-15: 8:1-2; 9:9-15).58

The theology of Amos:59

1. God’s judgment against Idolatry and Social injustice: The book of Amos is a very
critical one.60 He vehemently criticized the injustices and dehumanization of the context
to which he preached calling them to repentance and the life of righteousness in the
justice of God.61 His messages are anchored in the Law of Moses62 as the message of
revival to the people of God to turn away from their idols on the worship of Yahweh the
only true God of Israel. “The book teaches God’s hatred of evil, His jealousy for his own
good,63 and the sanctity of his law.”64 Brueggemann observed that in older scholarship it
is held that Amos was the first to articulate Israel’s ‘ethical monotheism,’ that is, the
prophet articulated the rule of one God over all peoples, one God who had a moral
purpose of justice for the whole world.65 It is interesting to see how Yahweh takes
initiative of judgment ( 1:4; 3:2, 14; 9:4). God is depicted as Divine Warrior coming to
judge ( 2:13; 8:8; 9:1, 5). The two main sins in the book of Amos are idolatry and social
injustice. (1) idolatry as a general sin (see 2:8: 5:5, 26; 7:9-13; 8:14). (2) Attention to
wealth brought human abuse and laxity in religious commitment (cf. 3:12, 15; 6:4-6; 2:7,
8; 8:6; cf. 2:7; 4:1;5:11; 8:4). God demands justice and obedience from his covenant
people (cf. 5:15, 18-24). The great purge for the people, (cf 5:15; 6:6; 9:9-10; 9:11-15).
The Day of the Lord (5:18-20).
2. God’s Judgment on the Nations: The book of Amos is the collection of the life work of
the prophet within three distinct genres and numbers of collection namely, there are 8
oracles, 3 sermons and 6 visions within the book. These distinct genres help us to see the
three main divisions of the book.66 The 8 oracles are given in chapters 1-2 as the
“declarations of sins and judgment.”6768 Amos’ messages go anti-clockwise, declaring the

58
Cf. Dillard ad Longman, 430.
59
D. L. Williams, “The Theology of Amos,” RvExp 63 (1966): 393–403.
60
B. Alger, “The Theology and Social Ethics of Amos,” Scripture 17 (1965): 109–16, 318–28; L. C. Allen,
“Amos, Prophet of Solidarity,” Vox Evangelica 6 (1969): 42–53. J. Bright, “A New View of Amos,” Interp 25
(1971): 355–58; N. Freedman, “Confrontations in the Book of Amos,” Princeton Sem Bul 11
(1990): 240–52; D. A. Garrett, “The Structure of Amos as a Testimony to Its
Integrity,” JETS 27 (1984): 275–76; Y. Gitay, “A Study of Amos’s Art of Speech:
A Rhetorical Analysis of Amos 3:1–15,” CBQ 42 (1980): 293–309; G. Hasel, “The Alleged ‘No’ of Amos
and Amos’ Eschatology,” AUSS 29 (1991): 3–18; H. Huffmon, “The Covenant Lawsuit in the
Prophets,” JBL 78 (1959): 285–95; A. Kapelrud, “God as Destroyer in the Preaching of Amos,” JBL 71 (1952):
33–38;
61
For example, Amos criticized the complacency (6:1), extravagance (6:4), indolence (6:5), drunkenness
(6:5) and unresponsiveness about the condition of the land (6:6). Cf. McCain, 330. J. G. Bailey, “Amos, Preacher of
Social Reform,” The Bible Today 19 (1981): 306–13.
62
See Amos 2:7 with Deut. 23: 17; 2:8 with Exod. 22:26; 2:12 with Num. 6:1-21.
63
And the good of all his people throughout the ages.
64
Geisler, 238.
65
Brueggemann, 223.
66
Cf. Geisler, 239.
67
Geisler, 239.
68
It is noteworthy here that the speech and/or writing formular ‘For three sins…even four’ “is a common
Hebrew poetic way of expressing numbers. This phrase is used eight times in the first two chapters of Amos.”

20
 sins and judgments of other nations like Syria (1:3-5), Philistia (1:6-8), Phoenicia (1:9-
10), Edom (1: 11, 12), Ammon (1:13-15), Moab (2:1-3), and then Judah (2:4-6) and
Israel(2:6-16).69 The 3 sermons come as “exhortations about sin and judgment” in
chapters 3-6.70 Geisler rightly observes that each message begins with ‘Hear this
word….’ The reason for judgment is given as sin against the Lord (cf. chap. 3). The result
of God’s judgment is given as the destruction of the city and people (chap. 4). Thirdly, a
call to repentance is given in light of sin and God’s judgment (chaps. 5-6). Amos gives
some few details on repentance in regards to the “nature of true repentance” (chap. 5a)
and he “pronounces woes on false repentance.”71
3. Revelations on the Sovereignty of God: Six “visions of judgment and restoration” are
given in chapters 7-9. It is interesting to note that even though most of the visions that
Amos saw in the visions that he was given were of judgment against Israel, yet, the last
part presents us with the promise of God’s restoration of his people. The vision of locusts
(chap. 7:1-3) displays the “all-consuming nature of God’s wrath”72 which renders all
natural and material wealth nothing before the power of God. God has the power to give
and take anything away from anyone in whatever way that he decides. Thus even
senseless locusts have been used as God’s instruments of judgment upon his people. The
vision of fire (7:4-6) indicates the terrible waste of the land that would come as the
judgment of God. The vision of the plumbline is the metaphoric display of the reasonable
and meticulous judgment of God upon his people in practical terms (7:7-9). He has
already measured them and has decided their lot as a result of their waywardness from
the path of his righteousness and justice. Amos’ “call and commission”73 are succinctly
given as a “short historical interlude”74 in order to make a point to those who challenge
his prophetic authority and threaten his comfort in a strange place. The vision of the
basket of summer fruit (8:1-14) demonstrates the end of the fruitfulness of Israel. But
even beyond the natural fruitfulness of the land, the message vividly portrays the
cleansing of the Lord from the evil fruitfulness of the people. Thus the land shall once
more become a holy land for the Lord. The last vision of judgment is that of the smiting
of the Temple (9:1-10) which indicates “the worldwide dispersion of Israel.”75
Nevertheless, there would be “restoration” in the end of everything. The Lord shall
restore the people in his graciousness to his blessed presence as he says within chapter
9:11-15.76

McCain, 331.
69
It is interesting to note Bitrus’ comment on the judgment of God to Israel (I take Israel in this context and
specific comment to also include Judah) when he said, “God had chosen the Israelites from among all other nations,
watched over them, cared for them in a unique way, and specially revealed himself to them and blessed them. They
should have responded with loyalty, love and obedience. But they had not, and had broken their covenant agreement
with God. Now they were to discover the truth of the saying, ‘From everyone who has been given much, much will
be demanded, and from the one who has been entrusted with much, much more will be asked’ (Luke 12:47-48).” Cf.
Adeyemo, 1035.
70
Geisler, 239.
71
Amos 5b-6 cf. Geisler, 239.
72
Geisler, 239.
73
Amos 7:10-17.
74
Geisler, 239.
75
Geisler, 239.

21
 4. The justice of God. The prophet's message was directed at the affluent people who were
oppressing the poor and the needy. Amos speaks for God, who is outraged by the social
and economic injustices committed by the Israelites. The following quote from Walter
Brueggemann, "The theme of justice is pervasive in the book of Amos. God's justice
demands that the poor and the oppressed be treated fairly. The wealthy and the powerful
must be held accountable for their actions, and if they do not repent; they will face
judgment."77 The message of Amos on justice is still applicable today. The pursuit of
economic and social justice must be central in the minds of Christians. James Cone,
another scholar, states that, "The God of Amos is God of the Poor, whose justice is the
bearer of hope for all those who are oppressed and exploited."78
5. The covenant relationship between God and Israel. The covenant relationship between
God and the people of Israel is a central aspect of biblical theology. The prophet Amos
declares that Israel has broken the covenant with God, and so faces divine judgment,
Gerhard von Rad argues that "The prophetic proclamation of Amos recognized that there
was a problem with the Israelites' relationship with God. They had broken the covenant
relationship, and because of that, judgment was imminent."79 The covenant relationship
between God and Israel is an essential element of Christian theology. The church must
remain committed to the covenant relationship, and seek to understand it as fully as
possible. The book of Amos serves as a timely reminder of the importance of this
relationship.
6. The call for social justice. Amos's message is a call to action. The wealthy and powerful
are called to repent and to change their ways in order to alleviate the suffering of the
poor, Marvin Sweeney writes "Amos calls the wealthy of Israel to repentance and
reminds them of the importance of caring for the poor. He insists that true worship of
God means acting justly and loving mercy."80

New Testament Reception/Anticipation: The New Testament shares the Spirit of honesty in
worship, justice in society and human dignity in the life and teachings of Jesus. See the use of
Amos 9:11, 12 in Acts 15: 16-17.

HOSEA (753-715 BCE)

The Historical Background.
The book of Hosea is one of the twelve prophetic books in the Old Testament, and its historical
background is believed to have taken place during the reign of the Northern Kingdom of Israel.
Hosea is identified as the son of Beeri (1:1). He was a man from the northern Kingdom (Israel)
to which he also ministered (7:5). Considering his personal background McCain points out that
others think that Hosea might have been a baker because of the mention of baking cake in
chapter 7 and still others suggest that he might be a farmer because of the many agricultural

76
For more exegetical study and expository commentary on Amos see Arvid S. Kepelrud, Central Ideas in Amos
(Oslo: Oslo University Press, [1956] 1961); Richard S. Cripps (ed), A Critical & Exegetical Commentary on the
Book of Amos (London: SPCK, 1969); T. E. McComiskey (ed), “Hosea, Joel, Amos”. Vol. 1, Minor Prophets: An
Exegetical and Expository Commentary (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1992).
77
Walter Brueggemann, 1997. p. 581
78
Cone, James H. God of the Oppressed. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1997.p. 179
79
Rad, Gerhard Von. Old Testament Theology. New York: Harper & Row, 1962.p. 97
80
Sweeney, Marvin A. Prophetic Literature: An Introduction. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1995. p. 119

22
references in the book that bears his name.81 This argument from vocabulary is hardly convincing
even though there is no way to prove the argument otherwise. All that we can say is that Hosea
was a human being called and used by God to speak to Israel even in a most dramatic of ways
regardless of his actual former occupation.
Authorship. Some scholars have attributed the book to the prophet Hosea himself, while others
argue that it may have been written by a later author who utilized Hosea's message. A few
scholars suggest that the book was written by Hosea with assistance from scribes. According to
Leslie C. Allen, "the issue is not whether Hosea authored the material but how much of it"82.
Dating. The date when Hosea prophesied is also a matter of debate among scholars. Some
suggest that he prophesied during the reign of Jeroboam II (793-753 BC), while others argue that
he may have prophesied later during the reign of King Hezekiah (727-698 BC). There is also a
possibility that Hosea may have prophesied during both periods (753-715 BCE). According to
John J. Davis, "the date of the book of Hosea is difficult to determine with precision"83
Recipients. The intended recipients of the book of Hosea were the people of the Northern
Kingdom of Israel. Hosea was a prophet called by God to speak his message to the people of
Israel, who had strayed away from the Lord and were worshipping idols. Hosea's message was
intended to bring them back to the Lord. Hosea's message was not just for the people of his time,
but for future generations as well.
Purpose. The main purpose of the book of Hosea was to call the people of Israel to repentance
and to warn them about the judgments that were coming because of their sin. Hosea's message
was a harsh one, but it was also a message of hope. In chapter 14, Hosea calls the people to
return to the Lord and promises that if they do, God will heal them and love them freely. The
book of Hosea is also a message of God's mercy and compassion. According to James D. G.
Dunn, "The book of Hosea portrays Yahweh, the God of Israel, as a God of love who will not
give up on his people"84.

Historical Context
According to Geisler the message in the book of Hosea could be understood to be addressed to
many people, especially some of the notable Kings of Israel from about 760-710 BC.85 Hosea
might have prophesied for about 40 years, yet his period of life within the reigns of the Kings
mentioned in the book that bears his name might have been for about 65-70 years.86 The period
of his ministry reflects the time “when Israel was at her political peak under Jeroboam, and all
the way through her decline and destruction.” 87 Geisler argued that for the fact that the ruin (as
punishment of the LORD) to the house of Jehu that brought it to an end as a dynasty was in the
future situates the book of Hosea sometime before the death of Jeroboam II (753 BC).
Hosea 5 could have been intended to King Menahem (742 BC) with Hosea 7 during the political
dealing of King Hoshea with Egypt (722 BC). 88Even though the above-mentioned times and

81
McCain, 323.
82
Allen, L. C. The Books of Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, and Micah. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing.
1993, p.66
83
Davis, J. J. A Dictionary of Bible and Christian Doctrine. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House. 1986, p. 196
84
Dunn, J. D. G. The Bible and the Future. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. 2002, p. 207
85
Cf. II Kings 14:17.
86
Cf. McCain 324.
87
McCain, 325.
88
Cf. Geisler 280.

23
addressees suggested by Geisler to be somehow tenable looking at the inner history of Israel, yet,
Geisler did not try to point us to where chapters 2 and 3 of Hosea, the adulterous situation of
Israel was actually referred to in concrete history. Could it be the reign of Solomon or King
Ahab? These are the Kings during whose reigns Israel went down to earth with the worship of
the Baals.

Hosea addressed his message to the 10 tribes that compose the northern Kingdom, Israel, which
in Hosea is usually called Ephraim89 whose capital is Samaria (10:5).90 The book of Hosea is the
book of God’s compassion.91 It shows the unfaithfulness of Israel to God. For Israel as an
unfaithful wife ran to other lovers, time and again but God passionately went after her, bought
and brought her back to himself.92 The book of Hosea is about the salvation of God by grace to a
wayward people. Just as in Christ God calls and saves the sinner so it was in the time of Hosea.
That God loves and calls his dear son and wife from the bondage of the Egyptians (11:1). We see
the portrait of Christ in Hosea as the redeemer of his people (13:4,14). This is possible for he is
“our compassionate lover (11:1),”93 and the healer of the backslider (6:1).
Literary Form:
Superscription (1:1)
I. Hosea’s troubled marriage reflects God’s relationship with Israel
(1:2–3:5)
A. Hosea, Gomer, and their children (1:2–2:1)
1. Prophetic sign-act of judgment (1:2–9)
2. The relationship restored (1:10–2:1)
B. The Lord’s marriage to Israel (2:2–23)
1. The relationship broken (2:2–13)
2. The relationship restored (2:14–23)
C. Hosea’s restored marriage relationship (3:1–5)
D. First prophetic cycle (4:1–11:11)
1. God accuses Israel of unfaithfulness (4:1–19)
2. God punishes Israel (5:1–15)
3. Hosea’s call to repentance ignored (6:1–7:16)
4. God punishes Israel for rejecting him (8:1–10:15)
5. God’s love for Israel overwhelms his anger (11:1–11)
E. Second prophetic cycle (11:12–14:8)
89
Cf. Hos 1:1; 5:1, 3,5,11, 13; 12:1; 13:1.
90
For more on Hosea as an 8th century prophet from the north cf. Bruggemann, 214; Robert Wilson, Prophecy and
Society in Ancient Israel (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1980), 225ff. Even though Hosea primarily directed his
message to the northern Kingdom, Israel, Judah in the South was not totally neglected (cf. McCain 324).
91
The book of Hosea is full of emotions and metaphors that describe serious emotions and attitudes of
Israel and Yahweh (for Israel cf. 4:16; 10:11; 7:8, 11; 8:9; 9:10; 10:1; 14:7; 14:5. For God cf. 5:12; 5:14; 11:10;
13:7; 14:8) cf. Douglas Carew, 1013 in Tokunboh Adeyemo (ed), Africa Bible Commentary (Nairobi: World Alive
Publishers, 2006).
92
Hosea like Jeremiah presents the deep emotion of lost love and/or wounded love, even the wounded love
of God to Israel. Hosea prophesied the way he did in a personal and symbolic manner “ because he was experiencing
a little of what God was experiencing (McCain, 324). Brueggemann (p. 214) agrees with Wilson about Hosea’s
Deuteronomic traditional texture which makes him stand as a revivalist of the Moses’ tradition (Torah). For more
on Hosea’s words of indictment and judgment against Israel for their unfaithfulness to the covenant of Yahweh. Cf.
Claus Westermann, Basic Forms of Prophetic Speech (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1967).
93
Geisler, 240.

24
 1. Israel sins against God (11:12–12:14)
2. God is angry with his people (13:1–16)
3. Israel repents and is blessed (14:1–8)
F. Wisdom colophon (14:9)94

The first division of the book (chaps. 1-3) is one of personal and passionate affection between a
faithful husband and an unfaithful wife. Hosea was asked to marry a woman who becomes
unfaithful to him, namely Gomer, and she bore the children of unfaithfulness namely Jezreel, Lo-
Ruhamah and Lo-Ammi. All these are signs to their larger contexts from the beginning to the
end. By way of allegorical understanding which is permitted by the text, the husband is salvation,
the wife is infidelity and the children are the emotional expressions of a wounded heart of love.
Even though they shall be disowned and forsaken (chap. 2), it shall not be forever (chap. 3).
Salvation through passionate love does not lose its target. 95 “It is most remarkable that Hosea
casts the gravitas of covenant faith in the categories of the most intimate relationship of
fidelity.”96 It is worthy of note that the book of Hosea “offers assurance for Israel’s survival and
well-being beyond the deep dislocation of judgment.”97

In the second main division of the book, Hosea 4-14 presents us the national unfaithfulness of
Israel to a faithful Lord. This is the crisis of love that cannot be defeated. Geisler helps us to see
the sin of Israel as a nation even though “their sin is multiple.” 98These include, idolatry (chap. 4)
and unfaithfulness (chap. 5) in the face of God’s love and faithfulness (chap. 6) which has seen
the depravity (chap. 7) and the apostasy of Israel (chap. 8). In other words McCain explains that
there were different kinds of sins in the land that were a direct contravention of the Decalogue.
99
“The priesthood was wicked and sinful” (cf. chaps. 4:6-9; 5:1; 6:9). The kings were corrupt by
their indulgence into “drunkenness and debauchery” (chap. 7:3-5). 100 The Israelites were
materially blessed by God but they made themselves idols of their wealth and privileges (chap.
2:13; 3:8; 8:4). Such indulgence into sin and all kinds of carelessness led to the downfall of Israel
thus McCain rightly observed that, “At the beginning of Hosea’s ministry Israel was stable, but
Hosea sees Israel decline to the point of being a puppet nation, and then an extinct nation.” 101 In
face of all this unfortunate development of sin and recalcitrance God promised to ‘visit’ Israel.
94
Dillard and Longman, 404.
95
“The bold theme of remarriage is as graphic as a new set of wedding vows that are the outcome of
YHWH’s ‘courting’” (Brueggemann, 215 cf. 2:19-20). Furthermore, the renewal of marriage and all its blessings by
Yahweh to Israel confronts and challenges the fertility gods of the context seriously. Yahweh has situated himself in
words and deeds over and against the Baals as “the authoritative” and “reliable fertility God” (cf. Brueggemann, 216
cf. Walter J. Harrelson, From Fertility Cult to Worship (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books/ Doubleday, 1969). For
more on Hosea’s family allegory cf. Thomas E. McComiskey ed. Hosea, Joel, Amos . Volume 1. The Minor
Prophets; An Exegetical and Expository Commentary (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1992).
96
Brueggemann, 216.
97
Brueggemann, 217.
98
Geisler, 241.
99
Cf. Hos 4:1-2. The mention of drought as a process that undo creation (Brueggemann, 215) could be
reminiscent of the plague in Joel hence helping to connect and even concretize the historicity of both books in light
of the famine. Amos and Hosea might have seen the potentiality while Joel saw the actualization, thus the books
correlate on that theme.
100
“Hosea found the entire leadership of Israel and the people guilty of this apostasy and spiritual
degeneration” (Carew 1013).
101
McCain, 325.

25
This is the visitation of judgment for their disobedience (chap. 9) which is demonstrated in their
dispersion among the nations (chap. 10 cf. 5,6).

As could be seen in other contemporaries of Hosea namely, Joel and Isaiah, “God was going to
bring the Assyrians against Israel as punishment for her sin 102 but as we could notice from the
textures of the book rooted in family metaphor, all that God was doing even in punishing the sins
of Israel have been redemptive. Hosea’s message is centered around three words; sin, judgment
and love.103 The two main accents of the messages of Hosea are the knowledge of God and a call
to return to God. It is interesting to note that knowledge of the Lord is first and foremost
relational. It is beyond mere emotions. It is rooted in the Law of God in active memory and
application. This helps us to note the cognitive, active, social/ethical components of the
knowledge of God. Hosea recognizes that God’s gracious forgiveness and compassion are the
only means by which his people can ultimately be restored to him.” 104 Furthermore in line with
the tone of Joel and Amos that after the judgment shall come the restoration of God to his people
(chaps. 11-14). The pathos (deep compassion) of God is aroused and will never yield to give up
on his people (chap. 11) even though his provocation was also “great” (chap. 12). God as the
Holy One of Israel will surely condemn the wicked of their wickedness (chap. 13). Yet, God’s
grace is seen in his passionate “invitation to salvation” (chap. 14).

The Theology of the Book of Hosea:

1. God’s Blessings to His People (Hosea and Israel) (1 &2)
2. the Rebellion of Israel against God (4, 12; 13)
3. God’s Judgment on Israel (chaps 5; 8, 9);
4. Israel’s attitude toward God (chaps 6-7).
5. God’s Patience, and Grace for his people (Hosea and Israel (chap 3; 11),

Theological themes
1. God’s love and faithfulness. The book of Hosea portrays God's unconditional love and
faithfulness towards His people. Hosea 2:19-20 states, "I will betroth you to me forever; I
will betroth you in righteousness and justice, in love and compassion. I will betroth you
in faithfulness, and you will know the Lord." This verse emphasizes God's willingness to
forgive and restore His people despite their unfaithfulness. Walter Brueggemann,
emphasizes the importance of God's love and faithfulness in the book of Hosea. He
writes, "Central to the book of Hosea is the conviction that the God known to Israel is a
compassionate God, a God of steadfast love, and of grace which endures forever"105.
2. Israel’s unfaithfulness. Hosea also highlights Israel's sinfulness and their tendency to
turn away from God. The book describes Israel as a wayward wife who has abandoned
her husband (God) and pursued other gods. Hosea 4:2 states, "There is only cursing, lying
and murder, stealing and adultery; they break all bounds, and bloodshed follows
bloodshed." This verse emphasizes the depth of Israel's depravity.
3. Judgment and restoration. God promises to judge Israel for their sinfulness and
unfaithfulness, but also promises a future restoration. Hosea 6:1-2 states, "Come, let us

102
Hos 5:13, 14; 7:11, 12; 9:3.
103
McCain, 327.
104
Carew, 1013.
105
Brueggemann, p. 496

26
 return to the Lord. He has torn us to pieces but he will heal us; he has injured us but he
will bind up our wounds. After two days he will revive us; on the third day he will restore
us, that we may live in his presence." John Goldingay writes, "Hosea expresses God’s
judgment as due to come upon Israel, for her sins, in order to purify her for the coming of
a restored and reconciled people"106.
4. The need for repentance. God calls on His people to turn away from their wicked ways
and seek His forgiveness. Hosea 14:1 state, "Return, Israel, to the Lord your God. Your
sins have been your downfall!" This verse emphasizes the importance of repentance in
order to receive God's mercy and forgiveness. M. Daniel Carroll R. writes, "Hosea…calls
Israel to recognize its need for repentance, to return to its covenant relationship with
Yahweh, and thereby be transformed for good"107.

New Testament Reception/Anticipation: The Calling to God’s Son from Egypt (Hosea 11:1 cf.
Matt 2:15) and God’s victory over death and evil, (13:14 cf. 1 Cor. 15:55) and 1 Peter. 2:10 cf.
Hos. 1:6, 9; 2:1, 22).

ISAIAH AND MICAH

The book Isaiah and Micah are generally understood as contemporaries of each other among
others like Amos and Hosea who might be older than them. Nevertheless, Isaiah which means,
‘Yahweh is salvation’ and Micah which means ‘who is like Yahweh,’ are the two moving
heralds(proclaimers/messengers) of God’s salvation even beyond the national exclusiveness of
Israel and Judah but rather into the cosmic reality of life and being. The prophecies of Isaiah and
Micah allude to and fulfill the blessing of God through Abraham to the entire world.108

ISAIAH (Isaiah became a prophet in 740 BCE). But scholars believed that the events in 1-
39 occurred in 740-700BCE while 40-66 occurred near the end of his life in 700-681 BCE)
The Historical Background
The book of Isaiah is one of the most significant prophetic books in the Old Testament and has
been a subject of biblical scholars for centuries. The historical background of the book of Isaiah
is essential in interpreting it accurately. The book of Isaiah is an Old Testament gospel book.
Reading the book of Isaiah at some passages is like reading the pages of the gospel narratives in
the NT most probably because of the many prophetic pronouncements found especially in Isaiah
that run and ring through the NT in terms of their fulfillment. 109 For example Isa. 9, 11, 40, 53
and 61 are referred to in the NT by means of quoted references. These amongst others help us to
see the unity of the biblical texts as they interact in time and beyond time and place. In regards to
the authorship of the book that bears his name, Isaiah is agreeably “a great poet, orator, and
statesman.” There is no doubt that he was “highly educated, knowledgeable in international
affairs, and on familiar terms with the royal court.”110

106
Goldingay, John. The Message of Hosea. InterVarsity Press, 2010. p. 131
107
Carroll R., M. Daniel. Amos, Hosea, Micah: An Archaeological Commentary. Westminster John Knox
Press, 2002. p. 122
108
Cf. Gen 12ff Geisler, 243.
109
Geisler, 243.
110
Geisler, 243.

27
Authorship. According to tradition, the entire book was written by the prophet Isaiah. However,
scholars suggest that different authors wrote the book over a span of several centuries. The first
section of the book (Chapters 1-39) is attributed to Isaiah, while the second section (Chapters 40-
55) and third section (Chapters 56-66) are considered to have been written by other authors,
known as Deutero-Isaiah and Trito-Isaiah, respectively111.
Dating. The period covered by the book of Isaiah spans over three centuries 112. The first section
of the book dates back to the 8th century BCE, during the reigns of Kings Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz,
and Hezekiah. The second section of the book dates from the mid-sixth century BCE, during the
Babylonian exile, while the third section of the book was written after the exile, during the
Persian period113.
Recipients. The recipients of the book of Isaiah were the people of Judah and Israel, the
Babylonian exiles, and the Israelites who had returned from exile. The first section of the book
was written for the people of Judah and Israel and specifically addressed the Southern Kingdom
(Judah). The second section of the book was written for the exiles in Babylon who were waiting
for their liberation, while the third section was directed to those who had returned to Israel from
Babylon114.
Purpose. The book of Isaiah has various purposes. The first section of the book was written to
warn Judah and Israel of the impending destruction if they did not repent of their wicked ways. It
also contains messages of hope and promise of restoration and salvation to the remnant of Israel
(Isa 1:16-18). The second section of the book focuses on comforting the exiles in Babylon by
assuring them of God's presence, faithfulness, and promise of restoration (Isa 40:3-5). The third
section of the book calls for the rebuilding of the temple and the city of Jerusalem and
emphasizes the importance of obedience to God's laws (Isa 65:17-25).

The Historical context

The book of Isaiah has exercised the mind of critical scholars and even those who would not like
to be so described, about its authorial historicity and unity. Critical scholars considered the
vagaries of history in terms of time of a single human being and the internal evidences of history
in the book of Isaiah and concluded that there might have been more than one Isaiah within the
Isaianic tradition as the authors of the book that bears his name. Thus there is what is known as
First Isaiah (Isa. 1-39), Second Isaiah (Deutero-Isaiah i.e Isa 40-66) or even a Third Isaiah (Trito-
Isaiah i.e Isa 55-66). This argument tries to take history realistically and not to blur the
possibility of the construction and sustenance of a given tradition as Isaianic tradition.

Instead of agreeing with the historical and literary suggestion of the critics of history and the
possibility of an impossibly long time of the man Isaiah, Geisler claims to follow the Jewish
Rabbinic tradition to squeeze the whole book of Isaiah in terms of its content into a single whole
Isaianic authorial unity as could be found also in the intertestamental book of Ecclesiasticus (c.
150 BC)115 and the Talmud. Thus Geisler claims that the book “as a whole claims to be the work
of one Isaiah” by referring to 1:1; 7:3; 20:2; 38:4; 39:5. In this light he believes that the “same

111
Kugler, Robert A., and Patrick J. Hartin. An Introduction to the Bible. Eerdmans, 2009, P. 263
112
Kugler and Hartin. P. 264
113
Kugler and Hartin. P. 268
114
Kugler and Hartin 273
115
Isa 48:17-25.

28
literary style, thoughts, phrases, and even figures of speech run throughout the whole book.”116He
further claims that in the NT another conclusive evidence for the single Isaianic author is on the
fact that “our Lord and the writers of the inspired New Testament attributed both sections of the
book to one and the same Isaiah.”117

He goes further to provide some convincing examples when he mentioned that, “John the Baptist
cited Isaiah 40 in Matthew 3:3, Jesus quoted Isaiah 61 in Luke 4:18ff. John 12:38 refers to
Isaiah 53, while verse 40 quotes Isaiah 6. Paul also cited Isaiah 53 in Romans 10:16.” 118 Despite
these quotations in the NT from the book of Isaiah specifically it is still very hard for Geisler to
be convincing that those NT writers and speakers were not alluding to and quoting the Isaianic
tradition rather than arguing for its authorship. The NT authors in no doubt relished the message
of the book of Isaiah and recognized its worth and beauty of its fulfillment in the life and works
of Jesus Christ which is by far more important than arguing about its authorship.

Isaiah ministered in the tumultuous time of the history of Judah across the reigns of Jotham,
Ahaz, Hezekiah “and Manasseh, all Kings of Judah.” 119 Isaiah’s messages addressed the socio-
religious and socio-political problems of the people in Judah, Jerusalem as the center of religion
and politics (this should be understood as ‘monarchial politics’ not ‘democratic’). Thus
Jerusalem stands as the focal city of Isaiah’s religious addresses cf. 1:1; 2:1; 52:2; 62:1.
Brueggemann suggests that the book of Isaiah could be understood as a “continued meditation
upon the destiny of Jerusalem,” in responsive senses of faith that addresses and transcends the
despair of Israel, before, during and after the Babylonian exile.120

Isaiah is traditionally accepted by Robert R. Wilson as part of the Jerusalemite upper class
people who might have been born and raised in the heart of the city thus allowing him much
access to the socio-political contexts and state of affairs in his time. But his denial of Isaiah’s
affiliation to any religious establishment of his time could be ambiguous especially when we try
to understand the prophet from the internal evidences in the book that bears his name. 121
Nevertheless, Wilson thought on Isaiah’s history as one who might have been called from an
extraction that we may consider as ‘religiously neutral.’ This point of reasoning could have some
merit, yet, Isaiah’s vast knowledge of the priestly tradition of Israel could hardly be dismissed as
being formative of the cultural ethics and even main theological worldviews of the prophet in
question.122

Chapters 7 and 8 are crucial to the study and understanding of faith in the book of Isaiah. Faith in
these chapters is portrayed as a total reliance of trust upon the person and power of Yahweh

116
Geisler, 244.
117
Italics as in the original
118
Geisler, 245.
119
Geisler, 245 cf. II Kings 15-21.
120
Brueggemann, 160.
121
Cf. Robert R. Wilson, Prophecy and Society in Ancient Israel (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1980, 271ff;
Brueggemann, 160.
122
For more on Isaiah’s intertextuality with the Priestly tradition(the Torah in particular) cf. Benjamin D.
Sommer, A Prophet Reads the Scripture; Allusion in Isaiah 40-66 (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press,
1998).

29
whose presence secures his people and gives them peace. But King Ahaz of Judah is described as
a “model of unfaith”123 thus he stands as an antithesis of what is written and voiced in the book
of Isaiah in terms of the given and expected relationship between God and his people.
Christopher Seizt as referred to in Brueggemann 124 helps us to see that the two Kings of Judah
namely Ahaz and Hezekiah illustrate what we might call the portraits of a bad king (Ahaz) and a
good king (Hezekiah).125This is because of the legendary faith of Hezekiah in Yahweh amidst
chaos and the threat of his life and kingdom. The historical prayer of Hezekiah against the
subjugation of Israel by Assyria stands him tall among the kings of Judah as to what a king who
has faith in Yahweh should always do.126

The prophetic/confrontational (cf. chaps. 1-35), socio-political (chaps. 36-39) and historical-
cosmic (chaps. 40-66) patterns and textures of Isaiah allow us the vision and mission of God who
judges the sins of his people and the entire world and bestows his peace through his Messiah and
free sovereign presence. The book of Isaiah is the most Christological of the OT prophetic
books because of its portrayal of the given, realized and the coming Messiah in God’s zeal
for the purpose of actualizing God’s ultimate mission of saving all his people from nations
beyond Israel (universally) and redeeming the world by renewing it and sustaining it by his
grace and power.127
The prophetic confrontational condemnations are given in chapters 1-35 within which Judah and
Israel are the focal recipients (chap. 1-12) and then the surrounding nations of the world (chaps.
13-23) and the entire inhabited world (chaps. 24-35). The latter would be actualized on the ‘Day
of the LORD’ (chaps. 24-27) which would come in this context with fierce judgment upon all the
wicked of the earth as seen in the series of five woes that announce it (chaps. 28-33). This
notwithstanding, the salvation of the Lord shall be revealed even amidst the chaos of the time
(chaps. 34-35). This saving presence of God brings the people of the earth, his own people back
to himself into an endearing relationship.128

Chapters 13-23 are cogent oracles that poignantly assert Yahweh’s sovereignty “over all the
nations.”129 Brueggemann refers to John Barton’s agreeable thought on Yahweh’s concern about
the morality and ethics of other nations that may somewhat be seen as being innocent of Sinai
(Priestly) demands of Yahweh and the commitment of Israel to live in light of his ordinance, that
those other nations cannot be said to totally be free and irresponsible mainly because of the
reality and possibility of ‘natural theology’ through which they might be conscious of Yahweh’s
rule.130 This consciousness is a great sign of hope especially to Israel seeing that even the then

123
Brueggemann, 161.
124
Brueggemann, 163.
125
Italics as in the original
126
Cf. 2 Kings 18-20; Isa. 36-37. Christopher R. Seizt, Zion’s Final Destiny: The Development of the Book
of Isaiah: A Reassessment of Isaiah 36-39 (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1991).
127
Cf. Isa 2:14; 9:6f, 11:1ff; 53:1ff; and 61.
128
The coming redemption of God even through the judgment of the sins of his people helps us to
understand that, “God is a holy God and He will not tolerate sin. He will visit the nations in wrath for their
wickedness” (Geisler, 246). This would be in order to destroy their wickedness as he reveals his salvation.
129
Brueggemann, 163.
130
Cf. Brueggemann, 163; John Barton, “Natural Law and Poetic Justice in the Old Testament.” Journal of
Theological Students 30 (1979): 1-14.

30
greatest superpower in world politics namely Babylon would be held accountable for her pride
and the oppression of the weak.131

Brueggemann identifies a ‘novum’ in Israel within chapters 24-27 which present Yahweh’s
cosmic acts of justice that destroys the world of wickedness and gives space to the world of hope
and blessedness.132 Even death as the greatest enemy of humanity shall be swallowed up by
Yahweh hence to remain triumphant over everything that destroys.133 Amidst the vagaries of
history in terms of political instability, Isaiah presents the hope of the return of the exilic people
of God and the reinstitution of Jerusalem as the leading city of holiness and spiritual integrity
(chap. 35). Thus chapter 35 in a cogent sense which provides the reader with the foretaste of the
joy and restoration that are voiced in chapters 40-55, “that celebrate restoration and the
homecoming of Israel.” 134

The historical invasion of the Assyrians and the Babylonians to capture and subdue Israel and
Judah is the focal point of chapters 36-39. The invasion came as Hezekiah’s ‘trouble’ (chap. 36)
which became his ‘triumph’ (chap. 37) in the Lord his God when he allowed his faith to find its
meaning and strength in God. That was his trial, salvation and that of Jerusalem with him. Later
on Hezekiah passed the trial of sickness and looming death for a time, yet fell down at the feet of
humility and power because of his pride and negligence (chap. 38) thus the invasion of Babylon
was announced by Isaiah as the nation that would eventually take Judah into exile (chap. 39).

Isaiah 40-55 opens new vistas of hope amidst the chaos of loss, pain and rejection. Even though
it has been anticipated as earlier mentioned but the ‘new thing’ of Yahweh dawns as the light of
hope over the shadows of death, in that the rejected ones into exile shall rejoice and return home
in peace because God the father is one full of compassion and love that cannot be defeated. 135
God performs the miracle of raising Cyrus to overpower the legendary Babylon and open the
way for the restoration of the exiled people of God to return to Jerusalem though as remnants but
alive enough to repopulate it and restore its religio-spiritual dignity and significance in the world.

The theological texture of 40-55 is actually a poignant (heartbreaking or upsetting) rhetoric as

sharp polemics against the idols that celebrate Yahweh as he has already demonstrated himself to
be in words and deeds as a savior God who is passionate for true fellowship with his people in
well-being (Shalom). It is agreeable that, “The poetry creates a world of stunning possibility for
Israel, a world that counters in powerfully imaginative ways the presumed world of Babylon that
seeks to keep Israel helpless and in despair.”136

Isaiah 56-66 is commonly known as the third main section of the book of Isaiah which some
describe as ‘Third Isaiah’ (Trito-Isaiah). It is understood by scholars in popular discussions to be
different in terms of “social-historical circumstance.” 137 This circumstance is that of the
131
Isa. 13-14 cf. 46-47; Brueggemann, 164.
132
Isa 25-27 cf. Brueggemann, 165.
133
Cf. Isa 25:6-8; 26:19.
134
Brueggemann, 165.
135
For Yahweh’s plan that entails restoration and well-being see 55:6-9 cf. Brueggemann, 167.
136
Brueggemann, 168.
137
Brueggemann, 170.

31
restoration of Israel from the Babylonian captivity as anticipated in the second section of
Isaiah.138

The main task in context now is that of socio-religious adjustment and the reconstruction of life
in the New Jerusalem. Thus, this section focuses on the “internal communal life and the
tensions” in between the lines of all those realities. The revelations in the third section of Isaiah
are given in order to critically and most importantly to theologically respond to those internal life
challenges. The internal struggle now is done between the returnees and the remainees. Chapter
56 struggles with the social idea of exclusion and inclusion in the new Jerusalem, while 58
responds to the socio-religious challenge of ‘fasting’ and the keeping of the ‘Sabbath’.
Brueggemann agreeably sees these struggles as the socio-religious push and pulls that eventually
gave rise to “the earliest form of Judaism after the great restoration from exile had been
accomplished.”139

The book of Isaiah also presents us with the collection of poems known as ‘the Servant Songs’
Isaiah 41, 42 series.140 Although there are Messianic prophecies in the earlier part of Isaiah, for
example, in Chapters 7, 9, 11, 14 and 26. The latter section of the book (chaps. 40-66) presents a
comforting message about the coming freedom from God (chaps. 40-48) as a sign of release
from the Babylonian exile and the loss of identity. 141 The Messiah would also control God’s
people with a simple but powerful life that purifies them (chaps. 49-57). Many scholars have
variously exercised their minds on these poems at various levels and times in order to discern
and explain who the ‘servant’ of Yahweh is in each of the above-mentioned poems. The identity
of the servant has not been easy to come by, it ranges from Israel in history, Israel in the
contemporary present (of Isaiah’s address) and also Jesus Christ in relation to the NT fulfillment
of the OT prophecies. The servant is no doubt “a special figure with a special relationship to
YHWH and a special vocation from YHWH quite different from Israel as ‘servant.’ 142 Even
though Tryggve Mettinger thinks of the servant as someone different from Israel, 143 nevertheless,
Israel in relation to Yahweh has been so designated and assigned a special task as the servant of
Yahweh (cf. chaps. 42:6-7; 49:6b). It is worthy of note here that the death of the Messiah would
bring both comfort to his people Israel and Judah and also the Gentiles. 144 Thus he will bring a
cosmic deliverance from God and the renewal of life and relationships (chaps. 58-66). That
would be the time of ultimate peace and holiness for the people of God especially in Jerusalem
and beyond. The Lord gives comfort to his people even through the specific and universal
salvation that he provides (66: 22, 23). Within the third section of Isaiah is found chapters 60-62
which are replete with the future hope of Israel. That she will indeed survive under the

138
Isa 40-55.
139
Brueggemann, 170.
140
Cf. Isa 42:1-9; 49:1-6; 50:4-9 and 52:13-53:12.
141
The deliverance is promised (40-42) prophesied (46-48) and proclaimed (40-42) cf. 42:1, 7, 8; 43:14,
15; 45:15.
142
Brueggemann, 168 cf. Christopher R. North, The Suffering Servant in Deutero-Isaiah: An Historical
and Critical Study 2d. ed. (London and New York: Oxford University Press, 1956; Brevard S. Childs, Isaiah. The
Old Testament Library (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2001).
143
Tryggve N. D. Mettinger, A Farewell to the Servant Songs: A Critical Examination of an Exegetical
Axiom. Scripta Minora 3, (Lund, Sweden: C. W. K. Gleerup, 1983).
144
Isa 56 cf. Geisler 247.

32
preserving power of the Spirit of God and would be instrumental for the reconstruction of the
then broken social order and religious piety (spirituality) of Israel and the entire world. 145

Theological themes/messages
1. The Sovereignty of God. Isaiah depicts God as the supreme ruler over all creation,
above all other gods. The Book of Isaiah repeatedly emphasizes that Yahweh is the one
and only authority and that no other gods can compare to Him (Isaiah 44:6-8). According
to Childs, "Isaiah illustrated a view of God which transcends space and time, causality
and contingency, power and potency and which is thus uniquely sovereign." 146.
Hugenberger also supports this view by stating that "Isaiah repeatedly emphasizes that
only Yahweh is truly God, and that there is no one like Him."147.
2. The justice of God. Isaiah portrays God as a God who judges people according to their
works, and punishes those who violate His commandments. Isaiah 61:8 says, “For I, the
Lord, love justice; I hate robbery and wrongdoing. In my faithfulness, I will reward my
people and make an everlasting covenant with them." According to Motyer, "Isaiah’s
message about God’s justice and righteousness is a warning to the guilty and an
encouragement to the innocent, all of which is given with the compassion that lies at the
heart of Yahweh's justice."148.
3. The Servant of the Lord. Isaiah 53 presents the suffering servant as one who would
come and take the sins of the world upon himself. The servant of the Lord is a righteous
one who accepts suffering and death in order to bring salvation to humanity. According
to Beale, "Isaiah presents the suffering servant as both an individual and a corporate
figure, as one who will bear the sins of the world so that people might be saved."149.
4. The Holy one of Israel. Isaiah portrays God as holy and majestic, deserving the fear and
worship of His people. Isaiah 6:3 says “Holy, holy, holy is the Lord Almighty; the whole
earth is full of his glory.” According to Childs, "Isaiah emphasizes the holiness of God as
the basis of God's right to rule, the source of his might and the ground of his compassion
and salvation."150.

MICAH (742-687)
The Historical Background.
The book of Micah stands as one of the 12 Minor Prophets in the Old Testament, featuring a
collection of prophecies and judgments against the social injustices of Israel and Judah. The
prophet was from Moresheth near Gath. He was the bearer of the message of God in the book
that bears his name. He was a great prophet who addressed the religio-political problems of his
context like his contemporaries, for example, Amos, Joel, Hosea and Isaiah. Micah is understood
by Brueggemann as being more ‘agrarian’ than being so much “enamored” by the high religious
culture of Jerusalem.151 Nevertheless, his book presents a striking sense of unity (Mic. 1:2; 3:1;
145
Isa 61:1-4 cf. Luke 4:18-19; 65:17-25 cf. Rev. 21:1-2.
146
Childs, B. S. Isaiah. Westminster John Knox Press. 2001. p.365
147
Hugenberger, G. P. The book of Genesis in the New International Commentary on the Old Testament.
William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. (2014. p.493
148
Motyer, J. A. The prophecy of Isaiah. InterVarsity Press. 1993. p. 222
149
Beale, G. K. A new commentary on the book of Revelation. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
2012/ p. 678
150
Childs, B. S. Isaiah. Westminster John Knox Press. 2001. p. 372
151
Brueggemann, 234.

33
6:1) and a good sense of affinity to the Zionic theology of Isaiah (see chap. 4:1-3 cf. Isa. 2:2-4)
which confirms their contextual overlap and the unity of the Spirit that led them.152

Authorship. The book of Micah is traditionally ascribed to the prophet Micah, who came from
the town of Moresheth in Judah (Micah 1:1). According to Donald J. Wiseman, "Micah was a
contemporary of Isaiah, although from a rural rather than an urban background" 153. Micah's name
means "who is like Yahweh" in Hebrew, and his prophecies demonstrate a deep reverence for
God and His justice. Some scholars, however, have argued that the book of Micah had more than
one author. James Luther Mays notes that "there is broad agreement that at least two voices,
probably contemporary with Micah himself, contributed to the shaping of the book" 154. Mays
suggests that the first part of the book (chapters 1-3) reflects Micah's own words, while the latter
part (chapters 4-7) may have been compiled by his followers.
Dating. The dating of the book of Micah is also a matter of debate. Some scholars place Micah's
ministry in the late 8th century BCE, during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, while
others suggest a date in the early 7th century BCE, during the reigns of Josiah and his successors.
According to Leslie C. Allen, "the internal evidence of the book itself is inconclusive," 155 and
"the available data are insufficient to determine with certainty Micah's date and historical
context"156. However, Allen notes that "the argument for Micah's early date appears to be the
more convincing" based on linguistic and historical considerations, as well as similarities
between Micah's prophecies and those of other prophets such as Amos and Hosea.
Recipients. The recipients of Micah's prophecies were the people of Israel and Judah,
particularly the leaders and officials who were responsible for the social injustices that Micah
denounced. Micah addresses the rulers of Judah in particular, saying, "Hear, you head of Jacob
and rulers of the house of Israel! Is it not for you to know justice?" (Micah 3:1). Micah's words
are also directed toward the common people, whom he urges to repent and turn back to God.
According to Mark J. Boda, "Micah invites the people to hope and to begin to live a life
consistent with Yahweh's character as revealed in the law"157.
Purpose. The book of Micah has several overarching purposes, all of which center on God's
justice and the need for social reform. One of Micah's primary concerns is the exploitation of the
poor and vulnerable by the wealthy and powerful. Micah denounces those who "covet fields and
seize them… oppress a man and his house, a man and his inheritance" (Micah 2:2). Micah also
condemns the corrupt practices of the religious leaders and false prophets of his time, who
"preach for money and… prophesy for hire" (Micah 3:11). He calls for a return to the true
worship of God, emphasizing that God desires "steadfast love and not sacrifice, the knowledge
of God rather than burnt offerings" (Micah 6:8).

The Historical context

The mention of “only southern kings” at the opening of his book makes Micah to be a prophetic
book that was primarily addressed to Judah (the southern Kingdom cf. 1:1). Nevertheless, both
152
Geisler, 248.
153
Wiseman, Donald J. "Micah." Pages 355-361 in The New Bible Dictionary. Edited by J.D. Douglas. Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 1962. P. 355
154
Mays, James Luther. Micah: A Commentary. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1976. P. 13
155
Allen, Leslie C. The Books of Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, and Micah. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1976. P. 22
156
Allen,1976. P. 22
157
Boda, Mark J. "The Book of Micah." Pages 1-50 in The NIV Application Commentary: Micah. Grand
Rapids: Zondervan, 2001. P. 15

34
northern (Israel) and southern Kingdoms (Judah) are actually reflected as the recipients of his
messages. “Micah shows God’s hatred of his people’s passionless rituals and sin (6:7) and His
offer of pardon to them.” Geisler helps us to identify the main teachings of Micah as God’s
hatred of empty formal religion (6:7), His concern for social justice (6:8), His pardoning grace
(7:18), and His faithfulness to His covenants (7:20). 158 Considering McCain’s contribution, it is
worthy of notice here that Israel was guilty of many injustices, including plotting iniquity and
evil (2:1), covetousness (2:2), fraud (2:3), false prophecy (2:6; 3:5-7), robbing innocent people
(2:8-9), hating good and loving evil (3:1-3), 159 despising justice (3:9), bribery (3:11), cheating in
the market,160 violence and deceitfulness.161 “Characteristic of such prophetic indictment,162 there
follows in Micah’s oracles dire threats against the city and its leadership, for finally political and
economic practice must answer to the Lord of all public processes.”163

Micah presents the Christological message that indicates the birthplace of Jesus Christ as the
coming Ruler/Shepherd of Israel (Mic. 5:2 cf. Matt. 2:1-6). This shows the God of Jacob (4:2) as
the Holy One who judges His people (4:3) and brings them lasting peace in freedom. It is worthy
of note here that in spirit and content Micah’s message was like Isaiah’s message of salvation to
the nations.164 Furthermore, from what could be understood as proportionately personal
perspective McCain claims that, “Micah has more prophecies in his writings than any other
prophet about the Messiah, including the prophecy that the Messiah would be born in Bethlehem
(5:2) and that during his time there would be great period of peace (4:1-7).”165

The two main divisions of the book are God’s denunciation of the wickedness and idolatry of
Samaria and Judah (chaps. 1-3 cf. 1:1-7; 1:8-2:13) as well as the deception and injustices of the
“princes and prophets (chap 3)”. Secondly, the consolation of the Lord was given in chapters 4-7.
This will happen as God’s merciful agenda for the salvation of the Gentiles (4:1-3) and the
renewal of care and protection of his people through the divine-human, Jesus Christ (5:1ff). God
addresses the ethics of the context by appealing to Israel to do good in the presence of God and
people (6:8). God shows himself as the God of love and grace through his acts of pardoning their
iniquity (7:18-20). This is a God who never loses sight of history or his promises within it and
beyond (7:20). The book of Micah once more demonstrates the golden thread of prophetic
messages namely the prophetic dynamism of an initial harshness that judges and dismisses and a
culminating pardon that restores and embraces. 166These have a meeting point once again not
only in the historic lived experiences of Israel but also in their memorial articulations.

Theological themes/messages

158
Cf. Geisler, 249.
159
McCain rightly cautious us that chapter 3:2-3 “was not an indictment on cannibalism but rather a
figurative description of their inhumane violence” (McCain, 337).
160
Mic. 6:10-11. It is worthy of note here that Micah 6:8 is taken as a summary of “prophetic ethics”
(Brueggemann, 236).
161
Mic. 6:12 cf. McCain, 337.
162
“indictment” should be understood in the plural form in this context.
163
Brueggemann, 234.
164
Geisler, 249.
165
McCain, 337.
166
Brueggemann, 236.

35
 1. Justice. The theme of justice is a significant one in the book of Micah. God requires that
His people exhibit justice in all their dealings. According to Achtemeier, "Central to the
book of Micah is the demand for justice" 167. The prophet Micah condemns injustice and
oppression among the people, especially the rulers, priests, and prophets. In Micah 3:9-
12, the prophet accuses the rulers of the land of dispensing injustices, and this is what
leads to the judgment of God.
2. Mercy. Mercy is another theological theme that is prevalent in the book of Micah.
Despite the people's disobedience, God shows His mercy by sending His prophet to warn
them of impending judgment. Smith notes that "Micah provides a powerful message of
divine mercy"168. The book of Micah highlights God's ultimate purpose of showing mercy
to His people, even in their disobedience. In Micah 7:18-20, the prophet acknowledges
God's mercy, which underscores the restored relationship that Eucharist between God and
His people.
3. Worship. The theme of worship in the book of Micah emphasizes the importance of
genuine worship to God. In chapter 6, the prophet presents an indictment against the
people's worship; their offerings, sacrifices, and rituals are empty and meaningless.
According to Davis, "Micah sees a need for restoration in worship, calling God's people
back to a true expression of their relationship of faith" 169. The book of Micah teaches that
true worship is not in the outward performance but in the inner devotion of the heart.
4. Faithfulness. The prophet calls the people to be faithful to their covenantal relationship
with God. According to Gowan, "Micah is a passionate advocate of covenantal loyalty
and obedience"170. The prophet Micah declares that God requires faithfulness of His
people, which involves living a life of obedience and holiness. The book of Micah is a
reminder of God's faithfulness and how His people must respond to it.
5. Judgment and salvation. The theological themes of judgment and salvation are present
throughout the book of Micah. The prophet Micah preaches about the coming judgment
of God on the people for their disobedience. At the same time, he also speaks of the
eventual restoration and salvation of God's people. According to Mays, "The ultimate
message of Micah is that even though judgment will come, God will also provide
salvation for His people"171. The prophecies of Micah on salvation and restoration are
fulfilled in the person of Jesus Christ, who brought salvation to all humanity

JONAH, NAHUM AND OBADIAH

The following note focuses on the books of Jonah, Nahum and Obadiah which are prophetic
figures that were used to speak the word of God to foreign nations namely, Nineveh and Edom
(Petra). These three prophets are known as missionary prophets.

JONAH (Jonah preached to Nineveh approximately between 785-760 BCE)

167
Achtemeier, Elizabeth. Minor Prophets I. Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1986, 252
168
Smith, Christopher. Micah: A Critical and Exegetical Commentary. New York: T&T Clark, 2017, 67
169
Davis, Dale. The Micah Mandate: Balancing the Christian Life. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1997, 295
170
Gowan, Donald. Theology of the Prophetic Books: The Death and Resurrection of Israel. Louisville:
Westminster John Knox Press, 2015, 44
171
Mays, James. Micah: A Commentary. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2011, 492

36
The Historical Background.
The book of Jonah is a well-known story of a prophet who refused to follow the Lord's command
and was swallowed by a whale. This book provides an interesting historical background that
scholars have debated for centuries. As we begin with the book of Jonah it is important to note
that the meaning of the name of the man “Jonah” means “dove.” This imagery most like
illustrates his shrewdness or his life of adventure that makes him to think of flying away from the
face of the Lord when he was called and commissioned to go and warn Nineveh. 172 Jonah was
the son of Amittai (1:1). He ministered during the reign of Jeroboam II (cf. Kings 14:25) and his
life became a cipher for the dead and resurrection of Christ (cf. Matt. 12:40). Jonah was the
prophet who was not actually a false prophet but his life that we know from the book that bears
his name was not consistent with his message. He preached repentance but he did not actually
hope that the people he preached to would repent and be forgiven by God. Thus the book of
Jonah is seen as part of the ranges of “Oracles” to other nations as could be seen in other sections
of prophetic books like Amos, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Obadiah and Nahum. But unlike those
other oracular revelations, the book of Jonah does not portray Yahweh’s polemical confrontation
of the sins of the people as the objection of his wrath rather than that they became the objects of
his mercy such that “the gracious God who rescues Israel (and Jonah in 2:9) 173 is the God who
intends to rescue Nineveh as well.”174

Geisler claims that “Jonah wrote175 his proud and patriotic fellow-countrymen who were already
under taxation by the notoriously evil Assyrian empire.” 176 In terms of the context of his address,
Jonah was sent to the people of Nineveh, that city was the capital of the Assyrian empire
according to the popular history that surrounds it. The proclamation of the message by done by
Jonah that prophet of Yahweh, but the documentation was probably done by the northern
Kingdom Israel in order to keep the history of the encounter between them and the Ninevites.
Brueggemann maintains that, “The narrative must be taken on its own terms, and since we can
make no historical or even few historical critical judgments about the book, we can say very little
with certitude about the book other than to comment on its contents.”177

Authorship. The authorship of the book of Jonah is uncertain. Some scholars believe that Jonah
wrote it, while others consider it to be anonymous. There is evidence of an anonymous author
from the third chapter of the book, which refers to Jonah in the third person. In addition, the
book's literary style, including the use of prose, poetry, and dialogue, is unlike the writings of
other prophets such as Isaiah or Jeremiah.
Dating. Regarding the dating of the book, scholars have different opinions. Some place it in the
eighth century BC, contemporaneous with Jonah and the reign of Jeroboam II. Others place it

172
The origin of the city of Nineveh was Nimrod who built the city in antiquity (Gen. 10:11).
173
Addition mine.
174
Brueggemann, 232.
175
McCain (p. 333) observes that there is no indication in the book that it was written by Jonah . This could
allow us some suggestion that one of his disciples might have collected this most spectacular even of his career in
his memory.
176
Geisler, 253. The fact that the Israelites were under the control of the Assyrians at the time of Jonah’s
message is in no doubt here but the say that they were “already under taxation” is not explicitly visible in the biblical
text or any other text within the reach of the present writer.
177
Brueggemann, 230.

37
later and suggest that it reflects the situation of the Jewish community during the Babylonian
exile.
Recipients. Furthermore, the recipient of the book of Jonah is difficult to pinpoint. The book's
message seems to be universal in nature, proclaiming God's mercy to all nations, not just Israel.
Therefore, it could have been intended for the people of Israel or for other nations.
Purpose. The intended purpose of the book of Jonah has been the focus of much scholarly
debate. Several theories exist.
1. The book served as a warning to Israel not to disobey God's commands.
2. To promote repentance among the Assyrians, who were viewed as Israel's historical
enemies.
3. As a call to the Jewish people to show mercy to others, regardless of their nationality.

One of the most prominent scholars in the study of the book of Jonah is James Limburg. He
writes, "The book is a prophetic book, but its purpose is neither to foretell future events nor to
give instruction about divine worship. The book's central theme is the universality of God's
mercy, which extends to all nations"178. Limburg emphasizes that the book's message is not
limited to Israel but is universal in nature, emphasizing that God's love is for all people, not only
for one particular nation.

Methods of interpreting the book of Jonah

There are many methods of interpreting the book of Jonah. McCain helps us to reflect on four of
them which comprise firstly,
1. The mythological approach. This takes the book of Jonah as originally from a myth
which could be an ancient story of the encounter between a deity and a human being that
may not necessarily be true.
2. The symbolic or allegorical approach. In this approach almost, everything in the book of
Jonah symbolizes something or someone else other than itself. The terms and figures in
Jonah are not ends in themselves but rather they are pointers to a certain end. This
equally denies their reality but only allow them some parabolic function as mere
metaphors. Jonah is seen to be a representation of Nineveh that rebels against God, the
dove in Jonah’s name could be a symbol of Ishtar the Babylonian goddess.
3. The religious/philosophical, fictional approach. A similar texture could be found in
both Tobit and Judith in which the exclusion of the Gentiles by the Jews is portrayed as a
strong ideology of the Jews being chosen by God over and even against the Gentiles.
4. The literal approach. This is held by both Jewish and Christian interpreters. That things
in the book of Jonah are literal in terms of their historical function. This is highly
substantiated by Jesus allusion to the Jonah experience of preservation in the belly of the
sea monster for three days and nights.179 This takes Jonah as a historical person who
became a metaphor for the Jesus Christ. It is noteworthy that the NT writers do not
actually argue the historicity of Jonah but rather its significance.

Historical Context
Historically, Jonah challenges the arrogant exclusivism of the Jews against the Gentiles.
Doctrinally, Jonah presents us with God’s universal love for the salvation of other nations by
178
Limburg, J. Jonah. Atlanta: John Knox Press. 1993, p. 141
179
Cf. Matt. 12:34-41; 16:4; Luke 11:29-32.

38
asking them to turn to him from their wicked ways (2:9). 180 From the foregoing thought we could
see that there is kerygma (proclamation) for salvation in the book of Jonah but not from his own
personal perspective. Jonah remained a preacher who never knew or saw his message. All he
knew was an art thus he remained a mere instrument and never an active participant. 181
Christologically, Jonah was a type of Christ in terms of his preservation in the belly of the
fish/whale182 for three days, thus Christ was preserved in the womb of the earth after his death
without seeing decay. The correlation of Jonah and Christ is a prophetic one and not attitudinal
one. Jonah became the type of Christ as a mystery of God to his context and to the context to
which he was sent, so was Jesus Christ.183

Following Gelsler, we see the different messages embedded in the life of Jonah as displayed in
the book that bears his name. The life of Jonah portrays a disobedient prophet running away
from the Lord (chap. 1). He then became the disciplined prophet who was forced by his
circumstance to run back to God. 184 Jonah’s prayer for rescue and then thanksgiving in chapter 2
stands in contrast to the truth of the prophet’s heart or we can imagine that he later and so
quickly changed his mind on the issue of God’s mercy (4:4). It is a display of an irony in the
sense that while Jonah was caught into the darkness of the belly of the fish, he cried for God’s
mercy and God graciously rescued him. But instead of his gratitude to overflow in the call for
more of God’s mercy to the Ninevites, Jonah turned merciless toward them in his heart. He
became more concerned about himself and his little castor bean plant rather than being
concerned for the people that God’s heart beat for, for God’s salvation. He rather wished to
remain the prophet of doom rather than the herald of God’s grace. He had more pity for a thing
than many people and he refused to allow God’s challenge to turn his anger into mercy. 185 “As a
parable, the narrative exposes Israel (Jonah) as the great and dependent recipient of YHWH’s
mercy who resists the extension of that same mercy beyond Israel to other peoples who are also
recipients of that mercy.”186 “In the character of Jonah, the narrative presents an Israel who must
inevitably reply on YHWH’s generosity but who, in the very act of relying upon that generosity,
resists the awareness that the same generosity extends to ‘the other’ who is unlike ‘us’ in many
ways, but exactly like ‘us’ in relying on YHWH’s gracious mercy.” 187 After his deliverance,
Jonah was immediately turned into a dynamic prophet who ran with the Lord on his lips and
180
McCain (p. 334) claims that, “The book is really about the prophet Jonah himself.” But how about
seeing God as being the center of the book, not Jonah?
181
Cf. George M. Landes, “Kerygma of the Book of Jonah: The Contextual Interpretation of the Jonah
Psalm.” Interpretation 21 (1967): 3-31.
182
In his comment on the meaning and significance of the “big fish” in the book of Jonah, Brueggemann
(p. 231) maintains the identity of the fish as a mere creature of God which is used to serve God’s purpose. The fish
in Jonah is not allegorically interpreted by Brueggemann as symbolic of the exile, as could be found in other older or
even recent interpretations. Brueggemann interprets the event as the triumph of Yahweh, the Creator over the
monstrous power of chaos. “Thus the rescue of Jonah is also a demonstration of the power of the Creator who will
not have the mission of the prophet thwarted.” The big fish incidence, “serves the prophetic mission intended by
YHWH.”
183
Matt. 12:40; John 1.
184
Jonah 2. McCain (p. 335) claims that, “The prayer in chapter 2 is not the actual prayer that Jonah prayed
but probably a later poetic version of that prayer, much like the prayer of David in Psalm 51. It is highly unlikely
that Jonah would have prayed such perfect Hebrew poetry while in such an emotional state.”
185
Brueggemann, 231-32.
186
Brueggemann, 233.
187
Brueggemann, 233.

39
heart into the context of the Ninevites (chap. 3). But not long from the excitement of Jonah’s
obedience, he became a disappointed prophet because of the mercy that the Lord showed to the
Ninivites.188

The book of Jonah presents us with the message of the wickedness of the Ninevites, the
shallowness of the prophet Jonah in his zeal for the Lord as a faithful spokesman and the depth
of his knowledge of the will of God to dying sinners. It shows us the possibility of deep
compassion and sensitivity in the Lord God and the sailors. 189 We see the power of prayer that
could penetrate every height and depth to reach the presence of God who alone can see, and hear
and save. In this we see God’s care for Jonah and the Ninevites 190 and God’s encouragement to
Jonah when his heart was growing callous to the fate of dying sinners.

Theological themes/messages
1. The mercy of God. The book of Jonah is often cited as a demonstration of the mercy of
God, who gives even the most disobedient of his servants a chance to repent and fulfill
their mission. As H. G. Liddell puts it: "God is seen as gracious and merciful, not only to
the penitent Ninevites, but also to His reluctant and disobedient prophet" 191. The mercy of
God in the book of Jonah is highlighted not only in God's willingness to forgive the
Ninevites but also in his provision for Jonah's physical wellbeing while he was in the
belly of the fish.
2. The nature of repentance. The repentance of the Ninevites is presented as genuine and
heartfelt. "the contrast between God's grace and the Ninevites' repentance on the one
hand and Jonah's lack of compassion on the other hand highlights the sincerity of the
Ninevites. They did not merely pay lip service to God's demands, but went beyond that to
demonstrate their repentance in tangible ways" 192. The repentance of the Ninevites is also
seen as a response to the preaching of Jonah, highlighting the importance of preaching
and evangelism in bringing people to repentance.
3. God’s Sovereignty. The book of Jonah also highlights the sovereignty of God. Jonah
attempts to run away from God's call but soon realizes that he cannot escape God's will.
"the story of Jonah teaches us that we cannot evade or manipulate the purpose of God.

188
Jonah 4. At this stage Geisler described Jonah was one who was “running ahead of the Lord.” Perhaps
this portrays the heart of Jonah that was so quick to reach a certain condemnatory conclusion about the fate of the
Ninevites which was not according to God’s will and purpose. We would not see Jonah was one who ran “ahead” of
the Lord but rather as one who “deviated” from the path of the Lord. Right from the beginning Jonah perceived that
God will surely show mercy in love to the Ninevites but he decided in his heart to conspire against that by trying to
do the opposite. The Ninevites and all people like them in world history would have God to thank that they verdict
does not ultimately lie on the decision of the Prophet Jonah and many other Jonahs across history.
189
“Although one of the themes of the book is God’s compassion for a non-Israelites. It is not appropriate
to see this as an Old Testament missionary book. Missionary activity to foreign countries was not one of Israel’s
responsibilities. However, this incident does show in symbolic form the mercy of God to all humanity and hints at
the future activity of the Church in spreading the gospel to every creature” (McCain 334).
190
If Nineveh is a “cipher” to other nations around Israel, then Jonah could be seen as a cipher to Israel and
today the Church of God as the faithful, called to call the present world out of its wickedness and all manner of sins
into the righteousness of God in response to God’s graciousness.
191
Liddell, H. G. Jonah's compassion and God's mercy: The message of the book of Jonah. Theology Today,
66(2), 2009. p. 149
192
Harper, E. A. Jonah's message and mission: A literary-theological study. Journal of Biblical Literature,
123(1), 2004, p. 27

40
 We must submit to His will and acknowledge His sovereignty" 193. This theme is also
evident in God's ability to control the elements, such as when He sent a storm to halt
Jonah's escape, and His ability to command sea creatures to fulfill his purposes.

In summary, the book of Jonah represents prophetic activity that precedes even Amos, providing
a model of Yahweh’s sovereign control over the prophet and his message, and lays a plank for
moving from the pre-classical to the classical era of prophecy. The date of composition of the
book is another question to be dealt with below, but the historical setting and the nature of the
prophetic ministry captured in its intriguing story provide a fitting preface to our study of the
classical prophets. Obviously, the editor of the prophetic corpus was working with other criteria
for his arrangement of the prophets. However, we have chosen to follow a chronological
sequence to the degree that it is determinable, and by beginning with Jonah we have chosen both
chronology and theology as justification.

NAHUM (660 BCE) Nineveh fell in 612 BCE. The repentance of Nineveh after Jonah’s
message did not last beyond 745BCE
The Historical Background
The book of Nahum is one of the lesser-known prophetic books in the Old Testament. It is a
short book that consists of only three chapters, but it contains valuable insights into the historical
background and events that took place in the Assyrian empire during the time of its composition.
Authorship. There is no direct internal evidence in the book itself regarding its authorship.
However, some scholars believe that the prophet Nahum, whose name appears in the book's title,
was the author. According to some scholars, the name Nahum means "comforter," which is in
line with the prophetic message of the book, which aimed to comfort the people of Judah in the
face of the Assyrian threat194. Despite this view, other scholars argue that the author of the book
of Nahum was anonymous. This is because the book lacks any specific details about the prophet
or his background, as well as any references to the prophet's activities or experiences195.
Therefore, the question of the authorship of Nahum remains unresolved.
Dating. Some scholars suggest that the book was written during the reign of King Hezekiah of
Judah in the late eighth century BCE, following the Assyrian siege of Jerusalem (2 Kings 18-
19)196. This view is supported by the focus of the book on the Assyrian empire's downfall and
destruction, particularly its capital city, Nineveh. Other scholars propose that the book was
written after Nineveh's fall, around the time of the Babylonian conquest of Assyria 197. This view
suggests a later date of composition, around the sixth century BCE. However, this view conflicts
with the evidence of the use of present or near-present tense in the book, which suggests that the
events described in the book were contemporary to the author and the audience198.
Recipients. The book of Nahum was addressed to the people of Judah, particularly those who
had been affected by the Assyrian threat. The book was directed to those who had been
traumatized by the Assyrian invasion, particularly the siege of Jerusalem (2 Kings 18-19). The
193
Levenson, J. D.Theology of the Old Testament. Princeton University Press. 2017, p. 76
194
Smith, G. V. Nahum. In J. D. Barry, D. Mangum, D. R. Brown, R. Klippenstein, & R. Hurst (Eds.), The
Lexham Bible Dictionary. Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press. 2017, p. 900
195
Baker, D. W. Nahum. In M. F. Bird & P. R. Williamson (Eds.), The International Bible Commentary.
London: Bloomsbury T&T Clark. 2018, p. 154
196
Baker, 2018, p. 155
197
Baker, 2018, p. 156
198
Smith, 2017, p. 902

41
book aimed to comfort the people of Judah and assure them of God's protection and faithfulness
in the midst of their struggles and challenges199.
Purpose. The primary purpose of the book of Nahum was to comfort the people of Judah and
reassure them of God's protection and faithfulness in the face of the Assyrian threat. The book
aimed to demonstrate God's power and sovereignty over all nations, including Assyria. By
describing God's wrath and judgment against the Assyrians, the book sought to remind the
people of Judah that God is not indifferent to their struggles and challenges200.

The Historical Context

Nahum (from a town of Elkosh) presents us with God’s punishment upon the Ninevites after
Jonah’s warning message some generation ago. Jonah had earlier wished that God would punish
and devastate the Assyrian city because of their wickedness against the Israelites, but God
showed them mercy through the message of Jonah but afterwards they became increasingly
disobedient and evil before the Lord and in their relation to other nations. Thus the Lord sent
destruction upon them and Nahum recorded the message afterwards. The meaning of ‘Nahum’
is ‘comfort’ or ‘consolation’201 he was indeed a comfort to the Israelites (in Judah) because
through his message they have seen the justice of God upon them oppressors. Geisler rightly
observed that “The book manifests both the justice of God in dealing with evil and the goodness
of God in the eyes of the righteous.”202 Thus the overarching theme of the book of Nahum is
God’s retribution. It is noteworthy that “God vindicated His holiness” on a “pagan nation” after
Jonah’s “revival” which was almost a century and a half in the past. Then the ‘cup of iniquity”
for Nineveh became “full” and there was no going back on the judgment of God that was coming
upon them.203

The judgment of God was declared on Nineveh in chapter 1. In this context and any other
context in the Bible, “Judgment is made necessary by the nature of a holy God.” 204 God does not
in any way take pleasure in destroying anybody but unfortunately, it was the people who
destroyed themselves through their wickedness and carelessness about the warnings of God. if
they had heeded the warnings and obeyed to maintain the holiness and righteousness of God they
would have lived in perfect peace and innumerable blessings from God. The “character” is God
as the creator and controller of the cosmos is portrayed in 1:1-7 and then the “condemnation” of
Nineveh as an adversary nation is also given in chapter 1 verses 8-15. Any nation that is against
the people of God is also indirectly against God. Who persecuted the Church also persecuted
Jesus Christ by so doing (cf. Acts 9:1ff.). The same things apply to the plight of Christians in
Southern Kaduna, Nigeria in present history. The Fulani Herdsmen that pride themselves in
disturbing the peace and even destroying many people and homes in Southern Kaduna and more,
are indirectly confronting the person of God and with time they shall surely meet with the power
of God who is the living and mighty One against whom they cannot prevail. There is no need to
pray and wait for their destruction like Jonah did, but the Lord shall visit them in their deeds with

199
Baker, 2018, p. 157
200
Smith, 2017, p. 905
201
Geisler, 254.
202
Geisler, 255.
203
Geisler, 256.
204
Geisler, 256.

42
his own. This would stop all the rage and bring in the perfection of life that only God gives and
the peace and harmony that we always pray for.

After some time, Nineveh fell, and her judgment is “described” in chapter 2. Nahum graphically
portrays the “siege of the city” by an invading army in very active and moving words (2:1-8).
After some time, “the sack of the city is also described (2:9-13). In a more “apologetical” way
the writer “defended” the judgment of God on Nineveh in chapter 3. It is made explicit that, “Her
sin and wickedness demanded God’s judgment (vv. 1-7)”. Even though she had strength in battle
and strategy for defense, she could not withstand the justice of God (3:8-19). There is no escape
to the justice of God thus the righteous should patiently wait for it and the wicked should be
aware of it and should not wait until it comes for them to think of doing the right thing. Where
there is life there is hope, but there may be a time that is coming when that hope will die out and
the time to become too late to avoid disaster.

The theological themes/messages

1. The sovereignty of God. The sovereignty of God is a theological theme that emphasizes
the supreme power and authority of God over all creation. This theme is evident in
various biblical passages, including Psalms 103:19, which states, "The LORD has
established his throne in heaven, and his kingdom rules over all." Additionally, the book
of Job emphasizes God's sovereignty in his creation and ability to control nature. Some
scholars, like John Calvin, emphasize the idea of predestination, stating that God chooses
who will be saved. Calvin writes in his Institutes of the Christian Religion, "God's secret
counsel and decree concerning all things, and… the freedom of his will in saving or
condemning"205.
2. Sin and salvation. The biblical theme of sin and salvation is a fundamental aspect of
Christianity. The book of Romans provides a significant theological discussion on the
topic. Romans 3:23 states, "For all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God,"
emphasizing the universality of sin. However, Romans 6:23 states, "For the wages of sin
is death, but the gift of God is eternal life in Christ Jesus our Lord," highlighting the
salvation that is available through faith in Jesus Christ. Some emphasize the idea of
original sin, stating that humans are born with a sin nature due to Adam's disobedience.
Augustine writes in his Confessions, "For in him… all have sinned, by following the
example of him who was to be found guilty in the first instance"206. Others emphasize
free will and the need for a personal decision to accept salvation. C.S. Lewis writes in
Mere Christianity, "God has given us a free will"207.
3. Freewill. Free will is a theological theme that emphasizes human agency and choice. The
Bible provides the account of Adam and Eve's choice to disobey God, highlighting the
importance of free will. Additionally, several passages emphasize the idea of human
choice, including Joshua 24:15, which states, "Choose for yourselves this day whom you
will serve." Some writers argue that free will is incompatible with God's sovereignty,

205
Calvin, J. Institutes of the Christian Religion (J. T. McNeill, Ed.). Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox
Press. 2006. p. 82
206
Augustine. The Confessions of Saint Augustine (C. Bigg, Ed.). New York: Dover Publications. 2006. p. 25
207
Lewis, C. S. Mere Christianity. New York: The Macmillan Company. 1952, p. 49

43
 stating that if God is in control, then humans cannot be free Edwards writes in The
Freedom of the Will, "All events... are necessary"208.
4. The nature of God. The nature of God is a theological theme that emphasizes the
attributes and characteristics of God. The Bible contains many passages that describe
God's nature, including James 1:17, which states, "Every good and perfect gift is from
above, coming down from the Father of the heavenly lights, who does not change like
shifting shadows." Some scholars argue that God's power and knowledge make it
impossible for humans to have free will, as God already knows what they will choose.
However, others argue that God's knowledge does not determine human choice, but
rather God knows what choices will be made. J.P. Moreland writes, "God knows what we
would do in every set of circumstances he could create and then bring about those
circumstances"209.

OBADIAH (570BCE) before Babylon attacked Edom in 553

The Historical Background.
The book of Obadiah is a prophetic book in the Old Testament of the Bible. It is the shortest
book in the entire Old Testament, consisting of only one chapter with 21 verses. Despite its
brevity (shortness/conciseness), the book of Obadiah provides valuable insight into the history
and circumstances of the ancient Kingdom of Judah and their relationship with the neighboring
Edomites. Obadiah is one of the earliest prophets called and used by God to confront the
arrogance of the nations that surround Israel. Geisler sees him as even the earliest of “the
seventeen prophets,”210 one who might have ministered in the 9 th century BC. Obadiah as the
servant-prophet of Yahweh “announced God’s judgment on proud Petra 211 in the clefts of
Edom’s rocks.”212 Thus, we shall continue our exploration of the book of Obadiah within its
historical, literary, ideological and theological textures and significances. The book of Obadiah is
written by one who even from the name is known as the “servant of Yahweh” or as Geisler
would have it a ‘worshipper of Yahweh.’ Obadiah was one who received the oracle of God
concerning Petra, the capital city of Edom. The prophet Obadiah’s family details are not given in
the book that bears his name neither is any political clue indicated to help the readers to fix it
within certain (exact) historical date (period). Be that as it may, the most important thing for us is
the message that the little book contains.
Authorship. Authorship of the book of Obadiah has been difficult to determine, and scholars
have offered different opinions. While some scholars believe that Obadiah, the prophet, is the
author, others contend that the book was written by anonymous authors. According to Anderson
and Freedman, "The author...is unknown, and the date is accordingly uncertain." 213 However,
based on internal evidence, scholars date the book of Obadiah to around the 6th century BCE,
during the time of the Babylonian Exile of Judeans. This is because the book refers to Babylon's
208
Edwards, J. The Freedom of the Will (P. Ramsey, Ed.). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 2008, p.
127
209
Moreland, J. P. The God Who Is There: Finding Your Place in God's Story. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker
Books. 2008, p. 136
210
Geisler, 251.
211
Petra was located in Edom, due South of the Dead Sea. But the book of Obadiah was written to Judah,
centered in Jerusalem.
212
The Edomites “lived as high as possible in the rocky mountains south of the Dead Sea.” (cf. Obadiah 3;
McCain 332)
213
Anderson, B. W., & Freedman, D. N. The Anchor Bible Dictionary. Yale University Press. 2005. p. 595

44
destruction of Jerusalem in 587 BCE (Obadiah 1:11-14), as well as the looting of the Temple
(Obadiah 1:16).
Recipients. As for the recipients of the book, several theories have been proposed. Some
scholars argue that the book was addressed to the Edomites themselves, warning them of
impending judgement for their sins against Judah. However, others see the book as being
addressed to the Judeans themselves, providing words of comfort and assurance that God would
avenge their enemies.
Purpose. On the purpose of the book, Barker states that "The particular purpose of Obadiah's
prophecy was to denounce Edom for their violence and betrayal toward Judah." 214. The Edomites
were neighboring tribes to the south, and they had been hostile towards the Kingdom of Judah.
They had taken advantage of Judah's defeat by Babylon to plunder and exploit them, and
Obadiah prophesied that God would judge them for their cruelty and arrogance.

The Historical Context.

The historic reality of the book is supported by the reality in the book in that it records a historic
action of the Edomites against the Israelites during the captivity of Israel and the desolation of
Jerusalem. This historic event became constitutive of Jeremiah’s ideological and theological
reflections and records of the same grim reality.215

Geisler suggested that the book of Obadiah should be dated 840-830 BC. That is the 9 th century
school of thought216 thus even disagreeing with the 6 th century view which is mainly based on the
Babylonian invasion and the desolation of Jerusalem. 217 About this, Geisler argues that verse 11
and 20 may have referred to the Babylonian captivity but not without some ambiguity that made
him think a bit earlier. This ambiguity arises when those verses are read in light of II Chronicles
28:17 which “makes no mention of the capture and desolation of Jerusalem depicted in Obadiah
11.”218 Thus he suggests that the partial capture and desolation of Jerusalem by the Eodmites is
more likely to be the even portrayed in Obadiah 11 and 20 in comparison with II Kings 8:20. Be
that as it may, but that intensity of the dehumanization that was perpetrated in the larger context
during the capture and destruction of Jerusalem as portrayed in the book is less likely to point to
any other period in biblical history than the Babylonian invasion. Moreso, the tone of divine
judgment upon the wicked as a governing motif through the book is another convincing
evidence.

The book of Obadiah is agreeably addressed to the people of Judah but not actually within the
historical milieu(scene/setting) as explained by Geisler, but most likely after the Babylonian
invasion and captivity. This is a historical reflection that exposes the ideological crimes of the
Edomites and confronts the Judahites with the dire need for deeper reflections on their sins and

214
Baker, David W. Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah: An Introduction and Commentary. Downers Grove,
Il, IVP Academic, 2009. p. 156
215
Cf. Jeremiah 49:7-22; Oba. 1-9; Geisler, 251.
216
McCain (p. 332) also sees the date for Obadiah as 9th century. But unfortunately McCain did not give
any reasons different from Geisler’s on his choice for the “earlier” date for the book of Obadiah.
217
Brueggemann (p. 228) agreeably located the history of Obadiah in the 5th century as “postexilic
antipathy of Judah against its neighbor, Edom.”
218
Geisler, 252.

45
the need for repentance and reconciliation. Thus it was “a prophecy about Edom’s doom but it
was a comfort to Judah, which had just suffered bitter defeat at the evil hands of Edom.” 219

Historically speaking, the book of Obadiah describes the actions of the people of Edom (Petra)
against the Israelites on the day of Israel’s distress and disgrace. The Edomites acted based on
historic and ideological hatred between Jacob and Esau according to the Jacob and Esau tradition
historical reality in order to help the oppression and desolation of Israel. The Jacob-Esau
historical tradition is found in Genesis 25:25-26. “The Edomites were descendants of Esau, as
such, they were distant relatives of the Israelites” who were the descendants of Jacob (Israel). 220
In reference to Deuteronomy 2:1-8, the fact that land issues distinguish the ‘kindred’ Esau and
Israel makes Brueggemann to think and conclude that that relationship between them is “one of
ambiguity, but not one that is predictably or uniformly hostile.” 221 Be that as it may, Obadiah
presents the message of God’s just judgment that is coming upon the Edomites. That would pay
them back whatever they might have done to God’s people and the Day of the Lord shall be a
day of justice, freedom and restoration of the people of God.222

Structurally, the “doom of Edom” is pronounced in verses 1-6. 223 That Edom shall certainly be
overthrown.224 This would happen as a result of their sin of “violence and pride (10-14).” Their
own destruction would surely be a payback in that they would receive the same treatment they
had given Judah (15, 16).”225
On the other side of the coin, there would be “deliverance” for Judah. 226 The “dark and terrible”
judgment of God upon the Edomites is contrasted by the coming salvation/deliverance of Judah,
which would be “bright and beautiful.” 227 It is amazing that Judah shall “triumph” over her
enemies,228 the possession of their land shall be the “treasures” of Judah.229 The “triumph” of
Judah is nothing ideological or political but theological because of the fact that it shall be
actualized by the coming Kingdom of “the Lord.”230

The theological themes/messages

1. The sovereignty of God. God is portrayed as the one who controls the destinies of
nations, and his sovereignty is demonstrated in his judgment of Edom. According to
219
Geisler, 252.
220
McCain, 332.
221
Brueggemann, 229.
222
Obadiah 15.
223
Geisler, 252.
224
Obadiah 1-9.
225
McCain rightly discerned the fact that, “A flip side of the golden rule is found in verse 15, ‘As you have
done, it will be done to you, your deeds will return upon your own head.” Brueggemann (p. 229) sees in verse 15 the
description of “the concern for Edom is now broadened into a generic pronouncement against all nations that are
enemies of YHWH and enemies of YHWH’s people.” Childs is referred to as saying that the canonical shape of the
book addresses Edom as an example of what lies ahead for the pagan world. Cf. Brevard S. Childs, Introduction to
Old Testament as Scripture (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1979), 415ff.
226
Obadiah 17-21.
227
Geisler, 253.
228
Obadiah 17, 18.
229
Obadiah 19, 20.
230
Obadiah 21.

46
 Robert L. Hubbard Jr., "The dominant theological assertion of the book of Obadiah is a
simple and profound One-God is sovereign over the nations" 231. Furthermore, Hubbard Jr.
notes that "God's absolute sovereignty over human history is a persistent motif in the Old
Testament"232. In verse 15, Obadiah declares, "For the day of the Lord is near upon all the
nations. As you have done, it shall be done to you; your deeds shall return on your own
head." This verse illustrates God's sovereignty and his judgment on Edom.
2. Judgment. God judges Edom for its sins, including its violence towards Israel. Gary V.
Smith notes that "The Lord's judgment of Edom is the main theme of Obadiah, and it
reflects his divine righteousness and justice"233. God's judgment is just and fair, and it is
based on the nation's sin and rebellion against him. According to David W. Baker, "The
judgment here is an expression of God's justice, which is his divine concern for what is
right, and his reaction to evil, which violates what is right" 234. God's judgment on Edom
shows his righteousness and justice and serves as an example to other nations.
3. Restoration. Although Edom is judged, God promises to restore Israel and bless them. In
verse 17, Obadiah declares, "But in Mount Zion there shall be those who escape, and it
shall be holy, and the house of Jacob shall possess their own possessions." The
restoration promised by God gives the people of Israel hope and comfort, and it illustrates
God's gracious and merciful character. The restoration of Israel shows God's faithfulness
to his people and emphasizes his redemptive plan for humanity

New Testament Reception: The most important point to stress in the book of Obadiah is the fact
that violence and injustice will not last forever and all historic hostilities across contexts will
dissolve into where they belong, namely, nothingness.

ZEPHANIAH, HABAKKUK AND JEREMIAH

The following pre-exilic books of the Old Testament consider God’s retribution on Judah and the
nations235 because of their sin of disobedience to God as a result of their despising the Law
(Torah or Toroth) that the Lord has given them through their religious history to guide and keep
them well. We shall see the passionate confrontations of prophets like Zephaniah, Habakkuk
and then Jeremiah in anticipation of the coming of the Babylonian exile upon Judah and God’s
words of warning for an inclusive judgment upon other nations.

ZEPHANIAH (640-621) when Josiah became the king of Judah in 640-609 (the book of law
was found in 622).
The Historical Background.
The book is believed to have been written in the seventh century BCE during the reign of King
Josiah of Judah. The book was probably written towards the end of the 7th century BCE, as
Zephaniah mentions the fall of Nineveh, which took place in 612 BCE. God’s coming
“chastisement of Judah and the destruction of the idolatrous Gentile nations” 236 is a clear

231
Hubbard Jr., Robert L. The Book of Obadiah. In The New International Commentary on the Old
Testament. Grand Rapids, Mich, Eerdmans, 1989. P. 355
232
Hubbard Jr, 1989. P. 357
233
Smith, Gary V. Hosea, Amos, Micah. Grand Rapids, Mich, Baker Academic, 2015. P. 425
234
Baker, 2009. P. 201
235
Geisler, 257.
236
Geisler, 257.

47
demonstration of God’s control over the history of the world and the fact that everyone is
accountable to him. As the name ‘Zephaniah’ implies, God will ‘hide’ and vindicate his people
Judah as he gives due retribution to the nations of the world that have been oppressing them.
This idea sounds more as in the eschaton, the end of the exile and all metaphoric exiles and evil
of the world. That could in no doubt be inclusive in God’s coming justice upon the nations.
Nevertheless, we shall see the righteousness and justice of God even in his judgment of the sins
of his covenant people.

The bearer of the message in the book of Zephaniah is identified as Zephaniah “the great
grandson of Hezekiah (1:1).”237 (son of Cushi, son of Gedlaiah, son of Amariah, son of
Hezekiah), If this Hezekiah is the same as the King of Judah who was ministered to by the
prophet Isaiah,238 then Zephaniah would rightly be understood as probably the “only prophet of
royal blood.” Geisler fixed the date of the writing of Zephaniah as “during the reign of Josiah (cf.
1:1) prior to the revival of 612 BC (II Kings 22-23).” 239 According to McCain, the fact that there
is no mention of religious revival in Judah in 621 BC by the discovery of the book of the Law
made the scholar to conclude that “the book must have been written prior to that time.” 240 In the
light of his view of the dating of the book Geisler concludes that Zephaniah could be seen as a
contemporary of Habakkuk and Jeremiah.
Authorship. In terms of authorship, most scholars agree that the book of Zephaniah was written
by a prophet named Zephaniah. The book itself identifies the author as "Zephaniah son of Cushi
son of Gedaliah son of Amariah son of Hezekiah" (Zephaniah 1:1). However, little is known
about this prophet as he is not mentioned elsewhere in the Old Testament.
Dating. Some Scholars have identified a number of historical events that may have influenced
the content of the book of Zephaniah. One of the major events is the reign of King Josiah of
Judah. Josiah, who reigned from 640 - 609 BCE, is remembered as a king who initiated radical
religious reforms in Judah. Josiah destroyed the shrines of foreign gods, enforced the exclusive
worship of Yahweh, and centralized worship at the Temple in Jerusalem (Lamentations 1:1-9).
Some scholars have suggested that Zephaniah's message addresses the religious reforms initiated
by King Josiah. According to Sweeney, "Zephaniah's concern with religious purity and the call
to repentance are in tandem with Josiah's drive to centralize worship and enforce a singular form
of worship"241. Zephaniah's prophecies also reflect a concern with social injustice and the
oppression of the poor and marginalized (Zephaniah 3:1-3).
Recipients. The intended audience of the book of Zephaniah is not entirely clear. Some scholars
believe that the prophecies were directed at the people of Judah, while others suggest that the
message was intended for a wider audience of nations. Zephaniah's prophecies contain references
to other nations such as Ethiopia, Assyria, and Egypt (Zephaniah 2:12-15).

The Historical Context.

As to the tone of his message, the suggestion for his contemporaries in the late pre-exilic period
is most likely but dating it during the reign of Josiah is not less ambiguous. But the fact that he
received “The word of the Lord” during the reign of Josiah the son of Amon, King of Judah is
237
Geisler, 257.
238
Cf. Isaiah 38ff
239
Geisler, 257 cf. McCain, 340-41.
240
McCain, 341.
241
Sweeney, M. Zephaniah: A Commentary. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. 2003, p. 171

48
explicitly clear from the biblical text (1:1), but there is no certainty as to when the actual book
was written and/or compiled into the final form as we have it now. “The prophet addresses his
message to the people of Judah whose moral and religious interest had been dulled by the
influence of the evil reigns of Manasseh and Amon (cf. 3:1-7).” 242 The directive description of
“this place”243 indicates the location of the prophet at the time of giving the particular message
within that cluster in which the place indicator appears which might be Jerusalem in Judah but it
may be vagued to assume the same place description as to the locale of the entire book.

Zephaniah as other prophets like Amos and Isaiah, for example, announces the coming of “the
Day of the Lord” in chapter 1, which shall be a time of God’s coming justice upon Judah and the
rest of the nations.244 The holiness of the Lord shall be revealed in his just judgment and enduring
faithfulness. “God will keep his promise and restore the fortunes of Israel, regathering them as a
nation (3:20).”245

Structurally, we shall examine the three main divisions of the book as “retribution, repentance
and redemption.”246 Chapter 1 presents the execution of retribution as “God’s jealousy” being
“kindled against Judah.”247 The retributive judgment of God will come as the unleashing of
divine wrath upon “the officials, princes, and inhabitants of Judah (vv. 7-13).” 248 It would be
such a terrible cosmic devastation that turns everything into nothing (1:2, 3). Thus in God’s
judgment, the only one to be seen, heard and obeyed is God. The only life to sustain is God’s and
the only place to be is God’s as well. Chapter 2 and 3 bring the “exhortation to repentance” as
God’s anger is focused on the Gentiles. It is interesting to note the presence of divine grace in the
fact that, “Before the judgment falls there is time for repentance.” 249 This time for repentance
even extends to the Gentiles of all places, even here and now. God exhorts his people to “seek”
the Lord in humility and sincerity (2:1-3). He will humble the arrogance of Jerusalem and expose
her wickedness and rebellion (3:1-7). He will subdue all the “gods” of the earth and cause them
to bow down, not in worship to him per se but in their own utter destruction. Thus God will
liberate those who have been ensnared by the knowledge and quests for other gods to be free
enough to know him and serve him alone.

God will not be angry forever. The anger of God shall be “quenched” for Judah (chap. 3). This is
God’s “expectation of redemption”250 that would satisfy the prophet and all God’s people in
history and truly make his people bound unto him once again. It is amazing and equally
terrifying that the “indignation” of the Lord and “all the heat of my anger,” (3:8-10) shall be

242
Geisler, 257.
243
Cf. Zeph 1:4; Geisler, 258.
244
For more on the Day of the Lord see Zeph. 1:14-16. Brueggemann, 247; also see James Nogalski and
Marvin A Sweeney (eds), Reading and Hearing the Book of the Twelve (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature,
2000), 75ff.
245
Geisler, 258.
246
Geisler, 258.
247
Geisler, 258.
248
For the motif of the divine “warrior” cf. Brueggemann, 247; Patrick D. Miller, The Divine Warrior in
Early Israel (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1973).
249
Geisler, 258.
250
Geisler, 259.

49
poured out upon the nations. This will not be for the actual destruction of the people but rather it
will be for their purification in that, “at that time I will change the speech of the peoples to a pure
speech, that all of them may call on the name of the Lord and serve him with one accord.” 251
There will be restoration and divine security for the remnant of Israel (3:11-13) and in this they
shall “[r]ejoice” (3:14-20).

Theological themes/messages
1. Holiness of God. Zephaniah emphasizes that God is a holy God who will not tolerate sin
and rebellion. He warns the people of Judah that the day of the Lord is coming, a day of
wrath and judgment. Zephaniah 1:14-15 states, "The great day of the Lord is near, near
and hastening fast; the sound of the day of the Lord is bitter; the mighty man cries aloud
there. A day of wrath is that day, a day of distress and anguish, a day of ruin and
devastation, a day of darkness and gloom, a day of clouds and thick darkness." This
passage underscores the seriousness of the impending judgment of God. Some writers
have commented on the theme of God's holiness in Zephaniah's prophecy. Marvin A.
Sweeney notes that "The emphasis on God's holiness is central to Zephaniah's call for
repentance and restoration.”252 John D. W. Watts also observes that "Zephaniah
enunciated the idea of divine holiness, the idea that God's moral perfection required the
punishment of sinners."253. These insights illustrate the significance of God's holiness in
Zephaniah's message of judgment and the need for repentance.
2. Hope of salvation. Despite the judgment that is coming upon Judah, Zephaniah offers a
message of hope for those who turn to God in repentance. Zephaniah 2:3 states, "Seek the
Lord, all you humble of the land, who do his just commands; seek righteousness; seek
humility; perhaps you may be hidden on the day of the anger of the Lord." This verse
reveals that there is a possibility of escape from the judgment of God if one turns to Him
in humility and faith.
3. The universal reign of God. Zephaniah emphasizes that God's judgment is not limited to
Judah but extends to all the nations of the earth. Zephaniah 3:8 states, "Therefore, wait
for me," declares the Lord, "for the day when I rise up to seize the prey. For my decision
is to gather nations, to assemble kingdoms, to pour out upon them my indignation, all my
burning anger; for in the fire of my jealousy all the earth shall be consumed." This verse
underscores the universal scope of God's judgment. Many have commented on the theme
of God's universal reign in Zephaniah's prophecy. H. G. M. Williamson notes that
"Zephaniah's message is one that has universal relevance, since his concern is not only
with Judah, but also with the broader picture of the world as a whole." 254 T. Desmond
Alexander also observes that "Zephaniah's proclamation reveals that God's sovereignty
extends beyond national borders."255 These insights highlight the significance of God's
universal reign in Zephaniah's message.

251
Cf. Geisler, 259.
252
Sweeney, Marvin A. "Zephaniah." The New Oxford Annotated Bible with Apocrypha: New Revised
Standard Version, edited by Michael D. Coogan et al., Oxford University Press, 2010. P. 122
253
Watts, John D. W. "Zephaniah." The International Bible Commentary, edited by William R. Farmer,
Liturgical Press, 1998. P. 598
254
Williamson, H. G. M. "Zephaniah." The New Interpreter's Bible, vol. 7, Abingdon Press, 1996. P. 332
255
Alexander, T. Desmond. "Zephaniah." New Bible Commentary: 21st Century Edition, edited by D. A.
Carson et al., Inter-Varsity Press, 1994. P. 172

50
HABAKKUK (Between 612-589)
The Historical Background.
The book comprises three chapters and is unique compared to the other prophetic books in that it
contains a dialogue between the prophet and God. Habakkuk witnessed the atrocities that were
happening in Judah and asked God Why He allowed it. The meaning of the name ‘Habakkuk’ is
of uncertain meaning but it may be understood as “to embrace.” 256 The message of the prophet
hinges on the two main facts that “God is holy and He cannot look with approval on sin.” 257 The
prophet’s name ‘Habakkuk’ appears at the leading points of the book as the main recipient and
transmitter of the message of God (1:1; 3:1). Geisler notes the intellectual doubt and variation of
opinions especially on the origin of the third chapter of Habakkuk which is a psalm rather than a
prophecy. He argued agreeably, that the use of Psalms like the one found at the end of the book
of Habakkuk is not unusual. He thus dismissed the argument for the late insertion of the psalm
into the book of Habakkuk as totally “fallacious.” 258 The use of “Levitical music” many years
even before the prophetic era is actually convincing.259
Authorship. The book of Habakkuk is attributed to the prophet Habakkuk, who was a
contemporary of other prophets such as Jeremiah and Zephaniah. While Habakkuk is the author
of the book bearing his name, scholars such as Walter Brueggemann argue that the book may
have been edited by someone else. Brueggemann posits that "it is likely that some later editor has
reshaped the material and added a conclusion to it"260.
Dating. Some argue that the book was written during the reign of Josiah in the late seventh
century BC, while others suggest it was written towards the end of the Babylonian exile. O.
Palmer Robertson argues that the book was written during the reign of Jehoiakim, which was a
time of political turmoil and impending doom261.
Recipients. The intended audience of the book of Habakkuk is unclear. However, the book
addresses the issues of injustice, evasion of law, and the supremacy of God, which suggests that
the primary audience were the Israelites. Moreover, the Lord's message to Habakkuk was
intended for His people, and not just the prophet (Habakkuk 2:2).
Purpose. The book of Habakkuk has several purposes. First, it serves as a record of Habakkuk's
prophetic messages. These messages relate to the fall of Jerusalem to the Babylonians, the power
and sovereignty of God, and the need for faith in times of trouble. Second, the book of Habakkuk
was intended to promote obedience to God's law. Habakkuk advocated for living a righteous life
and following God's commands. Third, the book of Habakkuk provides comfort to those who
face persecution, war, or other forms of suffering.

The Historical Context

The message of the book of Habakkuk was given before the Babylonian invasion of Judah seeing
that it reflected its coming in an “imminent” texture (1:6-10; 2:1f). Geisler argues that it must
have happened at the latter part of the reign of Jehoiakim of Judah before 605 BC. Thus it is

256
McCain, 339
257
Geisler, 259.
258
Geisler, 259.
259
Cf. I Chron. 25; Amos 6:5. For the Levitical use of the “Shigionoth” key for music see Hab. 3:1; Psalm
7:1.
260
Brueggemann, Walter. Old Testament Theology: An Introduction. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 2012, p. 663
261
Robertson, O. Palmer. The Books of Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990,
p. 265

51
agreeable that “Habakkuk was a contemporary of Jeremiah and lived during the reigns of Josiah,
Jehoahaz, and Jehoiakim (II Kings 22-24).”262

The book of Habakkuk is a responsive book within which God responded to the demands of the
day.263 Habakkuk presented his concern to the Lord in a somewhat uneasy manner that provokes
real emotions especially at the deterioration of spirituality as well as political carelessness and
sheer wickedness. “Habakkuk directs his message of condemnation at the greedy nobles and the
shameless religious leaders who were oppressing the common people of Judah (1). God’s
promises were conveyed to the faithful who were apparently dismayed that God had not
intervened to vindicate justice (2).”264

The book of Habakkuk is historically comforting for the coming justice of God upon the
injustices of those who oppressed his people from within Judah and even those outside. It teaches
the doctrine of the holiness of God. That God vindicates the righteous and upholds them by faith.
The divine preparation and invitation of the Babylonians to come and punish Judah for her sins
displays the sovereignty and justice of God. It is a book that teaches life by faith in a perverse
and corrupt context.265 It is a book of revival that passionately invites God to revive and repeat
his wonderful works of grace and justice again (3:1ff). It is a book whose ethics is deeply rooted
and guided by theology.266

Structurally, the book of Habakkuk could be summarized under the rubric of faith. 267 Chapter 1
presents us with “faith tested,” chapter 2 with “faith taught” and chapter 3 with “faith
triumphant.” The reality of faith as given and nurtured by the power of God in a corrupt and
violent context is helpful to speak to the African context, (and within this note), Nigeria in
particular.

Theological themes/messages.
1. The sovereignty of God. God is portrayed as being in control of all things and working
out his plans for the world. In Habakkuk 1:5, God says, “Look among the nations, and
see; wonder and be astounded. For I am doing a work in your days that you would not
believe if told.” This verse shows that God has a plan for the world that is beyond human
262
Geisler, 260. The present study would turn to the book of Jeremiah immediately after Habakkuk in order
to illustrate the succeeding fashion of especially the Babylonian invasion of Judah seeing that we are taking the
event of the exile as our major point of departure.
263
For the two pivotal questions and answers that structure the book of Habakkuk as a conversation
between the human and the divine see McCain, 339-40.
264
Geisler, 260.
265
The corruption of the context has to do with “acquisitiveness (2:6-7), evil gain (2:9-10), exploitation
characterized as ‘bloodshed’ (2:12), destabilization of neighbors by strong drink (2:15), and appeal to dead idols
(2:19)” (Brueggemann, 242).
266
“The faithful will not give in to unbearable circumstance, but will face circumstance in uncompromising
confidence in YHWH” (Brueggemann, 243). It is thus agreeable here that “While the book of Habakkuk is thus
context-specific it durable theological claim is a message of profound hope in a circumstance of profound despair.”
(Brueggemann, 244).
267
On Habakkuk as a book of “faith,” Habakkuk 2:4 is quoted three times in the NT (cf. Rom 1:17; Gal.
3:11 and Heb. 10:38), more than almost any other singular verse from the OT. It served as the basis for the
Protestant Reformation and through Luther’s Commentary on Galatians, the conversion of John Wesley. Cf. Geisler,
260.

52
 comprehension. John D. W. Watts, said, “The sovereignty of God is an essential part of
Habakkuk’s theology: it is implicit in his complaint, and it is explicit in Yahweh’s
reply”268. This quote shows that the sovereignty of God is not only a theme in the book of
Habakkuk, but it is also central to the book’s theology.
2. The problem of evil. The prophet is distressed by the injustice and violence he sees in
Judah. In Habakkuk 1:2-3, the prophet cries out to God, “O Lord, how long shall I cry for
help, and you will not hear? Or cry to you ‘Violence!’ and you will not save? Why do
you make me see iniquity, and why do you idly look at wrong?” Mark J Boda, assert that,
“Habakkuk’s concern with the problem of evil is evident from the outset…The prophet’s
initial complaint (1:2-4) resonates with the agony of any who have experienced injustice
or oppression”269. This quote shows that Habakkuk’s concerns with the problem of evil
are not unique, but are shared by many who have experienced injustice.
3. The righteous shall live by faith. This phrase is found in Habakkuk 2:4, and it is also
quoted in the New Testament in Romans 1:17. The phrase emphasizes that salvation
comes not through works, but through faith in God. O. Palmer Robertson says, “The
believer’s standing before God is not secured by his attempts at orthodoxy but rather by
his faith in God…Making peace with God does not come by the law of works but rather
by the law of faith”270. This quote shows that the theme of faith is central to the book of
Habakkuk, and it emphasizes that salvation is not earned, but received through faith.

New Testament Reception: The question of where is God when things go wrong is a valid and
continuous one in present Africa. Just like the burden of Habakkuk, many Nigerians in Southern
Kaduna have recently witnessed gruesome attacks by the Fulani Herdsmen in which the wicked
swallows up the righteous and the theodicy struggle of Christianity remains almost a daily
experience.271 The need to learn a faith that waits as the faith that works can never be
overemphasized.

JEREMIAH (627-586 BCE)

The Historical Background.
The Book of Jeremiah is the second longest book after the Psalms. The messages of Jeremiah cut
across the time of the exile. He ministered both in the pre-exilic and the exilic time, thus he is an
example of an “interexilic prophet.” His messages were both the warnings of the coming
judgment of God and later on they came as God’s reassurance of love and care to his people
during the exile in order to comfort them throughout the 70-year period of the Babylonian exile.
The personal details of the life of Jeremiah are interesting in the light of the book. He came from
the priestly family of Hilkiah from Anathoth in Benjamin (1:1). He became a prophet according
to the choice and destiny of God upon his life (1:5, 6). He ministered a few decades before the
Babylonian exile. His ministry was started under the reign of Josiah of Judah until the Kingdom
was overtaken by the Babylonians and taken to exile. His time of ministry was so tough and
almost lonely (16: 1-4). He faced intense persecution from those he served (36:2, 23) but he was

268
Watts, John D. W. A Commentary on Habakkuk. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing, 2002. P. 91
269
Boda, Mark J. Habakkuk. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2010. P. 37
270
Robertson, 1990. P. 131
271
Brueggemann explains that, “the provisional resolution to the issue of theodicy is eschatology, that is,
the future is secure in YHWH’s governance even if the present is unbearably out of control.” Cf. Brueggemann, 241.

53
sustained by God throughout the tumult of his experiences (37:15). He symbolically and literally
“shared in the sufferings of the remnant left in the land after the Babylonian captivity and was
finally exiled to Egypt (43:1-7).”272
Authorship. The traditional view is that Jeremiah was the author of the book that bears his
name. This view is supported by several biblical passages. For example, Jeremiah 36:4 says,
“Then Jeremiah called Baruch the son of Neriah, and Baruch wrote on a scroll at the dictation of
Jeremiah all the words of the Lord which he had spoken to him.” Similarly, Jeremiah 30:2 states,
“Thus says the Lord, the God of Israel: Write in a book all the words that I have spoken to you.”
These passages indicate that Jeremiah recorded the words of the Lord. Also, Jeremiah was a
prophet and had the authority to deliver the word of God to the people. However, some scholars
believe that the book of Jeremiah was compiled and edited by different scribes and editors over a
long period. These scholars argue that the book reflects different stages in the history of Judah,
and different theological perspectives. For example, some scholars suggest that the collection of
oracles against foreign nations in Chapters 46-51 was added later than the original book. These
additions reflect the post-exilic period, when the Jews were struggling with their identity in a
foreign land. Therefore, the book of Jeremiah may have had a complex authorship.
Dating. The book of Jeremiah was likely compiled over a long period, and reflects different
stages in the history of Judah. The events recorded in the book span from the reign of Josiah
(640-609 BCE) to the Babylonian exile (587-586 BCE). Therefore, the book may have been
compiled over several decades, and edited by different scribes and editors. Moreover, some
scholars suggest that the book of Jeremiah may have undergone different stages of composition
and redaction. For example, the prophecies against foreign nations in Chapters 46-51 may have
been added later to the original book. These additions reflect the post-exilic period, when the
Jews were struggling with their identity in a foreign land. Therefore, the book of Jeremiah may
have had a complex composition and dating.
Purpose. The book of Jeremiah has several purposes, which reflect the theological and historical
contexts of Judah;
1. the book focuses on the apostasy and unfaithfulness of Judah. Jeremiah warns the people
of the impending judgment of God, and calls them to repentance. For example, Jeremiah
7:3-4 says, “Thus says the Lord of hosts, the God of Israel: Amend your ways and your
deeds, and I will let you dwell in this place. Do not trust in these deceptive words: ‘This
is the temple of the Lord, the temple of the Lord, the temple of the Lord.’
2. The book of Jeremiah highlights the sovereignty of God over the nations. Jeremiah
prophesies against foreign nations, such as Egypt, Moab, and Babylon, and shows that
God rules over all nations. For example, Jeremiah 25:15-16 says, “Thus the Lord, the
God of Israel, said to me: ‘Take from my hand this cup of the wine of wrath, and make
all the nations to whom I send you drink it. They shall drink and stagger and be crazed
because of the sword that I am sending among them.’”
3. The book of Jeremiah anticipates the restoration of Judah. Jeremiah prophesies that God
will gather his people from the nations and bring them back to their land. For example,
Jeremiah 31:8-9 says, “Behold, I will bring them from the north country and gather them
from the farthest parts of the earth, among them the blind and the lame, the pregnant
woman and she who is in labor, together; a great company, they shall return here. With
weeping they shall come and with pleas for mercy I will lead them back, I will make

272
Geisler, 264.

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 them walk by brooks of water, in a straight path in which they shall not stumble, for I am
a father to Israel, and Ephraim is my firstborn.”

The Historical Context

Brueggemann sees the book of Jeremiah as a multilayered document that came out of a long
standing tradition of prophetic indictment of Jerusalem for her gross disobedience to Yahweh in
terms of the Torah and/or the priestly covenantal tradition. 273 He further agrees with Wilson in
seeing Jeremiah as an Ephraimite prophet who was in other words described as a Mosaic prophet
because of the close resonances that his calling and commissioning has with the Mosaic prophet
described in Deuteronomy chapters 18 and 32.274 Thus Jeremiah is called and commissioned to
strictly obey the voice of Yahweh and only speak that which he hears from Yahweh, that lies his
authority as one who speaks in the name of Yahweh. It is agreeable that “Jeremiah’s ministry
covered the reigns of Josiah, Jehoahaz, Jehoiakim, Jehoiachin and Zedekiah (cf. II Kings 22-25.).
He was a contemporary of Nahum, Zephaniah, Habakkuk, Daniel and Ezekiel.”275
Outline
1. God’s judgement on Judah (1:1-45:5)
a. The call of Jerusalem
b. Jeremiah condemns Judah for its sin
c. Jeremiah prophesies destruction
d. Jeremiah accuses Judah’s leaders
e. Restoration is promised
f. God’s promised judgement arrives
2. God’s judgement on the nations (46:1-52:34)
a. Prophecies about foreign nations
b. The fall of Jerusalem

In terms of his scope, Jeremiah could be well understood to have ministered to four categories
of audiences or focus groups;
1. The people of Judah (1-39) to whom he spoke the word of God in priestly terms for their
warning and later confrontation with the coming judgment and restoration of God.
2. He also spoke to and about other nations of the world, to whom he spoke God’s word of
judgment for all their evil acts.
3. The people in exile. He sent messages of God’s help, hope and care/comfort to those in
Babylon. He showed them how much God cared for them and is working to restore them
back to himself in the New Covenant of grace that forgives and reconciles.
4. The fourth group that he addressed was that of the remainees, “the guerrilla remnant
who stayed in the land after Judah fell (40-43).
It is interesting to note here that “Jeremiah’s readers” were located in three main places namely,
“Palestine, Egypt and Babylon.”276 About the man and the book that bears his name Geisler

273
Brueggemann, 177 cf. Walter Brueggemann, “Meditation upon the Abyss: The Book of Jeremiah.” Word and
World XXII (2002): 340-50.
274
Cf. Brueggemann, 178; R. Wilson, Prophecy and Society in Ancient Israel. Philadelphia: Fortress Press,
1980.
275
Cf. Geisler, 264. Jeremiah’s contemporariness with the above mentioned other biblical prophets is more
in regards to the beginning of the Babylonian exile, there is no evidence they he had close contact with them and/or
went through the time of the exile as/with them.

55
rightly observes that “Jeremiah was an anchor in turbulent waters. 277 His prophecies were
unpopular with the political and religious establishment but an encouragement to the remnant.” 278

Structurally, chapter 1-39 present us with the “prophecies about the fall of Jerusalem.” 279
Chapters 1-12 contain confrontational prophecies directly to the Judean context during Josiah’s
reign.280This is full of prophetic pathos/tragedy. It tells about the divine design of the call and
ministry of Jeremiah (cf. chap. 1), his bold confrontation to the people in his context for their
idolatry, injustice, and iniquity.281282 The prophet’s ‘compassion” for his people led him to
preach and pray for them before the Lord. 283 But he was later dismayed at “the people’s
complacency toward God’s commands.”284 Jeremiah was led into the mystery of theodicy in
terms of the spiritual and moral destiny of his people (12:1).

The collections of prophecies that were given during Jehoiakim’s reign are found in chapters 13-
20; 25-26; 35-36. Chapters 13-20 focus more on the “prophet’s experiences.” He was called and
taught lessons in dramatic-symbolic ways in order to understand the state and destiny of the
people of Israel. The fragility of Israel is illustrated by the use of rotten loincloth that Jeremiah
used (cf. chap. 13). He passionately spoke about the coming wrath of God upon the sinfulness of
his people (chaps. 14-15). He was forbidden of marriage because of the tumult of the context
which does not hold any positive prospect for the flourishing of family life (Jer. 16). The
presence of the sin of Judah is made conspicuous to Jeremiah as it is unto the Lord. It is
portrayed as something indelible, written “with a pen of iron” and “with a point of diamond. It is
engraved on the tablet of their heart” (cf. chap. 17). Moreover, God used the house and work of
the potter to further display the fragility of Israel and his divine freedom to act upon her as a
potter acts on clay (chap. 18-19). “At this the outraged people beat Jeremiah and put him in
public stocks (20).”285 But Jeremiah confronts the people with an “exhortation” about their
destiny (chap. 25-26). This rhetoric is meant to rouse them to true repentance unto the Lord in

276
Geisler, 264. It is noteworthy that being located in all these different places does not mean that they
were not under the Babylonian exile. Babylon was the world power at the time so all those places were invariably
under the supreme control of Babylon as well.
277
When Jeremiah complained of being but only a ‘child’(Jer. 1:6). “God did not deny that he was young
but simply encouraged him not to be afraid and to obey” (Geisler 307).
278
Geisler, 265.
279
Geisler, 265.
280
Jeremiah confronted the sinfulness of the people in his context calling them back to God in an
authoritative , divinely ordained prophetic voice. Although he was vehemently opposed and even persecuted, the
word of the Lord in his mouth thrived and the judgment of God fell on his people. That was not the total end of the
story because the same God who punished gave the promises of salvation and restoration.
281
Cf. Jer. 2-6. For more on the metaphoric description of Israel in chapters 2-3 see McCain, 307.
282
The book of Jeremiah is a passionate call to God’s need for holiness, faithfulness and patience in all
walks of life.
283
Jer. 7-10. “The text of 7:1-8:3, commonly termed the “Temple Sermon,” places Jeremiah in a public
place summoning Judah to ‘amend’ its ways according to the Torah requirements (vv. 3-7), and threatening
Jerusalem with destruction and extinction (like the ancient shrine of Shiloh) if it does not repent (vv. 13-15)”
(Brueggemann, 181).
284
Jer. 11:10. In the chapter 11 narrative the prophet is presented as a vigorous public advocate for ‘this
covenant,’ presumably the Torah covenant of the Deuteronomic tradition (v. 2)” (Brueggemann, 181).
285
Geisler, 266.

56
order to receive his mercy but they would not. “Thus. they sealed their own doom by bitter
rejection of God’s patient pleading through the prophet.”286

Jeremiah’s “exigencies” are found in chapters 35-36 in which the people of Israel were judged
against the Rechabites and were found wanting. The loyalty and obedience of the Rechabites to
the orders of their human ancestor stands in direct contrast and serious confrontation to Israel’s
refusal to obey the voice of the Lord. The Lord gave his word to and through the prophet
Jeremiah to guide King Jehoiakim but they rejected it, cut it off and threw it into the fire. “But
God commanded Jeremiah to rewrite the scroll and to add many similar words (36).” 287 Chapters
21-24; 27-34 and 37-39 contain prophecies given during Zedekiah’s reign. 288 The period of
Zedekiah’s reign was a colonial one. The people of Israel were at that time under the colonial
rule of Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon that made Zedekiah nothing but a “puppet” under him.

Chapters 21-24 and 27-29 concern the “political future” of Judah. 289 It is worthy of note that
“these prophecies were both unpleasant and hopeful.” 290The unpleasant side of the prophecies is
about God’s condemnation of all unjust and unfaithful rulers in which the downfall of Jerusalem
and its destruction was made inevitable (chap. 21), Jeconiah’s heirs were cursed (chap. 22) and
all ungodly ‘prophets and priests’ that were deceiving the people with “false hope” (chap. 23). In
all that coming darkness “there remained a ray of hope for the exiled remnant in Babylon.” 291
This hope is seen in the promise of the Lord to watch over them to protect them and to safely
deliver them from their land (chap. 24). The condemnation of the false prophets who tried to
deny the certainty and especially the severity of the exile as a long period of alienation were
condemned and even prophetically destroyed (chaps. 27-28). Nevertheless, there is “consolation”
in the knowledge and possibility of the return of a “faithful remnant” after the seventy years of
the Babylonian exile (chap. 29).

Chapters 30-33 concern “Judah’s spiritual future.” 292 It is important to note the contrast between
the then past and the present and the coming future. “The immediate political future was very
bleak indeed, but the spiritual future beyond that was bright.” 293 Thus the actual grasp of the
brightness of the future depends on a prophetic gaze into the distant future that only Yahweh
determines and reveals. It is a call for humility and a very giant leap of faith, not into oblivion
but rather into the brightness of the omniscience of God. The restoration of the “fortunes” of
Israel and Judah is certain and revealed in chapter 30. This restoration hinges primarily upon the
new covenant that Yahweh initiates and upholds (chap. 31). Jeremiah was led by faith to buy
property for his relatives because of their hope for the future (chap. 32). The righteousness of the
Lord shall be revealed and established through the righteous Branch which springs forth for

286
Geisler, 266.
287
Geisler, 266-67.
288
Geisler, 267.
289
Geisler, 267.
290
Geisler, 267.
291
Geisler, 267.
292
Geisler, 267.
293
Geisler, 267.

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David. “In those days Judah will be saved and Jerusalem will dwell securely.” 294 Divine
righteousness shall be the identity and habitation of his people (chap. 33).

Chapters 34, 37-39 present ‘prophecies’295 “about Judah’s immediate future.”296Jeremiah

prophesied doom for Jerusalem which led to his persecution and punishment (chaps. 34, 37-38).
Nevertheless, the invasion of Jerusalem by the Babylonians and the capture of King Zedekiah
could not be avoided (chap. 39). Chapters 40-52 contain series of prophecies and reports “after
the fall of Jerusalem.” There are three main categories of the destination of the exiles within
these chapters. Some were taken to Babylon, others fled to Egypt and some were made to remain
in the land of Judah for the benefit of their captors.

Chapters 40-43 are about “the remnant in Palestine.” 297 There is the interface of faith and military
leadership. Jeremiah was “given the choice” to stay under Gedaliah’s protection which he did for
a time. Later on Gedaliah was conspired against and was murdered by Ishmael and many other
people with him (chaps. 40-41). Johanan and other military officers were exhorted by Jeremiah
to remain “faithful to the Lord” but they “disbelieved” him and rather chose to flee to Egypt.
Nevertheless, Jeremiah predicted that Nebuchadnezzar would either capture or slay them. 298It is
interesting to note that, “When the Babylonians carried away his fellow Israelites into captivity,
Jeremiah remained behind with the poorest of the people and even went to Egypt where he
probably died.”299While in Egypt “the remnant burned incense to the queen of heaven” and were
severely criticized and threatened with divine punishment through the prophet Jeremiah (chap.
44).

Chapters 45-52 focus on “the remnant in Babylon.” 300 After the fall of Jehoiakim to Babylon
(chap. 45). Other nations of the world shall also be judged by the Lord in diverse ways because
of their many sins of pride, evil and injustices (chap. 46ff). “This judgment on Israel’s wicked
enemies was intended to encourage the remnant with a realization of the justice of God.” 301
Finally, the just judgment of God will fall on Babylon just as it did on Judah (chaps. 50-52).

Theological themes/messages.
1. Repentance. Jeremiah emphasizes the need for the people of Judah to turn away from
their evil deeds and repent of their sins, or face the consequences of judgment. This
theme is evident in Jeremiah 7:3-7, where God warns the people to reform their ways or
suffer the consequences of judgement, "Thus says the Lord of hosts, the God of Israel,
amend your ways and your deeds, and I will let you dwell in this place. Do not trust in
these deceptive words: 'This is the temple of the Lord, the temple of the Lord, the temple

294
Geisler, 267.
295
Geisler (p. 268) calls them “prophecies” but I choose to call them “reports,” hence they are prophetic
reports not actual prophecies in the strictest sense of the word.
296
Geisler, 267.
297
Geisler, 268.
298
Cf. Jer. 43; Geisler, 268.
299
Geisler, 306.
300
“The lyrical celebration of the anticipated demise of Babylon at the hands of YHWH becomes the
culmination of the book of Jeremiah” (Brueggemann, 185).
301
Geisler, 268.

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 of the Lord.' For if you truly amend your ways and your deeds, if you truly execute
justice one with another, if you do not oppress the alien, the orphan, and the widow, or
shed innocent blood in this place, and if you do not go after other gods to your own hurt,
then I will let you dwell in this place, in the land that I gave of old to your ancestors
forever and ever." (Jeremiah 7:3-7).
2. Obedient to God. Jeremiah also emphasizes the importance of obedience to God as a
necessary component of repentance. This is seen in Jeremiah 7:23, where God declares,
"But this command I gave them, "Obey my voice, and I will be your God, and you shall
be my people; and walk in all the way that I command you, so that it may be well with
you." (Jeremiah 7:23)
3. Judgment. Jeremiah portrays God as a righteous judge who will punish those who refuse
to repent and turn away from their sinful ways. This is seen in Jeremiah 23:19-20, where
Jeremiah warns the people of Judah that judgement is coming, "Behold, the storm of the
Lord! Wrath has gone forth, a whirling tempest; it will burst upon the head of the wicked.
The anger of the Lord will not turn back until he has executed and accomplished the
intents of his mind. In the latter days you will understand it clearly." (Jeremiah 23:19-20)
4. Compassionate and merciful God. Jeremiah also emphasizes the idea that God is a
compassionate and merciful God, who desires the restoration of his people. This is seen
in Jeremiah 31:3-4, where God declares his love for Israel, "The Lord appeared to him
from far away. I have loved you with an everlasting love; therefore, I have continued my
faithfulness to you. Again I will build you, and you shall be built, O virgin Israel! Again
you shall take your tambourines, and go forth in the dance of the merrymakers."
(Jeremiah 31:3-4)
5. Sin attracts God’s judgment
6. God is the Lord of all
7. New hearts (God will send a Messiah who will change the hearts of people)
8. Faithful service. Jeremiah served God faithfully for 40 years.

LAMENTATION
The Historical Background.
The Book of Lamentations is one of the five books included in the Hebrew Bible's Megillot or
"scrolls." It consists of five distinct poems, each composed as an acrostic, meaning that each
verse begins with a successive letter of the Hebrew alphabet. This unique poetic style has led
scholars to conclude that the book's author(s) was skilled and educated. However, the authorship
of the book remains unknown, and scholars have differing opinions on who the author might
have been.
Dating. The book is believed to have been written in the immediate aftermath of the Babylonian
conquest of Jerusalem in 586 BCE. The city had been destroyed, the Temple was in ruins, and
the people were taken captive and exiled to Babylon. Lamentations serves as an expression of
grief and mourning for the destruction of the city and serves as a reflection on the people's
unfaithfulness to God. The exact date of the composition of Lamentations is still a matter of
debate, and scholars have different opinions. However, there is a general consensus that it was
written in the late sixth century BCE, soon after the destruction of Jerusalem. The language,
style, and vocabulary used in the book reflect the period in which it was written.
Recipients. The book's recipient(s) is also a matter of some speculation. While some scholars
suggest that it was written to all of the people of Judah, others maintain that it was intended for a

59
specific audience, such as the priests who had served in the Temple. This view is based on the
use of specific vocabulary and the book's focus on the destruction of the Temple.
Purpose. The purpose of Lamentations is threefold’
1. To express grief and mourning for the destruction of Jerusalem and
2. To encourage repentance and a return to God.
3. The book emphasizes the people's unfaithfulness to God as the reason for the destruction
of the city. Its message is one of hope in the midst of despair, encouraging the people to
turn back to God and seek forgiveness for their sins.

Historical Context
The book derives its name from the Hebrew word’ekah (How!) see 1:2,4 and later kînôth which
according to Rabbinic tradition is a collection of funeral songs. In Greek it is translated as
threnoi (lamentations). Later on the name of the prophet Jeremiah was attached to it as its
seeming author and since then it has been placed and seen close to his book. 302 It is historically
known that the fall of Jerusalem happened in 586/7 BCE which ensues the “Time of the Exile”
(German; Der Exilszeit) which lasted for 70 years in Babylon.

It is important to note that there is no certainty among scholars about the place of composition or
even the author/writer/compiler of the book. Three locations probably holds good potential for
the context of production of the poems, namely, Jerusalem (Judah), Egypt or Babylon.303 Many
scholars both old and new ascribe the collection to the prophet Jeremiah as noted above. Thus
Archer links it to Jeremiah as a prophetic text. 304 Nevertheless, it describes how bewildered Israel
(Judah in particular) cast herself once more before God, unto his mercy, in the spirit of
repentance. But Jeremiah’s authorship is doubted because of his role in the coming of the exile
(Jer. 29:11; 32; 37:6-10) etc.

Literary Contents
Literary type or nature of the laments found in Lamentations could fit the following categories,
namely, Surprised lament (cf. 1, 2&4 poems) (Ah How!). Chapter 3 is an individual lament
(nation) all about the fall of Jerusalem and chapter 5 is a common memory (popular narrative
[poetry]) on the siege and devastation of Jerusalem. The following could be a working outline for
the book (collection of poems);
1. The lament of personified Jerusalem (cf. Mama Africa) (chap. 1).
2. Linking the fall to Yahweh (chap. 2)
3. An individual lament of a sufferer (a man cf. 3:1ff)
4. A national lament (about Edom and Zion cf. chap. 4)
5. The Lament of the elite and the common remainees. Thus chapter 5:1ff a prayer for
Yahweh to take note.
Another more theological outline could be;
1. Jerusalem devastated and forsaken (1:1-22)

302
Eissfeldt p. 500
303
In terms of the context of writing Archer denies even the presence of Egypt in Lam. 4:17 (but how about
5:2-8?). It is noteworthy here that Jeremiah’s view on Babylon contradicts Lam. 3:59-66. Yet, I think the poems
may have different sources (private and common) which were later compiled into one collection probably from
Egypt and were later copied to the exiles in Babylon.
304
Archer p. 373

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 2. Reasons for God’s wrath upon the city; repentance is the only way of hope and
restoration (2:1-22)
3. The city’s lament for its devastation; its repentance at the remembrance of God’s mercies
(3:1-66).
4. Zion’s ancient glory contrasted with her present misery (4:1-22)
5. Repentant nation casts herself upon God’s mercy (5:1-22)

In the book of Lamentations Jerusalem is depicted as a cipher for the despairing and crying
world.305 Furthermore, by way of critical theological interpretation Kathleen O’Connor explains
that, “Lamentations presents the pains of survivors in the aftermath of the destruction of
Jerusalem.”306 Yet, it is also a “book of comfort” for readers from contexts of suffering. It is
noteworthy here that in Lamentations there is a missing voice as O’Connor explains that, “God’s
voice is missing, and the book God-abandoned.”307 The absence of no one to comfort and the
quest for a comforter paradoxically lingers across the book. Thus, through the book we could see
the literary description of the suffering of Jerusalem being as vast as the sea.308

One of the salient questions that even we could ask from a distance is “who will comfort you?”
this question is judiciously utilized as a dialogical pattern of the reader and the book within the
paradigm of “a theology of witness.”309 Thus in mourning her fate, “Lamentation can shred the
heart and spawn despair, but paradoxically by mirroring pain, it can also comfort the afflicted
and open the way toward healing.”310 From the travail of the lamenting community of faith we
too can join in “prayer for the wounded world” in which we live in the present time.311

Theological themes/messages
1. The sovereignty of God. This theme is reflected throughout the book, especially in
chapter 3, where the prophet Jeremiah affirms the goodness of God in spite of the
suffering and affliction experienced by the Jewish nation. According to Tada, "The Lord
is righteous in all His ways, and kind in all His deeds" 312 (Lamentations 3:16). This
statement acknowledges that God's sovereignty is unchallenged, and that He is in control
of the affairs of the world.
2. Justice of God. This theme is prominent in chapter 1, where the prophet Jeremiah
describes the punishment of Jerusalem for her sins. According to Gowan, "It is the Lord
who has caused her grief and affliction because of the multitude of her transgressions" 313
(Lamentations 1:5). This statement highlights the justice of God and emphasizes the
importance of obedience to His commands.

305
cf. O’Connor (2002).
306
O’Connor p. 3
307
O’Connor p. 5
308
O’Connor p. 30
309
O’Connor p. 96
310
O’Connor p. 96
311
O’Connor p. 124
312
Tada, J. E., A Pathway Through Pain: A Biblical Approach to Suffering.Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books,
1995, P. 47.
313
Gowan, D. E., Theology of the Prophetic Books: The Death and Resurrection of Israel. Louisville, KY:
Westminster John Knox Press, 1998, P. 130.

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 3. Faithfulness of God. This theme is reflected in chapter 5, where the prophet Jeremiah
affirms that God is faithful even when His people are unfaithful. "You, O Lord, remain
forever, and your throne is from generation to generation" (Lamentations 5:19). This
statement acknowledges that God's faithfulness is eternal, and that He will always remain
true to His promises.
4. The effect of sin brings pain and destruction (1:8, 18; 2:14; 4:13).
5. God’s love to his people is steadfast and he will not abandon them forever (3:22-33)
6. God humbles even his people by tragedy.
7. God hears the prayer of repentance and restores joy and safety (Chap. 5).
8. God is in control of all history, but we are not.

EXILIC PROPHETS
(EZEKIEL AND DANIEL)

EZEKIEL (593-571 BCE)

The Historical Background.
The book of Ezekiel as one of the major books in the Old Testament and is categorized as one of
the prophetic books. The book contains a collection of messages that were delivered by the
prophet Ezekiel to the exiled Israelites during the Babylonian captivity. The priestly-prophet
Ezekiel was the author of the book that bears his name according to popular understanding
especially in light of the internal evidences that describe how Ezekiel has received a lot of
visions that serve as conduits through which the truth of the book and the tradition it constructs
are rooted. The book of Ezekiel is the most apocalyptic of the prophetic books. It is both
polemical and restoring to the religious tradition of Israel. Within its polemical texture, it truly
confronts and subverts the exclusivistic ideology of Israel concerning the temple as the “dwelling
place” of God. In Ezekiel we see God as the holy God who purifies his people. We see God in
solidarity with his exiled people in a strange land. We see God who wills to renew his
relationship with his people.

One interesting pattern in the book of Ezekiel is its autobiographical (historical, real life)
texture.314 This does not only attest to the veracity of its authorship but more so it accentuates its
praxis (practical and experiential senses) beyond the calculation or actual control of a particular
human being. Everything that Ezekiel saw and did were shown him and motivated by the power
of the Holy Spirit of God which always came upon him to fro such a purpose. Geisler agreeably
argued that the book of Ezekiel was written “between 593 and 570 BC (29:17)” 315when Ezekiel
was “about thirty years of age (1:1).” It is deeply rooted in the context of the Babylonian exile. It
penetrated the powerlessness of God’s people in exile in order to keep their hopes alive by
bringing them the word of God to challenge, transform and comfort them.

Authorship. While the book is attributed to the prophet Ezekiel, some scholars have questioned
the authorship due to the use of different literary styles and the presence of inconsistencies in the
book. Some scholars have suggested that the book was written by multiple authors, while others
have questioned the authenticity of the prophetic messages contained in the book. Among those
314
Geisler, 273.
315
Geisler 274.

62
who argue for Ezekiel’s authorship is H.W. Wolff. He asserted that the authorship of the book of
Ezekiel is attributed to the prophet Ezekiel himself. Wolff argues that the style of the book is
consistent with the writing style of Ezekiel and that there is no evidence to suggest that the book
was written by multiple authors316
Dating. The date of the book of Ezekiel have also been a subject of extensive research among
scholars. Roberts argues that the book of Ezekiel was written during the early stages of the exile,
around 593 BCE to 587 BCE317. However, other scholars have presented divergent opinions on
the dates of the book of Ezekiel. According to Eichrodt, the book of Ezekiel was written in the
post-exilic period, between 550 BCE and 540 BCE. Eichrodt suggests that the book was written
during the time of the restoration of Jerusalem318.
Recipients. The recipients of the book of Ezekiel were the exiled Israelites who were taken into
captivity by the Babylonian empire. The book contains messages of hope, admonition, and
warning to the exiled Israelites. The messages were meant to encourage the Israelites to repent
and turn back to God. The book of Ezekiel contains detailed prophecies regarding the destruction
of Jerusalem and the coming of the Messiah. According to G.E Wright, the book of Ezekiel had a
profound impact on the Israelites in exile. Wright argues that through the book, the Israelites
were able to receive divine guidance and comfort during their captivity 319.“Ezekiel addressed his
book to the exiles in Babylon who were discouraged and deluded with false hopes of an early
return to their homeland (cf. 12:25).”320
Purpose. The purpose of the book of Ezekiel was to encourage the Israelites to repent and turn
back to God. The book contains messages of admonition and warning, as well as prophecies of
hope and redemption. According to H.H. Rowley, the book of Ezekiel was meant to serve as a
reminder to the Israelites of their disobedience to God, and to encourage them to turn back to
Him321. As usual Geisler helps us to see the purposes of the book of Ezekiel from different
perspectives.
1. Historically it confronts God’s people in exile by revealing God’s plan for their full and
final restoration. This also means that their purification, the forgiveness of their sins.
2. Doctrinally, it “concerns the glory of God (cf. 28; 10:4).” 322 The glory of God is revealed
in its complexity (1) and it is manifested as God’s will and zeal to judge the sinfulness of
his people that they may be renewed and finally restored to him. God’s self-regard has
been the motivation for God’s actions among his own people (cf. 20:44).
3. The anticipation of God Christ could be discerned in Ezekiel as “the Renewer of the
covenant (16:60) the Shepherd of the flock (34:23), the Cleanser of the Temple (36:24f),
the Regenerator of Israel (36:25, 26) and throughout the book He is presented as the
Restorer of Israel.”323 This Christ’s presence is mainly prophesied, yet, it could be

316
Wolff, H.W. A Commentary on the Book of Ezekiel: Chapters 1-24. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1974. P.
175
317
Roberts, J.J.M. "Ezekiel, Book of." In Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible. Edited by James Hastings, John A.
Selbie, and Andrew Bruce Davidson. London: T & T Clark, 1993. P. 26
318
Eichrodt, Walter. Theology of the Old Testament: Volume 1. London: SCM Press, 1961. P. 261
319
Wright, G.E. God Who Acts: Biblical Theology as Recital. London: SPCK, 1952. P. 134
320
Geisler, 274.
321
Rowley, H.H. The Book of Ezekiel: Introduction, Chapters 1-24. London: The Athlone Press, 1972.P. 129
322
Geisler, 274.
323
Geisler, 275.

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 evidently seen and substantiated by the presence of the Spirit of God that permeates the
book.

The New Covenant

Finally, the book of Ezekiel contains a promise of a new covenant between God and his people.
This covenant is based on God's grace and forgiveness and is foretold in Ezekiel 36:25-27, "I
will sprinkle clean water on you, and you shall be clean from all your uncleanness’s, and from all
your idols I will cleanse you. And I will give you a new heart, and a new spirit I will put within
you. And I will remove the heart of stone from your flesh and give you a heart of flesh. And I
will put my Spirit within you, and cause you to walk in my statutes and be careful to obey my
rules." According to Zimmerli, "The new covenant is a promise of God's unmerited grace that
will bring about the spiritual renewal of his people."324

One of the big problems that made Israel to go into exile in Babylon was a religious one. This is
the overarching problem of the people of God in relation to God in the Old Testament. 325 The
people as a nation has been called and chosen by God for a good and ever new relationship but at
so many points in the history of Israel the covenant of Yahweh has been broken either by sheer
neglect or even rebellion. The Lord has required loyalty from his people but the failure on their
side to keep to that expectation has made the relationship to be jeopardized and even broken.

In the book of Ezekiel, the life of Israel in exile is described especially in regards to the reason
why they were where they were in exile. The basic reason is their idolatry. The people of Israel
as a covenant people and a chosen nation were so eager to follow the path of the then world in
worshipping other gods apart from Yahweh. That sin of neglect and rebellion has been revealed
and confronted in the book of Ezekiel. Thus, this book will serve us well in thinking about the
national religious reform and restoration of Israel. Through this book we shall see the nature of
God as a jealous God and also as an active God who diligently works for the purification and
restoration of his people in Israel and the larger world.

Structurally, the first major part of Ezekiel (1-24) is dominated by a sober tone that describes
“the departure of God’s glory” from Judah and Jerusalem. 326327 This shows the “denunciation of
Judah” not entirely as a people but rather as a contaminated context which was no longer
conducive for the dwelling of the holy God. How did God do that? We may ask. The entire book
of Ezekiel is a very good guide to answer that question.

324
Zimmerli, Walther. Ezekiel 2: A Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Ezekiel Chapters 25-48.
Philadelphia: Fortress Press,1979, p. 138
325
For the interpretation of the book of Ezekiel as “The expectation of the Nation’s religious restoration by
Christ” see Geisler, 273.
326
Geisler, 273.
327
Brueggemann helps us to see the uniqueness of Ezekiel not only in his personal experience as a prophet
but also in terms of his texture. The texture of his book carries a deep accent that is so much of a struggle with the
theodicy of presence which he describes as “the crisis of presence.” How could a holy God dwell in a sinful and
perverse context? The prophet struggled with this oddity as a covenant person who could not imagine beyond the
context of the covenant as the main context of life and piety. But he was forced to move away from his traditional
ideology that fixed him and his (their) idea of God into a particular home-context. He was called and commissioned
to be the voice that speaks into the estrangement of the people of God in a divinely given authority and manner
(Brueggemann, 193).

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Firstly, God called and commissioned Ezekiel (1-3). This call and commissioning were done in
their complexity and in light of the complexity and necessity of the task that lie ahead. Ezekiel
was first shown the glory of God as the great vision which constructed and dominated his
prophetic ministry. He was sent to warn a disobedient and rebellious people who would not even
listen to him. Yet, it was so urgent that he did that in order to stay free of the guilt of the
punishment that will come upon them.

Ezekiel’s ministerial proclamations are found in chapters 4-24. These messages were messages
of judgment upon Jerusalem which will culminate in her fall. “The nearness of God’s judgment”
is mentioned in chapters 4-7.328 The symbolic acts of Ezekiel demonstrate how the judgment of
God will come upon Jerusalem as a besieged city which will actually be scattered into the winds
of exile. This coming judgment will be a testimony as to the faithfulness of God to his will and
world that the people may know that he had not threatened to punish them in vain (chap. 6). The
coming judgment further indicates the completion of their sin of injustice and pride (chap.
7). The reason for the judgment of God upon Jerusalem is described in chapters 8-11. The
reasons are those of idolatry and violence (chap. 8). These desecrated the temple and made the
glory of God to depart from it (chap. 10). Even though the glory of God was seen as leaving the
temple, that would not be the final end of everything. A new and better future is possible and it is
coming from the hands of the Lord (chap. 11:17-19).

In light of the then context of Israel, it is important to note that, “Judgment was needed; the glory
had departed, but it will one day return to them through the same eastern gate through which it
had departed in the person of their king.” 329 The “nature and further reasons for the
judgment” of God upon Jerusalem are given in chapters 12-24. It will surely come in
fulfillment to the word of God on his wayward people (chap. 12). It will come as judgment to all
those who deceive and destroy the people of God with their false proclamations of peace when
there was no peace (chap. 13). This judgment shall be in such a way that everyone’s
rightness shall be accounted for them but no one would take the place of another (chap. 14)
not even within family ties (chap. 18). The idolatrous evil of Samaria and Israel is described in
chapter 16. God pleaded so passionately for them to repent and be spared but they refused that is
why Ezekiel had to lament their coming destruction (chap. 19).

The evils of Israel’s blasphemy, idolatry and profanity are described in chapter 20, and the
readiness for God to act in judgment is graphically described as a warrior who draws his “sword
from its sheath” against his own people (chap. 21). “Again the prophet lists their many sins;
murder, contempt for parents, extortion, exploitation for widows, profanity, slander, moral
lewdness, sodomy, sexual impurity, adultery, bribery, robbery and oppression.”330 The
“fire” of God’s “wrath” will come upon those sins (chap. 22). This will end their notorious
lewdness (chap. 23) and thoroughly humble Jerusalem from her lofty position (chap. 24). This
happened on the day that Ezekiel’s wife died (chap. 24:18). “By this the people knew that He
was the Lord, His glory would not be tarnished nor His judgment delayed (24).”331
328
Geisler, 275.
329
Geisler, 276.
330
Geisler, 277.
331
Geisler 277.

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Secondly, God’s judgment of the nations is described in chapters 25-32.332 This judgment is the
purification of the nations as well as the enactment of God’s justice and righteousness. This is
God’s “visitation on the nations” that rightly prepares them for the glory of God. 333 Like other
prophets before him, Ezekiel has also been given messages of judgment upon other nations of the
world, not only Israel. “They too had transgressed God’s law and they deserved His wrath.
Beginning in the east with Ammon and proceeding clockwise to the north at Tyre and Sidon
(chap. 25-28), the prophet strikes a total blow at the heart of each nations’ sin.” 334 He reserves the
last and largest description of judgment for Egypt (chap. 29-32).

The goodness of God’s restoration of his presence and the return of his glory is described in
chapters 33-48. The restoration of God would come in two basic phases namely the restoration of
the “life” of Israel (chaps. 33-39) and the establishment of a new “order” and place within which
they would live in God’s peace and joy (chaps. 40-48). This cluster is opened by God’s
exhortation that prepares the people (chaps. 33-34) and assures them of his caring love that longs
to bring them together securely. Then he moves to the revelation of their restoration (chaps. 35-
37). God showed them as abandoned, destroyed and scattered in the vision of the valley of dry
bones which God used Ezekiel to bless and restore. Thus shall Israel be blessed by the restoring
presence and breath/Spirit of God which gives life to the dead and newness to the weary and
worn out. God shall reign triumphant by defeating all the enemies of Israel as his own enemies.
The era of justice and peace shall come but only and surely from the Lord (chaps. 38-39).

Chapters 38-39 help us to see that “God has returned to His people permanently and He will
defend them through His visitations of judgment on their enemies.” 335 The restoration or
renewal of religious order and place is basically a Messianic portrayal of a new life in the new
Temple of the Lord (chap. 40ff). This vision is beyond the nation of Israel’s expectation and
experiences.

The Messianic Temple is described in 40-43. It is worthy of note here that, “This Temple is
built after the same pattern and with the same basic dimensions of Solomon’s Temple, and
features of the reinstitution of sacrificial blood offerings.336

332
In the oracles against the nations, Ezekiel did not mention Babylon even Israel was at that time suffering
seriously under the yoke of Babylon. This makes Mckeating to think that Ezekiel would have gotten himself into
“serious trouble” if it was heard in Babylon that he had pronounced or written any message of condemnation
against Babylon. The irony of this thought remains obvious in that if Ezekiel did not give any harsh judgment
against Babylon he and many others were already in ‘serious trouble’ in Babylon so why should he silenced by the
fear of getting into any serious trouble? This question would remain an opened problem unless we believe that he
did not receive any specific oracle against Babylon as at that time. Nevertheless, everyone familiar with other
prophetic voices around the exilic experiences of Israel would know that Babylon was a great enemy and the
oppressor of God’s people and would surely be brought to justice no matter how long it may take. Cf. Henry
McKeating, Ezekiel. Old Testament Guide (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1993).
333
Cf. Geisler, 277.
334
Geisler, 277.
335
Geisler, 279.
336
Geisler , 279.

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The Messianic worship is described in 44-46. This would be the religious “restorations of the
priestly order of worshipping Yahweh given through Moses within the Levitical order and
tradition.
s
The Messianic land and river are described in 47-48. These two surprising gifts satisfy
Israel’s question of place which had been jeopardized by the Babylonian exile. While in exile,
they have technically lost their place of worshipping Yahweh. But in the vision of newness that
Ezekiel saw that question is settled and that longing is satisfied. The river is the gift of life
against death that the rebellion of humanity brought into life history. The river is God’s gift of
peace, joy and wholeness.

Theological themes/messages
1. The sovereignty of God. One of the key themes that run throughout the book of Ezekiel
is the sovereignty of God. God is depicted as the supreme ruler who is in control of all
events and circumstances. For example, Ezekiel 1:28 describes the appearance of the
glory of the Lord as being like a rainbow in the clouds on a rainy day. This symbolizes
the majesty and sovereignty of God. According to Block, "the glory of the Lord is a
theophoric manifestation of God's authority and power that transcends creation."337
2. The Holiness of God. God is seen as absolute purity and transcendence. Ezekiel 36:23
says, "And I will sanctify my great name, which has been profaned among the nations,
and which you have profaned among them. And the nations will know that I am the
Lord." According to Zimmerli, "The holiness of God is the fundamental attribute that
distinguishes him from all other gods."338
3. The judgment of God. The prophet proclaims that God will judge his people and the
nations for their sins. In Ezekiel 18:20, it says, "The soul who sins shall die. The son shall
not bear the guilt of the father, nor the father bear the guilt of the son. The righteousness
of the righteous shall be upon himself, and the wickedness of the wicked shall be upon
himself." According to Stuart, "Ezekiel affirms the doctrine of individual responsibility
before God."339
4. The restoration of Israel. Despite the judgment and punishment that God will bring
upon his people, the book of Ezekiel also promises the restoration of Israel. This includes
both the physical and spiritual restoration of the nation. In Ezekiel 37:14, it says, "I will
put my Spirit within you, and you shall live, and I will place you in your own land. Then
you shall know that I am the Lord; I have spoken, and I will do it, declares the Lord."
According to Allen, "The restoration of Israel is a central theme in the book of Ezekiel
and represents God's faithfulness to his promises."340
5. The role of the prophet. The book of Ezekiel also highlights the role of the prophet as
the mouthpiece of God. Ezekiel was chosen by God to speak to his people on his behalf.
In Ezekiel 2:7, God tells Ezekiel, "You shall speak my words to them, whether they hear
337
Block, Daniel I. The Book of Ezekiel: Chapters 1-24. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdman's Publishing
Co.1997, p.71
338
Zimmerli, Walther. Ezekiel 2: A Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Ezekiel Chapters 25-48.
Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1979, p. 45
339
Stuart, Douglas. Hosea-Jonah: Word Biblical Commentary. D. Hubbard and G. Barker (eds.). Waco: Word
Books, 1986, p.473
340
Allen, Leslie C. Ezekiel 20-48: Word Biblical Commentary. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1990,
p.276

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 or refuse to hear, for they are a rebellious house." According to Block, "The prophet is
called to speak the word of God, even if it is unpopular or unwelcome."341

DANIEL written in 535 BCE in order to record the events that occurred from about 605-
536 BCE
The Historical Background
The Book of Daniel is a significant text in the Hebrew Bible and is also considered part of the
Christian Old Testament. Its contents consist of a collection of narratives, prophecies, and
apocalyptic visions attributed to the sixth-century BCE Jewish prophet, Daniel. The book of
Daniel is an exilic book. It tells the story of the people of Israel (especially the Judahites) in
Babylon. This is when they were taken to exile by Nebuchadnezzar and his army. Daniel was
one of those who were taken from Judah to Jerusalem and he and others like him stayed in
Babylon until the end of the 70 years that the Lord has allocated for them and their captors as the
terms of the exile. Thus, the book of Daniel presents us both how the exilic life was like and
what God would do with the Kingdoms of the world from the time of that exile to other
subsequent times that would follow that time. God shows Himself as the God of history, the
reigning God in all universe. The motif of God’s reign in the affairs of the world would be the
dominant motif of our reflection on the book of Daniel in this note.
Authorship. Jewish tradition attributes the book to Daniel himself. However, there is little direct
evidence that he wrote the book or that the prophesied events in the book were contemporaneous
with his life. The book of Daniel comprises two distinct sections – chapters 1 to 6 contain stories
of Daniel's life in Babylonia, while 7 to 12 tell the story of visionary experiences that Daniel has
in the reigns of various kings. Many scholars believe that the book's authors are different since
chapters 1 to 6 are written in Hebrew, while chapters 7 to 12 are in Aramaic, indicating that they
were written at different times.
Dating. The dates when the Book of Daniel was written and compiled are uncertain. Some
scholars assert that the stories in chapters 1 to 6 were written sometime in the second century
BCE, long after the events depicted took place. On the other hand, some scholars argue that the
book was written in the sixth century BCE during the Babylonian exile of the Jews. This view is
supported by the fact that the book mentions historical figures who lived during that period.
However, the section on apocalyptic visions (chapters 7 to 12) probably dates to the second
century BCE. This section includes details of the persecution of the Jews by Antiochus IV
Epiphanes (reigned 175-164 BCE) and the Maccabean revolt.
Recipients. The Book of Daniel is thought to have been written for the Jewish community living
in Babylonia during the Babylonian exile. The Jewish exiles in Babylonia could have inspired
the book's apocalyptic visions, as they would have been experiencing persecution and a sense of
defeat at the hands of their Babylonian captors. The book's message of hope that God would one
day vindicate his people would have resonated with the oppressed Jews, providing them with
comfort and strength.
Purposes. The Book of Daniel serves several purposes;
1. It provides a historical account of Israel's exile to Babylon and the eventual return to the
land of Israel.

341
Block, Daniel I. The Book of Ezekiel: Chapters 1-24. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdman's Publishing Co.
1997, p. 228

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 2. The book is also significant for its apocalyptic and prophetic visions and messages. These
visions offer a grand historical perspective and give hope to those undergoing
persecution.
3. The Book of Daniel is also important for its religious teachings and the various moral and
ethical lessons that the text presents.

Historical context and the message

Structurally, The book of Daniel is basically understood from generally scholarly observation to
be of two main divisions.
1. The first division covers chapters 1-6 which is mainly given as narrated history.
2. The second major division is chapters 7-12 which is mainly apocalyptic. It presents the
prophecy of what would happen to the nations by the sovereign will of God which will
surely emphasize the reign of God in the universe. From the first division we could see
that chapter 1 presents us the narrative of God’s reign and the faithfulness of his servants.

The Judahites were not initially faithful to the Lord that was why he handed them over to the
Babylonians for the exile. While in exile, Daniel and his three friends were found faithful unto
the Lord, they stood their ground of faithfulness even unto death (although they were not dead
physically, but spiritually they have surrendered their lives even unto death for the sake of their
faithfulness unto God (cf. chap. 3).

Chapter 2 takes the theme of God’s reign in the affairs of men further my telling us about
Nebuchadnezzar’s dream (2:1-13), for which Daniel sought and got God’s revelation in order to
explain the meaning and significance of the dream to him (2:14-23). God finally granted grace to
Daniel to know the meaning and the significance of the dream and be able to explain it to the
King (2:24-49).

The interfacing themes of idolatry and death confronted the reign of God in chapter 3. King
Nebuchadnezzar challenged the power of the Lord God of Daniel’s three friends namely,
Shedrack, Meshack and Abednego. They were asked among others to bow down and worship the
Babylonian idol that Nebuchadnezzar has made as his own self-representation or to be killed for
not worshipping it (3:1-18). But they refused to bow down and worship, they totally surrendered
their lives to the Lord even at the face of death in such a persecuting moment. God granted them
the grace of survival that the flames of the fire that they were thrown it could not consume them
(3:19-30). This shows the presence of God as one who sees, hears and rescues. The survival of
the faithful in this chapter brought a great revival in Babylon at that time, even the King himself
gave orders for the worship of Yahweh as the only God worth worshipping.

Chapter 4 presents us with the theme of the consequences of pride and the cost of humility.
King Nebuchadnezzar took so much pride in himself especially in light of his personal
sociopolitical achievements. That led to God’s confrontation to him in a dream of a cosmic tree
(4:1-18). The dream was further explained to him as God’s act of warning for the coming of
judgment upon him directly (4:19-27). Thus he was humbled according to the powerful will and
revelation of the Lord. After he had served his term of banishment from the realm of active
social interaction with people like him. He was healed and restored from the wilderness and

69
resumed his normal duties as the King of Babylon (4:28-37). This displays the big irony of a
King who was never in charge of even himself. God is the ultimate King of kings.

God’s sovereign reign over all other kings is displayed in the following chapters. Chapter 5
shows God’s act of confronting, testing and removing an arrogant king. Chapter 6 shows God as
being actively in charge of the powers of nature and politics. He preserved the life of his faithful
servant, Daniel from the devouring mouth of the lions and the fury of the King, namely Darius
the Mede. God’s reign over the Kingdoms of the world does not mean He only control good
kings who obey Him faithfully but rather God reigns even on bestial kingdoms. He allows them
to come into power and he removes from power at his own will (chap. 7). Chapter 8 tells about
the endurance of the Kingdom of God. God’s reign survives no matter the turmoil. The purpose
of God in the world must be achieved, He rises kings and bring them down at His own time and
manner.

Chapters 9 and 10 of Daniel are further examples of his piety before the Lord. Daniel humbled
himself to search the scriptures and to dedicate himself to prayer. This is his great confessional
prayer for repentance before God and the quest for God’s restoration according to the promises
in the scripture that he read (chap. 9). Daniel’s prayer was heard by God and the answer was
given but the angel who was sent was opposed by a demonic power in the air. God had to resend
Michael to combat the evil one and give freedom to God’s massage to Daniel (chap. 10). Thus
Daniel was comforted by the angel and the message he received from the Lord. Chapters 11 and
12 shows us God’s reign over all of history. The future is all in the hands of God. He controlled
the sociopolitical zones that have been shown to Daniel as great bones of contention (chap. 11).
And He granted peace and rest for his faithful servant in the end (chap. 12). Daniel was worried
about the future of the world at the end of days but God gave him peace of mind by asking him
to go and have his rest in peace. God is in charge of everything this gives great confidence to all
people of God to humbly and faithfully submit to His will and wait from his acts of grace, mercy
and just judgment.

The theological theme/messages

1. The sovereignty of God. Throughout the book, we see God's power at work in the lives
of the characters, often through miraculous interventions. For example, when King
Nebuchadnezzar has his dream in chapter 2, only Daniel is able to interpret it, revealing
that "there is a God in heaven who reveals mysteries" (2:28). Similarly, when Shadrach,
Meshach, and Abednego are thrown into the fiery furnace, they are miraculously rescued
by an angel of the Lord (3:24-25). These and other examples demonstrate that God is in
control, even when circumstances seem to suggest otherwise. Gleason Archer suggests
that the book "teaches the divine rule of history and the inevitability of divine judgment
upon human rebellion"342. Similarly, John Goldingay notes that "God's sovereignty leads
to human responsibility and accountability"343. In other words, while God is ultimately in
control, humans are still responsible for their actions and will be held accountable for
them.
2. Faithfulness. Throughout the book, we see characters who remain faithful to God even
in the face of persecution and death. For example, Daniel refuses to stop praying to God,

342
Archer, Gleason L. A Survey of Old Testament Introduction. Chicago: Moody Press, 1985, P. 288
343
Goldingay, John. Daniel: Word Biblical Commentary. Dallas: Word Books, 1989, P. 61

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 even when he knows it will result in his being thrown into the lion's den (6:10). Shadrach,
Meshach, and Abednego likewise refuse to worship Nebuchadnezzar's idol, even when
threatened with death (3:16-18). In each case, God rewards their faithfulness by
delivering them from harm. John Collins argues that the book "describes the courage and
faithfulness of those who remained true to God in the face of persecution and death" 344.
Similarly, Peter Craigie notes that "faithful adherence to God amidst the persecution of
the ungodly is at the heart of the book" 345. These insights highlight the importance of
remaining faithful to God, even when it is difficult.
3. Ultimate triumph of God’s kingdom. Finally, the book of Daniel emphasizes the
ultimate triumph of God's kingdom. Throughout the book, we see that even pagan rulers
eventually acknowledge that God is sovereign and that his kingdom will ultimately
triumph. For example, Nebuchadnezzar declares at the end of chapter 4: "I,
Nebuchadnezzar, praise and exalt and glorify the King of heaven, because everything he
does is right and all his ways are just" (4:37). Similarly, at the end of the book, Darius
declares that "I issue a decree that in every part of my kingdom people must fear and
reverence the God of Daniel" (6:26). Gleason Archer notes that "Daniel's prophecies of
the ultimate triumph of God's kingdom over the kingdoms of the world are intended to
encourage God's people to remain steadfast under persecution" 346. Similarly, Tremper
Longman writes that the book "points to the ultimate victory of God over evil, as well as
to the suffering of God's people as they await that victory" 347. These insights highlight the
importance of trusting in God's ultimate victory, even in the face of persecution and
suffering.

POST EXILIC PROPHETS (ZECHARIAH, HAGGAI AND MALACHI)

HAGGAI (the fall of Judah and the destruction of the temple happened in 586BCE, Cyrus
issued a decree in 538BCE and that was the end of the exile. They returned to Jerusalem in
537 and they began rebuilding the temple in 536 but the work stopped at 530

ZECHARIAH (520-418 BCE).

The Historical Background.
The book is famously known for its apocalyptic and symbolic imagery, and its comprehensive
description of the future restoration of Jerusalem. The name of Zechariah means “Yahweh
remembers.” It is important to think about what Yahweh remembers and what he would do with
what and who He remembers.
Authorship. Some believe that the prophet Zachariah wrote the book, while others suggest that
it was written by two or more authors. According to Baldwin "there is little doubt that the
prophet Zachariah was responsible for the first eight chapters of the book, but the remaining
chapters might have been the work of another author"348
344
Collins, John J. Daniel: A Commentary on the Book of Daniel. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993, P. 172
345
Craigie, Peter C. The Book of Daniel. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1983, P.
17
346
Archer 1985, P. 291
347
Longman, Tremper, III. Daniel: NIV Application Commentary. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1998, P. 238
348
Baldwin, J. G. Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi: an introduction and commentary. Downers Grove, IL: Inter-
Varsity Press. 1978. p. 2.

71
Dating. The date of the book of Zachariah is another subject of debate, with scholars positing
different timelines. According to Davies "the first eight chapters of Zachariah were most likely
written in the early part of the sixth century, while the remaining chapters were probably written
in the middle or late part of the fifth century" 349. The first eight chapters were written
approximately between 520-518 BCE while 9-14 were written around 480 BCE.
Recipients. The book of Zachariah was most likely written to the Jewish community living in
Judah during the period of Babylonian captivity. Scholars contend that the book's contents were
intended to encourage and inspire hope among the Jews, who were in a state of despair due to the
Babylonian exile. Baldwin identifies the recipients as "the remnant of Israel that had returned to
Jerusalem from Babylon"350..
Purpose. The book of Zachariah had several purposes, depending on the different periods when
the book was written. The first half of the book (Chapters 1-8) focuses on urging the returned
exiles to repentance and renewal, censuring their spiritual amnesia, and announcing God's
judgment and the ultimate establishment of God's kingdom in Jerusalem. Davies notes that "the
focus of the first half was to encourage the Jews to rebuild the temple and renew their devotion
to God as they awaited the arrival of the Messiah" 351. The second half of the book (Chapters 9-
14), on the other hand, is more Messianic, with a focus on the ultimate victory and restoration of
God's people, with particular emphasis on the Messiah's coming. According to Brownlee "the
second half of the book reveals the sufferings of the Messiah, his triumph over his enemies, and
his ultimate reign as the King of Kings"352.

Structure and message

In chapters 1-2 God remembers the state of the nation of Israel and Judah. Jerusalem is the focal
city of God which in this book signifies the remnant of God’s people. God remembers the
vulnerability of Jerusalem and reminds us that he is the God who watches over the city. His
angels patrol the city day and night and bring Him report. The shepherding care of God is the
focal point here.

In the following chapters 3-6 we see series of vision of God’s cleansing presence and activities
among his people. The priesthood that came standing in dirty clothes was cleansed and
reinstituted to serve God in holiness and confidence. The golden lampstand and olive tree are
symbols of God’s act of sustaining the context in his light of righteousness and with His oil of
gladness. Thus, evil was removed from the context and God’s holiness and righteousness were
given to the people as their enduring inheritance.

Chapters 7-8 appear as reflections on the priestly tradition. There are reflections on the past and
focus on the future. God’s promises in these chapters are given mainly as the renewal of God’s
covenant of grace and the call to know and serve Him faithfully.

Chapters 9-14 are Messianic and apocalyptic. They show the coming of the Messiah as the true
shepherd of his sheep. That the kings of the world shall be humbled before the Lord who is
indeed the ultimate King (9:9ff). The apocalyptic vision leads to the time of great battles, divine

349
Davies, G. F. An introduction to the study of Isaiah. London: T&T Clark. 2007. p. 67
350
Brownlee, W. H. The book of Zechariah. New York: Cambridge University Press. 2013. p. 5
351
Davies 2007. p. 73
352
Brownlee 1978. p. 125

72
victory and the purification of the people (chaps. 12 and 13). After which will be the judgment of
the Lord and the salvation of the nations (chap. 14).

Theological themes/messages
1. Sovereignty of God. Zachariah acknowledges that God is in control of all things and that
nothing can happen apart from His will. In Zachariah 1:3, he writes, "Thus says the Lord
of hosts, ‘Return to me, says the Lord of hosts, and I will return to you.’" Here, Zachariah
is reminding the people of Israel that God is the one who has ultimate control over their
destiny, and that the only way to find grace and favor in His eyes is to turn back to Him.
Charles Feinberg adds that "God's sovereignty is a dominant theme in the book of
Zachariah." He further notes that "God's sovereignty is demonstrated through the
fulfillment of His promises and prophecies concerning Israel's future." Feinberg's
observation highlights the centrality of God's sovereignty in the book of Zachariah and
how it is tied to the fulfillment of His promises.
2. The Messiah. Through Zachariah's prophecies, we see that God was preparing the way
for the coming of the Messiah. Zachariah 9:9, for example, speaks of the arrival of the
Messiah and the manner in which He would enter Jerusalem. The verse states that
"Rejoice greatly, Daughter Zion! Shout in triumph, Daughter Jerusalem! See, your King
comes to you, righteous and victorious, lowly and riding on a donkey, on a colt, the foal
of a donkey." Bruce Waltke highlights that "Zachariah is the most Messianic of all the
prophets." He notes that "the book contains at least seven clear references to the Messiah,
and another 14 or so references that are more ambiguous." 353 Waltke's observation
underscores the significance of the Messiah in the book of Zachariah and how it points to
the messianic hope of the nation of Israel.
3. The Temple. Throughout the book, Zachariah speaks of the rebuilding of the temple and
the importance of worshiping God in it. In Zachariah 1:16, for example, he declares,
"Therefore, this is what the Lord says: ‘I will return to Jerusalem with mercy, and there
My house will be rebuilt. And the measuring line will be stretched out over Jerusalem,’
declares the Lord of hosts." Richard D. Phillips notes that "the theme of the temple is
central to the book of Zachariah."354 He adds that "Zachariah's prophecies concerning the
temple anticipated its rebuilding, which was to take place after the return of the exiles."
Phillips' observation highlights the significance of the temple in the book of Zachariah
and how it symbolizes the presence of God among His people.
4. Repentance. Throughout the book, Zachariah calls on the people of Israel to turn back to
God and repent of their sins. In Zachariah 1:3-4, he declares, "Thus says the Lord of
hosts, ‘Return to me, says the Lord of hosts, and I will return to you.’ Do not be like your
fathers, to whom the former prophets cried out, ‘Thus says the Lord of hosts, Return from
your evil ways and from your evil deeds.’ But they did not hear or pay attention to me,
declares the Lord." As Warren W. Wiersbe notes that "Zachariah repeatedly called upon
the people to return to the Lord in repentance." 355 He adds that "Zachariah's prophecy

353
Waltke, Bruce. "A Commentary on Haggai and Zachariah." In An Exposition of the Old Testament, Vol.
7, edited by James Montgomery Boice. Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2003.
354
Phillips, Richard D. Zachariah. Phillipsburg: P&R Publishing, 2007.
355
Wiersbe, Warren W. "Be Comforted." In The Bible Exposition Commentary, Vol. 2. Wheaton: Victor
Books, 1989.

73
 emphasized the importance of repentance as the key to attaining God's mercy." 356
Wiersbe's observation underscores the centrality of repentance in the book of Zachariah
and emphasizes the need for believers today to continually turn back to God in
repentance.

HAGGAI (520 BCE)

The Historical Background.
The book of Haggai is an important prophetic book in the Old Testament of the Christian Bible.
It is named after its author, the prophet Haggai, who was one of the minor prophets of the Bible.
The book of Haggai provides a unique perspective on the struggles and challenges faced by the
people of Judah after their return to Jerusalem from the Babylonian exile. The book of Haggai
identifies its author as the prophet Haggai. According to the Jewish tradition, he was a
contemporary of the prophet Zechariah and lived during the time of the return from Babylonian
exile. This is supported by the fact that Haggai was recognized by the leaders of the community
as a prophet and was able to inspire them to rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem (Ezra 5:1-2).
Scholars generally agree that Haggai was the author of the book that bears his name.

Nothing is known of Haggai’s geneology. The specific mention of the second year of Darius
(1:1) places the book in the year 520BCE. He ministered among the Jews who had returned to
Judea after 70 years of exile in Babylon. The Persian ruler Cyrus the Great captured Babylon in
539BCE. In 538 he permitted the Jews to return to Jerusalem so that they might rebuild the
temple (Ezra 1-2). The work of the rebuilding stalled, however, when opposition arose (Ezra 3:1-
4:5). Haggai prophesied in an effort to motivate the people to renew their work of temple
restoration. The work of temple restoration highlights the Lord’s desire to renew a covenant
relationship with his people (1:13; 2:4-5).

Dating. The book of Haggai provides an exact date for the first of its four recorded prophecies:
"In the second year of Darius the king, on the first day of the sixth month, the word of the Lord
came by the prophet Haggai to Zerubbabel the son of Shealtiel, governor of Judah, and to Joshua
the son of Jehozadak, the high priest" (Haggai 1:1). These places the first prophecy in the year
520 BC. The remaining three prophecies were delivered a few months later, in the same year
(Haggai 2:1,10,20).
Recipients. The book of Haggai was written to the Jews who had returned from Babylonian
exile and had rebuilt their homes and infrastructure, but had neglected to rebuild the Temple in
Jerusalem. Haggai's prophecy was directed at the leaders of Judah, Zerubbabel the governor, and
Joshua the high priest, as well as the rest of the people. His message was meant to inspire them
to rebuild the Temple and restore worship to God.
Purpose. The primary purpose of the book of Haggai was to encourage the rebuilding of the
Temple in Jerusalem. The rebuilding had begun when the Jews returned from exile, but it was
soon abandoned due to neglect, opposition and lack of resources. Through Haggai's prophetic
message, the people were reminded that rebuilding the Temple was necessary and would bring
great blessings. Haggai also urged them to prioritize their service to God, rather than their own
personal pursuits.

356
Wiersbe, Warren W. "Be Comforted." In The Bible Exposition Commentary, Vol. 2. Wheaton: Victor
Books, 1989.

74
Scholars have various opinions about the message of Haggai. Some scholars argue that Haggai's
primary purpose was to encourage the people to rebuild the Temple as a symbolic act of
faithfulness to God. According to Baldwin, "The rebuilding of the Temple was recognized as the
climax of the return from exile, and without this restoration, the people's claims to be God's
restored people were incomplete"357.

Structure and the message

Although the book of Haggai is one of the short books of the Old Testament, its message is as
large and powerful as others before him. This is a postexilic prophet. He gave his messages
before the ruined temple of God in Jerusalem. But what is more fascinating in this book of God’s
resolve on what to do with his place and people. God owns the whole project and he remained
decisive on what to do about it.
1. God confronts his people with the state of affairs after the Babylonian exile, that their
lives and His temple are in ruins (1:1-11).
2. The people were charged to reprioritize their affairs and start the rebuilding of the temple
of the Lord (1:12-15).
3. God promises to accept and transform the new temples, to restore its past glory even
more (2:1-9).
4. In this time of the restoration of God’s people and place, even the curse that was for and
on the people because of their waywardness would be reversed by the Lord into a
blessing (2:10-19).
5. Part of this blessing would be the choice and establishment of Zerubbabel as the new and
secure leader of God’s people (2:20-23).

Theological themes/messages
1. Worship. In the opening verses of the book, Haggai rebukes the Israelites for neglecting
the rebuilding of the temple, which was a central place of worship for the Jewish people.
Haggai emphasizes that the temple is not just a physical building but a symbol of God's
presence among his people. As Carol Dempsey notes, "Haggai's concern is not so much
for the physical structure as for the spiritual and religious life of the people" 358. Haggai's
message stresses the importance of worshiping God and recognizing his presence in the
community of faith.
2. Obedience to God. The Israelites had become distracted by their own concerns and had
neglected to follow God's commands. Haggai calls them back to obedience, reminding
them of the blessings that come from following God's ways. As R. Timothy McLay
notes, "The prophetic word, in Haggai's view, is not a general call to moral improvement,
but a specific call to obey God's commands with regard to the temple" 359. Haggai
emphasizes that obedience to God's commands is necessary for experiencing God's
blessings and favor.

357
Baldwin, J. G. Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi: An Introduction & Commentary. InterVarsity Press. 1986. p.
219
358
Dempsey, C. Haggai. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press. 2000. p. 139
359
McLay, R. T. The Old Testament canon of the New Testament church. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock. 2008,
p. 190

75
 3. God’s faithfulness to His covenant people. Finally, Haggai highlights God's
faithfulness to his covenant people. Despite the Israelites' disobedience and neglect, God
has not abandoned them. Haggai assures the people that God is with them and will
continue to fulfill his promises to them. J. Gordon McConville notes, "Haggai reassures
his audience that despite their own unfaithfulness, God is still committed to his people
and will continue to provide for them"360. Haggai's message ultimately affirms God's
faithfulness and goodness to his people.

MALACHI (430 BCE). The temple was rebuilt in 516BCE. He lived at the same time as
Ezra and Nehemiah, around 460BCE
The Historical Background
The book of Malachi is the last book of the Old Testament in the Christian canon/protestant
canon, and is attributed to the prophet Malachi.
Authorship. The identity of the prophet Malachi has been a topic of debate among scholars.
Some argue that Malachi was an assumed name used by an unknown author, while others believe
that the prophet Malachi was a historical figure. The consensus among scholars is that the author
was likely a historical figure who prophesied during the post-exilic period. As H. G. M.
Williamson notes, "in all probability, the book was written by someone who lived in the Persian
Empire"361.
Dating. Some scholars argue that the book was written in the fifth century BCE, while others
place it in the fourth century BCE. The fifth century BCE dating is based on the assumption that
Malachi was a contemporary of Nehemiah, who returned to Jerusalem in 445 BCE. However, as
R. K. Harrison notes, "the lack of explicit evidence linking this book with Nehemiah makes it
difficult to establish a precise date"362.
Recipients. The recipients of the book of Malachi were likely the Jewish community living in
Jerusalem and the surrounding regions. The message of the book was directed at the priests, who
were accused of failing to fulfill their duties and failing to teach the people properly
Purpose. The book of Malachi has several purposes;
1. One purpose was to call the priests to account for their failures and to demand that they
fulfill their duties properly.
2. Another purpose was to call the people to repentance and faithfulness to God.
3. The book also serves as a warning of the consequences of disobedience and
unfaithfulness. As John Goldingay notes, "Malachi's prophecy both reminds the Jews of
Yahweh's expectations and warns them of the dire consequences if those expectations are
not met"363

Message and structure

Following the book of Haggai is another priestly-prophetic book which contains the messages of
Malachi the “messenger of Yahweh” to the postexilic community. Malachi’s fellow Israelites
were guilty of corrupt worship and unethical behavior. He called the people to renewed covenant

360
McConville, J. G. Exploring the Old Testament: The prophets. London, UK: Society for Promoting
Christian Knowledge. 2004, p. 73
361
Williamson, H. G. M. The Book Called Malachi. New York: Oxford University Press, 2016. P. 485
362
Harrison, R. K. Introduction to the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1969. P. 909
363
oldingay, John. Daniel and Malachi. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004. P. 20

76
obedience. The context now has taken the quest of Haggai further in that at the time of Malachi’s
message the internal evidences of presenting sacrifices to God indicates that the temple has been
rebuilt as could have been projected from Haggai. But the activities and attitudes of the people of
God in the temple is the major point of concern. The people that Malachi confronted were
following the priestly rituals in the temple but not in godliness, holiness and humility. That is
why God confronted them with a contestation (argument) on how they treat him and one another.

1. In chapter 1 the main focus is on what and how they offer to God as sacrifices. They
often bring unacceptable sacrifices about which the Lord really want them to rethink and
review their ways and priorities.
2. Furthermore, he addressed the priests on how they conduct their priestly duties around
the temple (chap. 2).
3. He moves on even to their home life on how they treat their wives. The problem of
divorce was decisively addressed as the collapse of God’s ordained pattern of marriage.
The problem of unfaithfulness on giving tithes to God was also confronted. That the
people should learn to truth God and act in love and faithfulness (chap. 3).
4. Chapter 4 closes the book with a small apocalyptic on the coming day of the Lord. It
would be a great day of judgment for the wicked and blessing to the righteous. But before
then there would be a time for a great revival unto the Lord. It is the Lord’s will that his
people may here his warning and return to him as soon as possible so that when he comes
they would not be afraid to face the judgment but that the sun of righteousness may arise
in her wings.

Theological themes/messages
1. Yahweh loves His people. This theme is evident in the text when Yahweh declares his
love for the Israelites in Malachi 1:2: "I have loved you," says the Lord. However, the
Israelites did not reciprocate Yahweh's love, as they continued to disobey his
commandments. According to Hubbard, the concept of Yahweh's love in Malachi is a
crucial element in understanding the book's message. He argues that Yahweh's love is
unconditional and persistent, and he consistently urges the Israelites to return to him and
to obey his commands, despite their failures. Hubbard writes, "Love prompts God to act
and prompts him to take care of his people, even when they don't deserve it."364
2. True worship. In Malachi 1:6-10, Yahweh rebukes the Israelites for offering blemished
sacrifices and treating him with contempt. Yahweh desires pure and acceptable worship
from his people. Culley emphasizes the significance of true worship in the Book of
Malachi in his commentary. He points out that the Israelites were preoccupied with their
outward religious practices, such as offerings and tithes, but they neglected the inner
aspects of worship, such as repentance and relationship with Yahweh. Culley states that
"whenever worship becomes insincere, it becomes detestable to God no matter how
splendid the outward forms may be."365
3. The day of Yahweh. The third theological theme in the Book of Malachi is the day of
Yahweh, which refers to a coming day of judgment that will come upon the wicked. This
idea is prominent in Malachi 3:1-5, where Yahweh declares that he will send a messenger

364
Hubbard, D. A. The Book of Malachi. New International Commentary on the Old Testament.
Eerdmans.1989, p. 235
365
Culley, R Malachi. Tyndale. Old Testament Commentaries. InterVarsity Press. 2011, p. 84

77
 to prepare the way for his coming and purify his people and judge the wicked. Dillard
and Longman argue that the day of Yahweh in Malachi represents a significant shift in
the way the Israelites viewed God's justice. The day of Yahweh was not merely a day of
punishment, but also a day of hope and salvation for the righteous. Dillard and Longman
write, "The day of Yahweh represents the climax of history, for it is the day when God
will finally set all things right."366

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