Chemistry

FOR ONLINE USE ONLY

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for Secondary Schools

for Secondary Schools
Student’s Book
Form Two

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Tanzania Institute of Education

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 Chemistry
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© Tanzania Institute of Education 2021

Published 2021

ISBN: 978–9987–09–287–1

Tanzania Institute of Education

P. O. Box 35094
Dar es Salaam-Tanzania
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Mobile numbers: +255 735 041 168

+255 735 041 170
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E-mail: [email protected]
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Website: www.tie.go.tz
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All rights reserved. No part of this textbook may be reproduced, stored in any
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retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means whether electronic,

mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission
of the Tanzania Institute of Education.

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Table of Contents
Acknowledgements.............................................................................................v
Preface.................................................................................................................vi

Chapter One: Oxygen........................................................................................1

Occurrence of oxygen...........................................................................................1
Laboratory preparation of oxygen........................................................................1
Properties of oxygen.............................................................................................5
Industrial production of oxygen ........................................................................ 11
Uses of oxygen...................................................................................................13
Revision exercise 1.............................................................................................17

Chapter Two: Hydrogen..................................................................................19

Occurrence and nature of hydrogen ...................................................................19
Laboratory preparation of hydrogen...................................................................19
Properties of hydrogen........................................................................................23
Industrial production of hydrogen......................................................................26
Uses of hydrogen................................................................................................27
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Revision exercise 2.............................................................................................32
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Chapter Three: Water......................................................................................37

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Occurrence and nature of water..........................................................................37

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The water cycle ..................................................................................................38

Water cycle and environmental conservation.....................................................40
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Properties of water..............................................................................................42
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Uses of water .....................................................................................................46

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Water treatment and purification........................................................................49

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Revision exercise 3.............................................................................................54

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Chapter Four: Fuels and energy.....................................................................58

Categories of fuels .............................................................................................58
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Characteristics of a good fuel ............................................................................59

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Uses of fuels ......................................................................................................71

Energy.................................................................................................................71
Conservation of energy.......................................................................................72
Transformation of energy...................................................................................73

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Energy value of a fuel.........................................................................................77

Alternative sources of energy ............................................................................80
Revision exercise 4.............................................................................................84

Chapter Five: Atomic structure.................................................................... 86

The atom.............................................................................................................86
Sub-atomic particles...........................................................................................87
Electron arrangement..........................................................................................89
Atomic number and mass number......................................................................93
Isotopes...............................................................................................................96
Relative atomic mass..........................................................................................99
Revision exercise 5...........................................................................................102

Chapter Six: Periodic classification............................................................ 106

Development of the Periodic Table..................................................................106
Modern Periodic Table.....................................................................................107
Periodicity and general trends..........................................................................107
Revision exercise 6........................................................................................... 116
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Chapter Seven: Bonding, formula and nomenclature............................... 121
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Bonding............................................................................................................121
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Valency.............................................................................................................128
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Radicals ...........................................................................................................129
Oxidation state..................................................................................................130
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Chemical formulae...........................................................................................132
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Nomenclature of binary inorganic compounds................................................139

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Chemical names of common substances..........................................................142

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Revision exercise 7...........................................................................................145

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Appendices......................................................................................................150
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Appendix 1: The Periodic Table.......................................................................150

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Appendix 2: IUPAC names for common compounds......................................151

Glossary...........................................................................................................152
Bibliography....................................................................................................154
Index................................................................................................................155

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Acknowledgements
The Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) would like to acknowledge the
contributions of all the organisations and individuals who participated in
designing and developing this textbook. In particular, TIE wishes to thank the
University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM), Dar es Salaam University College of
Education (DUCE), Mkwawa University College of Education (MUCE), Marian
University College (MARUCo), the Open University of Tanzania (OUT), the
State University of Zanzibar (SUZA), school quality assurance offices, teacher
colleges and secondary schools.
Besides, the following individuals are also acknowledged:

Writer: 
Mr Fixon E. Mtelesi, Ms Marietha M. Belege & Mr Joseph B.
Chamadali (TIE)
Editors: 
Prof. John A. M. Mahugija (UDSM), Prof. Stelyus L. Mkoma
(MARUCo), Dr Grace A. Kinunda (UDSM), Dr James E.
Mgaya (DUCE), Dr Aldo Kitalika (DUCE), Dr Matobola J.
Mihale (OUT), Dr Elianaso Elimbinzi (MUCE) & Dr Stephano
Mlozi (MUCE)
Designer: Mr Katalambula F. Hussein LY
Illustrators: 
Mr Fixon E. Mtelesi (TIE) & Alama Arts and Media Co. Ltd
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Coordinator: Mr Fixon E. Mtelesi (TIE)

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Furthermore, TIE extends its sincere appreciation to the United States Agency
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for International Development (USAID)-Tanzania, for granting permission to

use materials from the 2008 Chemistry for Secondary Schools, Forms 1 & 2
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(First Edition) textbook.

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TIE also appreciates the contribution of secondary school teachers and students
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who participated in the trial phase of the manuscript.

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Likewise, the Institute would like to thank the Ministry of Education, Science
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and Technology for facilitating the writing and printing of this textbook.
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Dkt. Aneth A. Komba

Director General
Tanzania Institute of Education

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Preface
This textbook, Chemistry for Secondary Schools, is written specifically for Form
Two students in the United Republic of Tanzania. It is prepared in accordance
with the 2007 Chemistry Syllabus for Secondary Schools, Form I–IV, issued by
the then, Ministry of Education and Vocational Training (MoEVT).

The book consists of seven chapters, namely Oxygen, Hydrogen, Water, Fuels and
energy, Atomic structure, Periodic classification, and Chemical bonding, formula
and nomenclature. The chapters comprise of illustrations, activities, tasks,
projects, and exercises. You are encouraged to do all the activities, projects, and
exercises together with any other assignment provided. Doing so, will promote
the development of the intended competencies.

Tanzania Institute of Education

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Chapter
One Oxygen

Introduction

Oxygen is one of the gases that constitute air. In this chapter, you will learn about
the occurrence, laboratory preparation, properties, industrial production and
uses of oxygen. The competencies developed will enable you to prepare oxygen,
perform simple experiments to demonstrate the properties of oxygen gas, and
explain its uses. You will also be able to handle different chemical reactions
involving oxygen and help your society in many issues related to it.

Occurrence of oxygen
Oxygen occurs as a gas with an abundance of about 21% by volume of the air. It
also occurs in combination with other substances, for example, in water, mineral
ores, and other chemical compounds such as protein molecules that make up
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most of the living things.
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Laboratory preparation of oxygen
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The preparation of oxygen in the laboratory can be done through thermal

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decomposition of potassium chlorate, decomposition of hydrogen peroxide and

heating some other compounds which are rich in oxygen.
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Decomposition of potassium chlorate

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Potassium chlorate is decomposed by heating in the presence of manganese(IV)

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oxide catalyst to produce potassium chloride and oxygen gas. Figure 1.1 shows
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a schematic diagram for the preparation of oxygen gas by thermal decomposition

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of potassium chlorate salt.

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Test tube
Potassium chlorate +
Retort stand
Manganese(IV) oxide
Delivery tube

Oxygen gas

Inverted gas jar

Heat source

Water trough
Water
Beehive shelf

Figure 1.1: E
 xperimental set-up for the preparation of oxygen by thermal decomposition of
potassium chlorate

The decomposition of potassium chlorate is summarised in the following word

and formula equations:
Potassium chlorate Manganese(IV) oxide Potassium chloride + Oxygen gas
Heat LY
MnO MnO2
2KClO
2KClO 3(s)3(s)Heat Heat 2KCl(s)
2 2KCl(s)
+ 3O2+(g)
3O2(g)
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Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide

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Compared to potassium chlorate, this method is preferred because it produces

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enough gas without the use of heat. The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide in
the presence of manganese(IV) oxide yields oxygen and water as expressed by
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the following equations:

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Manganese(IV) oxide
Hydrogen peroxide Water + Oxygen gas
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MnO2
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2H2O2(l) 2H2O(l) + O2(g)

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Decomposition is the reaction in which a chemical compound breaks down into

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its constituent elements or simpler compounds. A catalyst is a substance that

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alters the rate of a chemical reaction but remains unchanged at the end of the
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reaction. Manganese(IV) oxide speeds up the decomposition of potassium

chlorate and hydrogen peroxide.
Oxygen gas is collected over water by a process called downward displacement
of water. Oxygen is slightly soluble in water and lighter than water, thus, during
its preparation, it easily displaces water and is collected over water.

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Activity 1.1

Aim: To prepare oxygen gas by decomposing hydrogen peroxide.

Requirements: Flat bottomed flask, beehive shelf, delivery tube, water trough,
thistle funnel with a tap, gas jars, two-holed rubber bung,
hydrogen peroxide, manganese(IV) oxide, and water
Procedure
1. Put about 5 g of manganese(IV) oxide into a flat-bottomed flask.
2. Set the apparatus as shown in Figure 1.2. Make sure that the tap of the
thistle funnel is closed.
3. Fill the trough with water to about ¾ full. Put a beehive shelf in it. Fill a
gas jar with water and invert it over a beehive shelf.
4. Connect the delivery tube through the shelf in the trough. Ensure that the
water in the gas jar has no bubbles.
5. Put 80 cm3 of hydrogen peroxide in the thistle funnel.
6. Open the tap of the thistle funnel to allow hydrogen peroxide to fall onto
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manganese(IV) oxide. Ensure that hydrogen peroxide falls drop by drop.
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Hydrogen peroxide
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Thistle funnel
Tap
Delivery tube
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Oxygen
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Flat-bottomed
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flask Inverted gas jar

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Hydrogen Water trough

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peroxide
Water
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Manganese(IV)
Beehive shelf
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oxide

Figure 1.2: Experimental set-up for the preparation of oxygen by using hydrogen peroxide

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7. Allow the first few bubbles to escape (this ensures purity of the collected
gas), then collect the gas into the inverted gas jar. Remove the gas jar from
the beehive shelf keeping it well covered with a lid. Collect several gas jars
of the gas for further use.
Questions
1. Both manganese(IV) oxide and hydrogen peroxide contain oxygen. Which
of them produced the oxygen you collected? Give reason(s).
2. How is it possible that oxygen can be collected over water?
3. Why did you allow the first few bubbles of the gas to escape?

The reaction of other compounds containing oxygen

Other compounds that contain oxygen can be used to prepare oxygen gas, for
example, potassium permanganate. However, this method is not commonly used
in the laboratory preparation of oxygen due to some associated challenges such as
high energy requirement and explosion. For example, potassium permanganate
requires high temperature (200-300 °C) to decompose.
Mercury oxide can also be heated to produce oxygen gas. However, the process
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produces a mixture of highly toxic mercury fumes and oxygen. The fumes irritate
the eyes, skin and respiratory tract. These fumes may also have effects on the
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kidneys and can cause death.

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Exercise 1.1
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1. Why is hydrogen peroxide preferred over potassium chlorate in the

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laboratory preparation of oxygen?

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2. Why is oxygen gas collected by downward displacement of water?

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3. Oxygen gas may be prepared in the laboratory by heating a mixture of

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potassium chlorate with manganese(IV) oxide. Which of these two

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compounds produces the required oxygen?

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4. During the laboratory preparation of oxygen, manganese(IV) oxide is used

as a catalyst in the decomposition reactions.
(a) What is decomposition?
(b) What is a catalyst?
(c) What would happen if the preparations of oxygen were performed
without the use of catalysts?

Properties of oxygen
The physical and chemical properties of oxygen gas are as follows:
Physical properties
1. Oxygen gas is colourless.
2. It is odourless.
3. It is tasteless.
4. It is slightly soluble in water.
5. It is slightly denser than air (about 1.1 times).
6. It boils at –183 ºC.
7. It freezes at –218 ºC.
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Chemical properties
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1. Oxygen gas supports combustion.

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2. It is a strong oxidising agent.

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3. It reacts with metals to form basic oxides.

4. It reacts with non–metals to form acidic oxides.
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Test for the presence of oxygen

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When a glowing wooden splint is lowered into a gas jar containing oxygen gas, it
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re-lights up (Figure 1.3). This is the test for the presence of oxygen gas. Similarly,
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when a lit candle is lowered into a gas jar containing oxgen gas, it burns more
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brightly. This confirms that oxygen supports combustion.

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A glowing splint in a A re-lit splint in a gas

gas jar without oxygen jar with oxygen
Figure 1.3: A glowing wooden splint in a gas jar without oxygen and a re-lit splint in a
gas jar with oxygen

Activity 1.2

Aim: To demonstrate the chemical properties of oxygen gas.

Requirements: 
Gas jars with oxygen, a candle, wooden splints, metals (sodium,
potassium and magnesium ribbon), non-metals (sulphur, carbon
and phosphorus), deflagrating spoon and Bunsen burner
Procedure
1. Prepare and collect oxygen gas in several gas jars.
2. Light a wooden splint, let it burn for some time then extinguish the flame
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to leave a glowing end. Lower the glowing splint into a gas jar containing
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oxygen. Record your observation.
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3. Place a small candle on a deflagrating spoon, light the candle and lower it
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in a gas jar containing oxygen. Note your observation. Figure 1.4 shows a
deflagrating spoon with a burning candle immersed in the gas jar.
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Deflagrating spoon
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Burning candle

Gas jar

Figure 1.4: Burning candle in a gas jar containing oxygen

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4. Take each of the metals and non-metals, one at a time and place each of
them on a deflagrating spoon.
5. Heat each element using a Bunsen burner flame until it is red hot or it
catches fire.
6. Put the hot or burning element into a jar containing oxygen. Leave it there
until the burning stops.
7. Record your observations in a table, showing how each element burns, the
colour, and the name of the products formed.
Questions
1. What happens when:
(a) a glowing splint is lowered into a gas jar containing oxygen?
(b) a lit candle is lowered into a gas jar containing oxygen?
2. (a) When the metals and non-metals were heated in oxygen, which ones
burnt:
(i) vigorously?
(ii) slowly? LY
(b) Identify the products formed as a result of burning the metals and
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non-metals.
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Basic nature of metal oxides

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Many metals burn in oxygen to produce basic oxides. These oxides are basic
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because they react with water to form basic solutions, or with acids to form salt
and water. Basic solutions turn red litmus paper blue, for example, magnesium
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burns to form magnesium oxide whose solution turns red litmus paper blue.
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Activity 1.3
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Aim: To demonstrate the basic nature of the products of burnt metals.

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Requirements: Gas jars containing oxygen, metals (potassium, sodium,

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calcium, magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron, lead, copper),

deflagrating spoon, red litmus paper, and water

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Procedure
1. Pour some water into the gas jar containing oxygen.
2. Put a small piece of potassium metal on a deflagrating spoon, burn, and
then lower it into the gas jar containing oxygen and water. Make sure that
the deflagrating spoon is just above the water level. Let the metal continue
burning in the gas jar until the powder is formed and the fire goes off.
3. Shake the powder in order to mix it with water, then dip a red litmus paper
into the solution.
4. Follow the same procedure (steps 1 to 3), now using magnesium ribbon or
any other metal.
5. Tabulate your observations in steps 3 and 4.
Figure 1.5 shows the flame colours of some metals burning in oxygen.
Caution: S
 odium reacts vigorously with oxygen and moisture present in the air,
and thus catches fire.

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Potassium Sodium Calcium Magnesium

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Figure 1.5: Flame colours of some metals burning in oxygen

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Table 1.1 summarises the reactions and properties of products formed when
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metals burn in oxygen.

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Table 1.1: Properties of products formed when some metals burn in oxygen

Action of
Colour and their aqueous
Colour of Name of
Metal How it burns nature of solutions on
the metal product
product red litmus
paper
Potassium Silvery Melts easily White powder Potassium Turns blue
white and burns with oxide
a lilac flame
Sodium Silvery Burns Pale yellow Sodium Turns blue
white vigorously solid oxide
with a yellow
flame
Calcium Silvery Burns with White solid Calcium Turns blue
white a brick red oxide
flame
Magnesium Grey/ Melts and White powder Magnesium Turns blue
Silvery burns with a oxide
bright white
flame
Zinc Bluish Burns slowly Yellow/green Zinc oxide No action
grey with a dull redflakes that are
flame white when
cool LY
Iron Silvery Glows red hot Reddish Iron(III) No action
grey brown oxide
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Copper Orange Turns orange Black solid Copper(II) No action
red then the oxide
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surface of the
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product turns
black
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Acidic nature of non-metal oxides

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Properties of the products of burnt non-metals are different from those of metals.
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Non-metals burn in oxygen to produce acidic oxides. These oxides are acidic
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because they react with water to form acidic solutions which turn a blue litmus
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paper red.
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Activity 1.4
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Aim: To demonstrate the acidic nature of the products of burnt non-metals.

Requirements: Gas jars containing oxygen, non-metals (carbon, phosphorus,
silicon, sulphur), deflagrating spoon, and blue litmus paper

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Procedure
1. Pour some water into a gas jar containing oxygen gas.
2. Put a piece of carbon on a deflagrating spoon, burn, and then lower it into a
gas jar containing oxygen and water. Let it continue burning in the gas jar
until a powder forms and the fire goes off.
3. Shake the powder in order to mix it with water, then dip a blue litmus paper
into the water.
4. Repeat steps 1 to 3, now using phosphorus and other non-metal elements,
each at a time.
5. Tabulate your observations in steps 3 and 4.

Table 1.2 summarises the properties of the products of the reactions of non-metals
with oxygen. Flame colours for some non-metals are shown in Figure 1.6.

Table 1.2: Properties of products of the reactions of non-metals with oxygen

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Action on
Nature Colour and
How it Name of wet blue
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Non-metal of the nature of
burns product litmus
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element product
paper
Carbon Black solid Burns slowly Colourless Carbon dioxide Turns red
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with a gas
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yellow-white
flame
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Phosphorus Yellow Burns White solid Phosphorus(V) Turns red

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solid brightly to oxide

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produce
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clouds of
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white smoke
Sulphur Yellow Melts and Misty (white Sulphur Turns red
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solid burns with a gas) dioxide

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blue flame
Silicon Dark-grey Burns with Solid whitish Silicon dioxide Turns red
solid dark-brown yellow
crystals

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Carbon Phosphorus Sulphur Silicon

Figure 1.6: Flame colours for some non-metals burning in oxygen

Industrial production of oxygen

Various methods are used for large scale production of oxygen. The main
methods are fractional distillation of liquefied air and the electrolysis of water.
Currently, the most common method is the fractional distillation of liquefied air.
This produces the highest amount of oxygen than the electrolysis of water.
Fractional distillation of air
Fractional distillation of air starts with the liquefaction of air followed by
distillation of the liquid air.
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Liquefaction of air
Liquefaction of air involves filtration of air to remove dust, compressing, and then
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cooling down to –200 °C until it liquefies. During the liquefaction, the following
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occur:
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(a) Water vapour condenses, and is removed by using special filters.

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(b) At –78.5 °C, carbon dioxide freezes and is removed.

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(c) At –183 °C, oxygen liquefies.

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(d) Nitrogen liquefies at –196 °C.

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At –200 °C, there is still a mixture of some liquid nitrogen and liquid oxygen.
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The two liquids are separated by fractional distillation due to their close boiling
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points.
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Distillation
The liquid mixture of nitrogen and oxygen is then separated by fractional
distillation into pure oxygen and nitrogen gas. The liquid mixture is passed into a

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fractionating column from the bottom. Since the column is warmer at the bottom
than at the top, the liquid nitrogen boils at the bottom of the column. The gaseous
nitrogen rises to the top where it is collected via the pipe to the storage tank,
while the liquid oxygen collects at the bottom of the column (Figure 1.7).
Air intake
Nitrogen gas
Air heats
up as it is
compressed –190 ºC

Liquified air
Liquid in at – 200 ºC
nitrogen
circulation to
cool the air –185 ºC
Compressed
air is cooled Liquid oxygen
Compressed
air is allowed
to expand
and turns to
liquid

Figure 1.7: Production of oxygen by fractional distillation of liquefied air

Fractional distillation is the separation of liquid components with close boiling

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points from a liquid mixture. Figure 1.8 shows a fractional distillation plant.
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O
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N
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N
O
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Figure 1.8: Fractional distillation plant

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Uses of oxygen
Life on earth depends on the presence of oxygen gas. You breath-in oxygen
without which there would be no survival. Animals and plants need oxygen gas
for respiration. Some important industrial processes also need oxygen. There are
many uses of oxygen in the universe. The major uses of oxygen are as described
in the following paragraphs.
Uses of oxygen in living organisms
Oxygen is used for respiration by organisms. Germinating seeds require oxygen
and water, divers in the deep sea carry with them oxygen in cylinders to support
them in breathing. Mountain climbers also carry oxygen in the cylinders to help
them in breathing at high altitudes where there is low supply of oxygen in the air.
In hospitals, oxygen is used to support the breathing of patients with breathing
difficulties, and premature babies. Figure 1.9 shows a diver and a mountain
climber with oxygen cylinders to support breathing.

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A water diver A mountain climber

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Figure 1.9: Diver and a mountain climber with oxygen cylinders

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Environment
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In environmental conservation, oxygen is used in sewage treatment and

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replenishment of the ozone layer that protects the Earth from harmful radiations.
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Oxygen is also useful in destruction of wastes, since it supports burning.

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Industrial chemical processes

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Oxygen is used in various chemical processes such as manufacturing of

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chemicals, incineration, manufacturing of synthetic fuels, manufacturing of steel,

metal cutting, welding, glass making, pulp, and paper making. Some of these are
shown in Figure 1.10.

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Industrial incinerators Glass-bottle making Glass-sheet making

Welding Steel manufacturing industry

Figure 1.10: Some of the chemical processes that use oxygen

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Transport
In transport, oxygen aids respiration for crews in sub-marines and space-craft.
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Liquid oxygen is also used to burn fuels in rockets. Some of these uses are shown
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in Figure 1.11.
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N
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A submarine The spacecraft A rocket engine

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Figure 1.11: Uses of oxygen in transport

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The areas in which oxygen is used are summarised in Figure 1.12

Living organisms
 Daily breathing and respiration
 Germinating seeds
 Divers in deep water
 Mountain climbers
 Patients and premature babies

Transport Environment
 In submarines  Ozone layer replenishment
Uses of Oxygen
 In space-craft  Sewage treatment
 In rocket fuel  Burning of wastes

Industrial chemical processes

 Manufacturing of chemicals
 Manufacturing of synthetic fiber
 Manufacturing of steel LY
 Incineration of substances
 Metal cutting
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 Welding
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 Glass making
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 Pulp and paper making

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Figure 1.12: Summary of the uses of oxygen

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Most of the uses of oxygen are related to its properties as follows:

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Solubility in water
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The usefulness of oxygen to aquatic organisms is due to its solubility in water.

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Oxygen is slightly soluble in water, therefore, water contains some dissolved

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oxygen that is used by aquatic living organisms.

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Combustibility
Oxygen supports combustion. Therefore, it is used in incineration or burning of
substances, welding, and metal cutting. In living organisms, oxygen is used to
support burning of food in the body through respiration.

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Reactivity with elements

Oxygen reacts with many elements. This makes it useful in industrial chemical
processes such as manufacturing of chemicals, glass, pulp, and paper.

Exercise 1.2

1. Explain the physical properties of oxygen.

2. What will happen to a glowing splint if it is lowered into a gas jar containing
oxygen gas?
3. What happens when the following elements are burnt in oxygen?
(a) Calcium (b) Sulphur
4. What do you understand by the following terms?
(a) Basic oxide (b) Acidic oxide
5. Relate the uses of oxygen to its properties.

Task

1.
LY
Collect information on the uses of oxygen from books, newspapers, and
other sources.
N

2. Discuss your findings in groups, and compile them in the form of a detailed
O

report.
SE

3. Present your report to the rest of the class, using pictures and charts, where
U

necessary.
E

Chapter summary
N
LI

1. Oxygen constitutes about 21% by volume of the air we breathe, and is

essential for combustion and respiration.
N
O

2. Oxygen is prepared in the laboratory mainly by the decomposition of

hydrogen peroxide with manganese(IV) oxide as a catalyst.
R
FO

3. A catalyst is a substance that alters the rate of a chemical reaction but

remains chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction.
4. Oxygen is colourless, tasteless, odourless and slightly soluble in water.

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5. Oxygen supports combustion, and it reacts with many elements to form

oxides.
6. Industrial manufacturing of oxygen is mainly by the fractional distillation
of liquefied air.
7. The main uses of oxygen are:
(a) sustenance of life to living things.
(b) in environmental conservation.
(c) in transport.
(d) in various chemical processes.

Revision exercise 1

1. Write TRUE for a correct statement and FALSE for an incorrect statement.
(a) Manganese(IV) oxide is used in the preparation of oxygen gas.
(b) Oxygen is used in deep sea diving.
(c) Hydrogen peroxide is a very useful catalyst in the laboratory
preparation of oxygen gas.
(d) Oxygen combines with metals to form basic oxides.
LY
(e) Oxygen supports combustion.
N

(f) Oxygen is prepared in the laboratory mainly through fractional

O

distillation of liquefied air.

SE

2. Choose the word from the box that best matches with each of the following
statements:
U

(a) It turns a wet red litmus paper blue.

E

(b) It burns with a brick red flame.

N

(c) It exists as a black solid

LI

(d) It alters the speed of a reaction but remains chemically unchanged.

N

(e) It melts and burns with a bright white flame.

O

(f) Its oxide is a black solid.

R

(g) It melts and burns with a blue flame

FO

Catalyst, Calcium, Carbon, Decomposition, Elements,

Magnesium, Copper, Non-metal oxide, Metal oxides, Reagent,
Zinc, Sulphur

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3. How is oxygen prepared using the following chemicals?

(a) Hydrogen peroxide (b) Potassium chlorate
4. How would you distinguish pure oxygen from ordinary air?
5. What would happen if there were no oxygen in the atmosphere?
6. A student placed a silvery white solid on a deflagrating spoon, ignited it
and then lowered the spoon into a gas jar of oxygen. The solid burned with
a brick red flame.
(a) Identify the silvery white substance that burned in oxygen.
(b) Explain the nature of the product in terms of acidic or basic properties.
(c) Write the product formed after burning the silvery solid.
7. Oxygen is collected through a downward displacement of water.
(a) Write a word equation for the preparation of oxygen by the
decomposition of hydrogen peroxide using manganese dioxide as a
catalyst.
(b) Is it possible to collect pure oxygen during its preparation? Explain.
(c)
LY
Can all the oxygen formed from hydrogen peroxide be collected into
the gas jar? Give reason(s).
N

8. Oxygen gas can also be prepared by thermal decomposition of potassium

O

chlorate using manganese dioxide as a catalyst.

SE

(a) Explain the activities which will be done when preparing the gas
U

using this method.

E

(b) Draw a well labelled diagram to show how oxygen is prepared using
N

this method.
LI

(c) Write the word equation for this reaction.

N
O

9. Why is hydrogen peroxide preferred to potassium chlorate in the laboratory

preparation of oxygen?
R
FO

10. Most uses of oxygen are dictated by its properties. Explain.

11. Draw a clearly labelled diagram showing the laboratory preparation of
oxygen without the application of heat.

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Chapter
Two Hydrogen

Introduction
Hydrogen is one of the important and most abundant elements found in the
universe. Like oxygen, hydrogen is gaseous in nature and it occurs in different
forms. In this chapter, you will learn about the occurrence and nature of hydrogen,
laboratory preparation, properties, industrial production, and uses of hydrogen.
The competencies developed will enable you to use and manipulate hydrogen and
other substances in your daily life activities.

Occurrence and nature of hydrogen

The word hydrogen comes from the Greek words hydro–meaning “water”
and genes–meaning “creator” or “generator”. This was after a Greek scientist
Antoine Lavoisier, who discovered that hydrogen was produced when water was
decomposed. Hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant element in the universe.
Hydrogen gas is lighter than air, and therefore, it rises high in the atmosphere.
LY
This is why hydrogen gas is not found free on its own on the Earth’s surface and
in the lower atmosphere. Hydrogen gas is colourless and odourless. It can be
N

collected by downward displacement of water because it is lighter than water

O

and slightly soluble in it. If the container containing hydrogen is left open, it
can escape because hydrogen is lighter than air. Moreover, hydrogen is a very
SE

reactive element, but at room temperature the reaction rates are usually so low as
U

to be negligible. This is why it is found in combination with many other elements,

forming different substances. For example, hydrogen is found in large quantities
E

in the form of water on Earth. It is the main element from which the sun and the
N

stars are made.

LI

Hydrogen is found in combination with carbon that leads to the formation of

N

organic compounds such as coal, petroleum, natural gas, and other compounds.
O

It is also present in acids and in some bases. It can be prepared in the laboratory.
R

Hydrogen can be tested by lighting it in air in which it ignites with a “pop” sound
FO

explosion.

Laboratory preparation of hydrogen

Hydrogen can be prepared in the laboratory in different ways. There are four
main methods for laboratory preparation of hydrogen, which are; the reactions

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of dilute acids with some metals, the reactions of water with some metals, the
reaction of water with hot carbon, and the electrolysis of water. The most common
method of preparation of hydrogen is by the actions of dilute acids on metals. An
example is the action of dilute hydrochloric acid on zinc. This reaction can be
summarised by the following word and formula equations:
Zinc + Hydrochloric acid Zinc chloride + Hydrogen
Zn + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(l)

Activity 2.1

Aim: To prepare hydrogen in the laboratory by reacting dilute hydrochloric acid
with zinc granules.
Requirements: Flat-bottomed flask, thistle funnel, gas jars and their lids, water
trough, beehive shelf, two-holed rubber bung, zinc granules,
dilute hydrochloric acid, and water
Procedure
1. Put some zinc granules into a flat-bottomed flask.
2. Fill a gas jar with water and invert it over the beehive shelf in the water
LY
trough.
N
3. Set up the rest of the apparatus as shown in Figure 2.1.
O

4. Add dilute hydrochloric acid to the zinc granules.

SE

5. Collect the gas over water, ensuring that you only remove the gas jar when
it is full, and that you keep the jar tightly closed with a lid.
U
E

Dilute hydrochloric acid

N

Thistle funnel
Tap
Delivery tube
LI
N

Flat-bottomed
O

flask Hydrogen gas

Inverted gas jar
R

Dilute
FO

hydrochloric
acid Water trough
Water
Zinc Beehive shelf
granules

Figure 2.1: Experimental set-up for the laboratory preparation of hydrogen gas

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Questions

1. What is the colour of the gas produced?

2. Why is it possible to collect hydrogen using this method?
3. What would happen if a gas jar containing hydrogen gas was not tightly
closed?

Exercise 2.1

1. Why does hydrogen rise high in the atmosphere?

2. Hydrogen is not often found free on its own on the Earth’s surface, instead
it is found in combination with many other elements. Explain.
3. Why is hydrogen gas collected by downward displacement of water?
4. Why should a gas jar of hydrogen be tightly closed with a lid?
5. Among the substances formed by the combination of hydrogen with other
elements are organic compounds. Give at least ten examples of such
LY
compounds.
N
O

Activity 2.2
SE

Aim: To test some properties of hydrogen.

U

Requirements: Flat-bottomed flask, thistle funnel, gas jars and their lids, water
E
N

trough, beehive shelf, two-holed rubber bungs, test tubes, blue

and red litmus papers, and zinc granules
LI
N

Procedure
O

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 2.1 of Activity 2.1.

R

2. Collect the hydrogen gas over water, ensure that you only remove the gas
FO

jar when it is full.

3. Collect some of the gas in the test tubes and stopper with rubber bungs as
shown in Figure 2.2.

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Figure 2.2: Test tubes filled with hydrogen gas

4. Place a burning splint at the mouth of one of the test tubes. Record your
observation.
5. Take another sample and waft some of the gas to your nose. Record your
observation.
6. Remove the stopper then invert a test tube containing air over the test tube
containing hydrogen (Figure 2.3). After one minute, test the gases in the
test tubes using a burning splint. Record your observations.

Test tube
containing air
LY
N
O
SE
U

Test tube containing

hydrogen gas
E
N
LI

Figure 2.3: Test tube filled with air inverted over the one filled with hydrogen gas
N
O

7. Place moist blue and red litmus papers in another test tube containing
hydrogen gas. Record your observations.
R

Note: For safety, do not taste the gas in the laboratory.

FO

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Questions

1. What happens when a burning splint is placed at the mouth of the test tube
containing hydrogen gas?
2. Describe the smell of hydrogen gas.
3. What happens when a burning splint is put at the mouth of inverted test
tube in step 6?
4. What happens to the moist blue and red litmus papers placed in a gas jar
containing hydrogen gas?

Properties of hydrogen
The physical and chemical properties of hydrogen gas are as follows:
Physical properties
Hydrogen has the following physical properties:
1. It is colourless, odourless and tasteless.
2. It is lighter than air; it has a density of 0.0899 g/dm3 compared to air which
LY
has a density of 1.225 g/dm3 at standard temperature and pressure.
N
3. It is slightly soluble in water.
O

Chemical properties of hydrogen

SE

Hydrogen has many chemical properties, which include:

U

1. At high temperatures, hydrogen combines easily with other chemical

substances.
E
N

2. It does not usually react with other elements at room temperatures.

LI

3. It is highly flammable and burns with a blue flame. However, under the
N

presence of some impurities in air, the flame may appear yellow.

O

4. A mixture of hydrogen and oxygen explodes when lit.

R
FO

5. It reacts slowly with oxygen to produce water. A catalyst can be used to

speed up the reaction.
6. It is neither basic nor acidic. It is neutral to litmus papers.

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7. It reacts with oxides and chlorides of many metals to produce free metals.
8. It does not support combustion but ignites with a “pop” sound explosion.
9. Dry hydrogen reduces metal oxides into their free metals.
The commonly used drying agent in the reduction reactions is anhydrous calcium
chloride. During the reduction process, hydrogen is used as a reducing agent. This
means that it removes oxygen from its substances. Reduction is the removal of
oxygen from a substance or addition of hydrogen to a substance. In the reduction
of metal oxides using hydrogen, water is produced in the form of steam. When
the reaction is complete, hydrogen is allowed to flow until the new formed metal
cools. This helps to prevent the metal from being oxidized in the air to its oxide.
Oxidation is the addition of oxygen to a substance or removal of hydrogen from
a substance.
Reduction reaction can be exemplified by the reactions of copper(II) oxide and
lead(II) oxide with hydrogen. Copper(II) oxide is reduced to copper metal as
shown in the following chemical equations:

Copper(II) oxide + Hydrogen Copper + Water

CuO(s) + H2 (g) Cu(s) + H2O(g)
LY
On the other hand, lead(II) oxide is reduced to lead metal as described by the
N

folowing equations:
O

Lead(II) oxide + Hydrogen Lead + Water

SE

PbO(s) + H2(g) Pb(s) + H2O(g)

U

Activity 2.3
E
N

Aim: To investigate the products formed when dry hydrogen is passed over
LI

heated metal oxides.

N
O

Requirements: Combustion tube, U-tube, rubber bungs, porcelain bowl,

bent glass tubes, dry copper(II) oxide, lead oxide, anhydrous
R

copper(II) sulphate, source of hydrogen gas, and anhydrous

FO

calcium chloride
Procedure
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 2.4.
2. Neatly pack anhydrous calcium chloride in a U-tube.

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3. Put dry copper(II) oxide in a porcelain bowl and place it in a combustion

tube. Also, place anhydrous copper(II) sulphate in the combustion tube.
4. Ignite the hydrogen gas at the end of the combustion tube.
5. Heat the copper(II) oxide in the combustion tube until there is no more
change.
6. Stop the heating, but let the hydrogen gas continue passing through the tube
until it cools down. Record all your observations.
7. Repeat the experiment using lead(II) oxide instead of copper(II) oxide.

Copper(II) oxide in a Combustion Hydrogen gas

porcelain boat tube burning
Wet hydrogen gas
from the source

Heat
Anhydrous
copper(II) sulphate
U-tube
LY
Anhydrous calcium
N
chloride
O

Figure 2.4: Experimental set-up for the reaction between dry hydrogen gas and heated
SE

copper(II) oxide
U

Note: I n each case, water in the form of steam is produced as the other product.
This can be evidenced by anhydrous copper(II) sulphate turning blue.
E
N

Questions
LI

1. What was the colour of the flame of the lit hydrogen?

N

2. Why is the hydrogen allowed to continue flowing even when the heating is
O

stopped in this experiment?

R

3. What are the products in each of the reactions in this experiment?

FO

4. What would happen if anhydrous calcium chloride was not used in this
experiment?
5. What is the colour change when copper(II) oxide is heated?
6. What is the use of anhydrous copper(II) sulphate in this experiment?

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Exercise 2.2
1. Write TRUE for a correct statement and FALSE for an incorrect statement.
(a) Hydrogen is less dense than air.
(b) Hydrogen supports combustion.
(c) A mixture of hydrogen and oxygen burns with a hot blue flame.
(d) Hydrogen is found in the largest amount on the Earth’s surface.
(e) Hydrogen is used in making margarine because it has a good taste.
2. Why is hydrogen gas collected over water?
3. After collecting hydrogen gas in the gas jar, it is necessary to cover it with
a lid. Explain.
4. Is hydrogen gas basic or acidic? Justify.

Industrial production of hydrogen

Pure hydrogen gas is manufactured industrially by the electrolysis of water or by
the steam reforming of natural gas (methane).
Electrolysis of water LY
Electrolysis of water is a process that decomposes water into oxygen and
hydrogen gas by means of an electric current. The electric current is passed
N
through the water. The electrical power source is connected to two plates (called
O

electrodes) that are placed in the water. Hydrogen is collected at the negative
plate (the cathode), while oxygen collects at the positive plate (the anode). The
SE

set-up for the electrolysis of water is called the Hofmann voltameter (Figure 2.5).
U

Water
E
N

Oxygen
LI

Hydrogen
N
O
R
FO

Cathode Anode
– +
Figure 2.5: Set-up of a Hofmann voltameter for the electrolysis of water

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Steam reforming
Steam reforming of natural gas is the most commonly used method in the
commercial production of hydrogen. It is also called Steam Methane Reforming
(SMR). This is a method of producing hydrogen from organic compounds such as
methane. At high temperatures of 700 °C to 1100 °C, steam reacts with methane to
produce carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas as shown in the following equations:

Steam + Methane nickel Carbon monoxide + Hydrogen

H2O(g) + CH4(g) Ni CO(g) + 3H2(g)

This reaction takes place in the presence of a metal catalyst such as nickel or
platinum.

Uses of hydrogen
Hydrogen gas has various daily uses, including the manufacturing of ammonia,
manufacturing of margarine, making oxy-hydrogen flame, manufacturing of
hydrochloric acid, as a fuel, and in the filling of weather balloons.
Manufacturing of ammonia
Hydrogen is used in the synthesis of ammonia by reacting it with nitrogen in the
LY
presence of an iron catalyst. This is usually done on a large scale through the
Haber process that is summarised in the following equation:
N
O

Iron
Iron
Hydrogen ++ Nitrogen
Hydrogen Nitrogen Ammonia
Ammonia
SE

Fe
Fe
3H
3H
3H (g)+++ N
(g)
22(g)
2
N222(g)
(g)
(g) 2NH33(g)
2NH
2NH (g)
3(g)
U

Ammonia is used in many processes such as production of nitric acid, fertilisers

and synthetic (human-made) fabrics, such as polyesters and polyamides (nylons).
E

Figure 2.6 shows some of the ammonium fertilisers in different forms, while
N

Figure 2.7 shows some products made of synthetic fibres.

LI
N
O
R

MADE IN
TANZANIA
FO

Pelletised form Crystalline form Packaged solid Packaged liquid

fertiliser fertiliser

Figure 2.6: Ammonium fertilisers

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Figure 2.7: Products made of synthetic fibres

Manufacturing of margarine
Hydrogen is used in the manufacturing of margarine (hardening of oil) by
bubbling it through liquid oil in the presence of nickel as a catalyst. This process
is called hydrogenation. Examples of margarine are shown in Figure 2.8.

Figure 2.8: Examples of margarine

LY
Welding and metal cutting
N
Hydrogen combines with oxygen
O

to produce the oxy-hydrogen

flame. This flame is very hot and
SE

the temperature can rise up to

3000 °C. This flame can be used
U

for welding and metal cutting as

E

shown in Figure 2.9.

N
LI
N

Figure 2.9: Welding of metals using oxy-hydrogen

O

flame
R

Manufacturing of hydrochloric acid

FO

Hydrogen is used in the manufacturing of hydrochloric acid. It reacts with

chlorine to form hydrogen chloride gas, which is then dissolved in water to form
hydrochloric acid as shown in the following equations:

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Hydrogen gas + chlorine gas Hydrogen chloride gas

HH2(g)
2(g)++Cl
Cl(g)
2 2(g)
2HCl(g)
2HCl(g)
Hydrogen chloride gas + Water Hydrochloric acid
HCl(g) + H2O(l) HCl(aq)

A plant for the manufacturing of hydrochloric acid is shown in Figure 2.10, and
the packaging bottles are shown in Figure 2.11.

Figure 2.10: Hydrochloric acid Figure 2.11: Packaging bottles for

manufacturing plant LY hydrochloric acid

Hydrogen as a fuel
N
Hydrogen is used to prepare water gas which is the mixture of carbon monoxide
O

and hydrogen. Water gas can be used as a fuel. It can be burnt to propel rockets.
Figure 2.12 shows a rocket that uses water gas being launched.
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

Figure 2.12: Rocket that uses water gas being launched

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Filling weather balloons

Hydrogen is a light gas, therefore, it is used by meteorologists to fill weather
balloons. The balloons carry instruments that record information on various
elements of weather in the upper atmosphere. Figure 2.13 shows a weather
balloon filled with hydrogen.

LY
Figure 2.13: Weather balloon filled with hydrogen
N
O

The main uses of hydrogen can be linked to its properties. Table 2.1 summarises
SE

the relationships between some uses and the properties of hydrogen.

Table 2.1: The relationships between some uses of hydrogen and its properties
U

S/N Use Property

E
N

1. Manufacturing of ammonia Readily reacts with other

LI

2. substances, for example,

Manufacturing of hydrochloric acid
N

nitrogen and chlorine

O

3. Production of oxy-hydrogen flame

Highly flammable
R

4. Preparation of water gas

FO

5. Filling weather balloons Lighter than air

6. Manufacturing of margarine Reducing agent

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Exercise 2.3

1. What is the test for hydrogen?

2. Give examples of substances made by the reactions or combination of
hydrogen with other substances.
3. Suppose there were no hydrogen in the universe, what would happen?
4. Outline any four uses of hydrogen.
5. Comment on the fact that most of the uses of hydrogen are related to its
properties.
6. You have learnt that hydrogen is used in welding. What do you understand
by this term?

Task
1. Carry out searches from books, newspapers and other sources on the uses
of hydrogen. Note down your findings.
2.
LY
In groups, discuss your findings and compile your reports that include
illustrations (pictures and diagrams).
N
O

Chapter summary
SE

1. Hydrogen is a colourless, odourless, and highly flammable gas.

U

2. Hydrogen can be produced in the laboratory by the reaction of dilute

E

hydrochloric acid with some metals such as zinc.

N

3. Reduction is the removal of oxygen from a substance or the addition of

LI

hydrogen to a substance.
N
O

4. Oxidation is the addition of oxygen to a substance or the removal of

hydrogen from a substance.
R
FO

5. Hydrogenation is the process of passing hydrogen through liquid oil to

harden it.
6. Pure hydrogen is manufactured industrially by electrolysis of water or by
steam reforming of natural gas (methane).

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7. Electrolysis of water is a process which decomposes water into oxygen and

hydrogen gases, with the aid of an electric current.
8. Hydrogen has many uses. These include the manufacturing of ammonia,
margarine, hydrochloric acid, and water gas. It is also used in weather
balloons and in the production of the very hot oxy-hydrogen flame.

Revision exercise 2

1. Write TRUE for a correct statement and FALSE for an incorrect statement.
(a) Hydrogen gas is slightly denser than air.
(b) Hydrogen reacts with chlorine to give hydrochloric acid.
(c) Hydrogen gas is found in compound forms on the Earth’s surface,
and in the lower atmosphere.
(d) The Haber process is used in the industrial manufacturing of ammonia.
(e) Reduction is the removal of hydrogen from a substance.
(f)
LY
Hydrogen gas is the most abundant gas on the Earth’s surface.
(g) Hydrogen is used in the manufacturing of methanol, which is used to
N

make plastics and fertilisers.

O

(h) Hydrated copper(II) sulphate is used to test for the presence of water
SE

or moisture.
U

(i) Addition of oxygen to a substance is reduction.

E

(j) Hydrogen is used to make water vapour for powering rocket engines.
N
LI

2. Choose the correct answer for each of the following items:

N

(i) The name hydrogen originates from the Greek words “hydro” and
O

“genes” meaning
R

(a) water fearing gas.

FO

(b) water forming gas.

(c) fire forming gas.
(d) electric power generator.

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(ii) In the laboratory preparation, hydrogen is collected through

(a) upward delivery.
(b) downward displacement of water.
(c) the Bunsen burner.
(d) the delivery tube.
(iii) The name given to a colourless, and highly flammable gas used in the
production of ammonia is
(a) hydrogen.
(b) oxygen.
(c) carbon dioxide.
(d) helium.
(iv) The common method used in industrial production of hydrogen gas
is called
(a) electrode.
(b) steam reforming.
(c) reduction.
(d) decomposition.
LY
(v) Which of the following is not true about hydrogen?
N

(a) It is odourless.
O

(b) It is lighter than air.

SE

(c) It supports combustion.

U

(d) It burns with a pale blue flame.

E

(vi) Which of the following gases if mixed with hydrogen, would produce
N

a very hot flame of up to 3000 °C?

LI

(a) Oxygen
N

(b) Neon
O

(c) Chlorine
R

(d) Argon
FO

(vii) Which of the following cannot be used to prepare hydrogen gas?

(a) Reaction of water with carbon at room temperature
(b) Reaction of dilute acids with zinc

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(c) Electrolysis of water

(d) Reaction of water with certain metals
(viii) Due to its lightness, hydrogen is used in
(a) rocket engines.
(b) making water.
(c) weather balloons.
(d) margarines.
(ix) Which of the following compounds is not likely to contain hydrogen?
(a) Ammonia
(b) Water
(c) Water gas
(d) Zinc granules
(x) Where is hydrogen likely to be found in its free state?
(a) In the upper atmosphere
(b) Near the Earth’s surface
(c) In the lower atmosphere LY
(d) In the sun and the stars
N

3. The main uses of hydrogen can be linked to its various properties. Match
O

each use in list A against the related property from list B.

SE

List A List B
U

(a) Inflating weather balloons (i) It readily combines with other elements.
(b) Manufacturing of (ii) It is denser than air.
E

ammonia
N

(iii) It is lighter than air.

(c) Manufacturing of
LI

(iv) It is an oxidizing agent.

margarine
N

(v) It is highly flammable.

(d) Production of oxy-
O

hydrogen flame (vi) It is a reducing agent.

R

(vii) It burns with a blue flame.

FO

(viii) It relights a glowing splint.

4. State the physical properties and chemical properties of hydrogen.

5. Describe two methods for the industrial manufacturing of hydrogen.

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6. Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow.
Dilute
hydrochloric
acid Hydrogen
flame

Anhydrous
calcium
chloride

Cobalt chloride
paper
Zinc Copper(II)
granules oxide
Heat

(a) What is the colour of the solid product?

(b) Name the products formed.
(c) What is the role of the following chemicals?
(i) Hydrochloric acid and zinc granules
(ii) Anhydrous calcium chloride LY
(iii) Cobalt chloride paper
N

7. Hydrogen gas is a very promising energy source, yet its uses as a major
O

source of energy are very limited. Explain this in terms of its storage, safety
SE

and production.
8. Briefly describe two methods of large-scale production of hydrogen gas.
U

9. Explain the origin of the term hydrogen.

E
N

10. The following figure shows a set-up for the preparation of gas Q in the
LI

laboratory:
N
O
R
FO

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Dilute
Hydrochloric acid

Gas Q

Water
Zinc
granules

(a) Identify gas Q.

(b) What properties of Q make it possible to be collected as shown in
the figure?
(c) Describe the properties of gas Q which relate with its uses.

LY
N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

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Chapter
Three Water

Introduction
Water is an inorganic chemical substance composed of hydrogen and oxygen
atoms. It can exist in three main states, which are gaseous, liquid, and solid. It
is essential for sustainability of life for all living things. In this chapter, you will
learn about the occurrence and nature of water, its properties, water cycle, and
the relationship between water cycle and environmental conservation. Moreover,
you will learn about the uses of water and the importance of water treatment
and purification. The competencies developed will enable you to protect water
sources and use them sustainably.

Occurrence and nature of water

Water is one of the most plentiful and essential compounds on Earth. It is essential
for the sustenance of all living things. Apart from being a habitat for some animals
LY
and plants, it is also a major constituent of the bodies of living things. Water
occurs in three main states: solid, for example ice, snow and hail; liquid, for
N

example dew, mist, and rain; and gaseous, for example steam or vapour. About
O

97% of Earth’s water is saline (salty), while only 3% is fresh water. However, out
SE

of the fresh water that is appropriate for most of our daily uses, some of it is not
easily accessible. About 87% of the fresh water is ice, 12% is groundwater and
U

only 1% is fresh water which originates from rivers and lakes. Groundwater, is
E

not easily accessible for use, whereas the fresh water from various sources such
N

as rivers, lakes and ponds is easily accessible but highly prone to contamination.
LI

Figure 3.1 shows the distribution of the Earth’s water in terms of the salty water
and the fresh water.
N
O
R
FO

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Fresh water
3%

Rivers and
Salty water Groundwater lakes 1%
Ice caps and
97% 12%
glaciers 87%

(a) Earth’s water (b) Fresh water

Figure 3.1: Distribution of Earth’s water

The water cycle

Water is continually moving above and below the Earth’s surface, as water
vapour, liquid water and ice. It is never lost, but is continually being recycled
all-round the globe in different systems. This phenomenon is called the water
cycle (hydrological cycle). The water cycle goes repeatedly through four main
LY
stages, namely evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and collection. Figure
N
3.2 shows a schematic diagram of the water cycle.
O
SE
U

n
Blowind
w
E

by
N

Condensation
LI
N

Precipitation
n
O

atio
por

Co
R Ri

llec
Eva
ve

tion
r
FO

Lake

Figure 3.2: Water cycle

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Evaporation
Evaporation is the process whereby liquid water changes into vapour or steam.
This process can also occur in plants by transpiration. Transpiration is a process
whereby water moves from the inner part of a plant through its leaves and then
to the atmosphere through evaporation. Human beings and animals also lose
water to the air through respiration and sweating. The sun provides the energy
for heating water bodies and turning it into vapour or steam.
Condensation
Condensation occurs when vapour meets the cold condition of the atmosphere.
After evaporation, the water vapour in the atmosphere cools into liquid, forming
water drops and clouds. Figure 3.3 shows a photograph of clouds formed due to
condensation process.

LY
N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O

Figure 3.3: Photograph of clouds formed due to condensation

R

Precipitation
FO

Precipitation occurs when the condensed atmospheric water falls under

gravitational pull from clouds. It occurs in different forms, such as rain, hail, and
snow as shown in Figure 3.4.

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Rain Hail

Snow at the top of a mountain Snow on the ground

LY
Figure 3.4: Forms of precipitation
N

Collection
O

After the water falls back to Earth through precipitation, it may end up in the
SE

oceans, lakes, rivers, ponds or on land. When it falls on land, it normally infiltrates
into the soil and become part of the groundwater through which plants and some
U

animals use it. Also, run-off may occur and water will be collected in the oceans,
E

lakes or rivers, where evaporation takes place, and thus, the cycle starts all over
N

again.
LI

Water cycle and environmental conservation

N

Water bodies
O

Environmental degradation destroys the quality of water in the sources. Different

R

practices lead to water pollution and water unavailability for different purposes.
FO

Examples of such practices include marine dumping, mining activities, burning

of fossil fuels, urban development, and the uses of fertilisers and pesticides.
These practices may hinder the suitability and usability of water. Water pollution
may occur due to inputs of soluble and insoluble substances. Figure 3.5 shows
part of the polluted water body with different types of pollutants.

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Polluted water body

Figure 3.5: Part of a polluted water body

Water
⎛ vapour75and
⎞ pollutants
⎛ 25 ⎞
LY
⎜ 35 × ⎟ + ⎜ 37 × ⎟
Water⎝ evaporates
100 ⎠ from⎝ various
100water
⎠ bodies to form water vapour in the
N
atmosphere. Gases such as sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and carbon dioxide
combine with the water vapour to form fog which makes visibility difficult.
O

Therefore, pollutants need to be controlled not to contaminate the atmosphere.

SE

⎛ 90.5 ⎞ ⎛ 0.3 ⎞ ⎛ 9.2 ⎞

20 ×
Acid⎜rain ⎟ + ⎜ 21 × ⎟ + ⎜ 22 × ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠
U

Acidic gases such as sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide and nitrogen dioxide present
E

in air dissolve in water vapour to form acid rain. Acid rain kills plants, animals
N

and other living things in water bodies. Acid rain also accelerates the destruction
LI

Nomenclature
of building of compounds
materials like iron sheets and paints. Measures should be taken to
control the release of acidic gases to the atmosphere.
N

Everything in the universe bears a name to differentiate it from others. Chemical substan
O

Conservation
that rangemeasures
from those of elements to those of compounds. The name of a substance can
R

Waterof bodies
origin,should
founder,notuse,
be contaminated with pollutants.
and type or classification. Theorwastes
Items shouldthat fall under a
substances
FO

be treated, recycled,are
classification andnamed
disposed-off accordingly.
systematically. The industrial
A systematic wayand
ofdomestic
assigning names to ite
discharges should be limited. The gasous wastes should be
particular group or classification is called nomenclature. treated or recycled
instead of emitting them directly into the atmosphere.
Nomenclature of binary inorganic compounds
While an inorganic compound is any substance in which two or more chemical element
carbon) are combined, always in definite proportions, a binary compound is the one
two chemical substances. For example, CaO, NaCl, and PCl3 are 41binary inorganic com
Inorganic compounds are categorised into ionic and covalent. The nomenclature of
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Properties of water
Like most substances, water has its physical and chemical properties. The
physical properties involve aspects such as colour, taste and smell. They also
include melting, freezing and boiling points. The chemical properties involve the
the behaviour of water when it is reacted with other substances.
Physical properties
The following are the physical properties of water:
1. It is colourless, odourless and tasteless.
2. It is the only substance that occurs naturally in all the three states of matter
(solid, liquid and gas).
3. Pure water freezes at 0 ºC and boils at 100 ºC at standard pressure.
4. It expands (increases in volume) when it freezes. Ice is therefore less dense
than liquid water.
5. Water dissolves more substances than any other liquid and is usually called
the universal solvent.
6. It has a high surface tension. This means that water molecules have high
LY
cohesion forces which tend to clump together the water molecules in drops
rather than spread out in a thin film.
N
O

7. It has a high specific heat capacity. This means it can absorb a lot of heat
before it begins to get hot.
SE

8. It is miscible with many liquids. Examples of liquids which are completely

U

miscible with water include ethanol, acetone, acetonitrile, and methanol.

E

Activity 3.1
N
LI

Aim: To measure the melting and boiling points of water.

N
O

Apparatus: Beaker, Bunsen burner, tripod stand, thermometer, retort stand and
clamp, wire gauze, glass rod, stopwatch, and ice cubes
R

Procedure
FO

1. Put some ice cubes in a beaker.

2. Clamp the thermometer in a vertical position but it should not touch the
bottom of the beaker to cause direct heating of the thermometer.

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3. Set the apparatus as illustrated in Figure 3.6. Adjust the thermometer so

that it dips into the ice cubes, but does not touch the beaker. Record the
temperature of the ice cubes.

Thermometer

Clamp

Beaker

Retort stand

Ice cubes

Wire gauze

LY Heat source

Tripod stand
N
Figure 3.6: Measuring temperature changes of water
O

4. Heat the ice cubes while carefully stirring them with the glass rod. Record
SE

the temperature after every one minute, as shown in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: The temperature changes of water
U
E

Time (minutes) Temperature (oC)

N

0.0 T0
LI

1.0 T1
N

2.0 T2
O

3.0 T3
R

4.0 T4
FO

5.0 T5

5. Continue heating the ice and recording its temperature until all the ice
cubes melt and the resultant liquid water starts to boil.

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Questions
1. Why is the thermometer not allowed to touch the beaker?
2. What is the temperature of the ice cubes?
3. What is the temperature when the melting is just complete?
4. What is the temperature of the boiling water?

Chemical properties of water

The following are the chemical properties of water:
1. Pure water is neutral at room temperature; it is neither acidic nor basic.
2. Cold water reacts with some metals to form metal hydroxides and liberate
hydrogen gas.
3. Steam can react with some metals to give the respective metal oxides and
hydrogen gas.

Other chemicals which can react with water include blue cobalt(II) chloride and
white anhydrous copper(II) sulphate. When cobalt(II) chloride paper is exposed
LY
to water, it changes from blue to pink. When anhydrous copper(II) sulphate is
exposed to water, it dissolves to give a blue solution. The two reactions are also
N
O

used to test the presence of water in a particular substance.

SE

Activity 3.2
U

Aim: To demonstrate the chemical tests for water.

E
N

Requirements: D
 istilled water, blue and red litmus papers, cobalt(II) chloride
LI

paper, watch glasses, and anhydrous copper(II) sulphate

N

Procedure
O

1. Pour some distilled water into a watch glass.

R

2. Dip a strip of blue litmus paper into the water on the watch glass. Record
FO

the observation.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 using a red litmus paper and cobalt(II) chloride paper
separately.

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Blue litmus paper Red litmus paper Cobalt(II) chloride paper

4. Put a little anhydrous copper(II) sulphate on a watch glass and add some
little distilled water. Record the observations.
Questions
1. What colour changes are observed on the blue litmus paper, red litmus
paper, and the cobalt(II) chloride paper?
2. What change is observed on the anhydrous copper(II) sulphate when some
distilled water is added?

Exercise 3.1

1. Choose the correct answer for each of the following items:

LY
(i) Water exists in three forms, which are solid, liquid, and vapour. Which
N

among the following are examples of the liquid form of water?

O

(a) Rain, snow and hail

SE

(b) Dew, rain and ice

U

(c) Mist, steam and clouds

E

(d) Mist, dew and rain

N

(ii) Potable water is the one which is

LI

(a) good for transportation.

N

(b) kept in pots for different uses.

O

(c) clean and safe for drinking.

R

(d) less contaminated with pollutants.

FO

2. Explain the importance of the following in the water cycle:

(a) Evaporation
(b) Condensation

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3. Mount Kilimanjaro is covered by a mass of ice that makes it important in

different aspects. What could happen if the temperature at the mountain
increased beyond its common environmental temperature?

Uses of water
Water is important for our daily uses such as in domestic purposes, transportation,
recreation, and economic activities. It is also an important component in bodies
of living things.
Water for daily uses
Water is used on day-to-day basis for various domestic purposes, such as drinking,
cooking, and cleanliness. The water used for those purposes should be safe and
clean. Some uses of water are shown in Figure 3.7.

LY
N
O

Washing clothes In the kitchen

Figure 3.7: Domestic uses of water

SE

Water for transportation

U

Water bodies like lakes, rivers, and oceans are suitable for transportation of
E

people and goods using vessels such as boats and ships (Figure 3.8).
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

Figure 3.8: Transportation in water

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Recreation
Water bodies are used for recreational purposes such as swimming, sport fishing,
and in ocean sports such as scuba-diving (Figure 3.9).

Figure 3.9: Water for recreation

Water in economic activities

Water is used in various economic activities such as manufacturing industries,
agriculture, mining, energy, construction, and fishing.
Manufacturing industries: Manufactured goods include chemicals, food,
beverages, textile, and paper, among others. The manufacturing is made possible
in the presence of water as a solvent, coolant, source of steam for steam engines,
and as a medium for different mixtures.
LY
Agriculture: In agriculture, water is used for irrigation, in animal dips, and for
N

animal drinking.
O

Mining: Water is used as a solvent in the extraction of certain minerals, and

SE

separation of impurities.
U

Energy: Large water bodies, especially rivers and dams are used to generate
electrical energy.
E
N

Construction: Water is used for the construction of different structures such as

LI

roads and bridges.

N

Fishing: Oceans, lakes, rivers, dams, artificial ponds, and other water bodies are
O

used for fishing.

R

Water as a component of bodies of living things

FO

Water is a major component of living cells. Therefore, living things need water
for their survival, growth, and reproduction. Water makes about 75 percent of the
human body.

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Water as a solvent for different substances

Water is an important solvent for different substances including some foods and
medicines. Many chemical processes are possible when the reacting substances
are in aqueous forms. The food we take can be well assimilated when it is mixed
with water. Many substances (solutes) dissolve in water. For this reason, water is
called the universal solvent. However, there are some solutes that do not dissolve
in water to an appreciable amount but dissolve in organic solvents.

Activity 3.3

Aim: To compare the solubility of different substances in water.

Requirements: Distilled water, common salt, sugar, diesel, cooking oil, kerosine,
ethanol, liquid soap, chalk powder, egg shell powder, baking
powder, ten test tubes, a spatula, and a measuring cylinder
Procedure
1. Put 30 cm3 of distilled water into each test tube.
2. Add about half spatulaful of solid materials or about 5 cm3 of the liquid
materials into different test tubes, shake gently, one at a time.
LY
3. Observe and note down what happens in each of the test tubes.
N
Questions
O

1. Which substances dissolve in water?

SE

2. Which substances do not dissolve in water?

U

3. What name is given to the resulting solution after dissolving a substance

E

in water?
N
LI

Exercise 3.2
N

1. (a) Explain the importance of water.

O

(b) Relate the different uses of water with its properties.

R
FO

2. What would happen to living things if there were no water?

3. (a) Water is said to be a universal solvent. What does this mean?
(b) Explain the importance of water as a solvent.

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Water treatment and purification

Most of the Earth’s water is not pure. It contains various impurities, and so
requires treatment and purification before it can become clean and safe for use.
Water treatment is the process of making water usable for domestic, industrial,
medical, and other purposes. The aim of the treatment process is to remove
existing contaminants from water, thus improving it for safe uses. The treatment
processes may be physical such as settling, chemical such as addition of chemicals
for disinfection, or biological such as slow sand filtration.
Water purification is the removal of contaminants from treated water to produce
drinking water that is suitable for human consumption. Substances that are
removed include bacteria, algae, fungi, minerals such as iron and sulphur, and
domestic and human-made chemical pollutants. It should be noted that most
water treatment processes also include the purification process.
Domestic water purification
There are very few sources of safe drinking water, thus the treatment of water
is necessary. A number of simple and diverse methods of treatment of water for
consumption are available. These methods include boiling, use of artificial and
natural purifiers, and the use of commercial filters. LY
Boiling
N

This is more or less the simplest way to treat water. Water is heated and let to
O

boil before heating can be stopped.

SE

Boiling helps to kill disease-

causing organisms such as bacteria.
U

Boiling of water should be done

in a clean and safe environment.
E

For example, boiling of water in a

N

clean pan (Figure 3.10). The boiled

LI

water is then allowed to cool before

N

being filtered using a clean cloth.

O
R
FO

Figure 3.10: Boiling of water

Use of purifiers
Chemical purifiers are usually in liquid or tablet forms. Examples of the chemical
purifiers are sodium hypochlorite, ozone, chlorine, and chlorine dioxide. A

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recommended amount of the purifier is put in a specific amount of water in a

container. The water is shaken or stirred well then left to settle for some time
before it can be safe for drinking.
Use of commercial filters
Commercial filters work by allowing water to pass through materials such as
activated charcoal or ceramic element that purify water. The entire filter unit is
usually defined in terms of two components: the filter element (or media) through
which the water passes and the filter system which houses the element. Examples
of such water filters include ceramic,
activated charcoal, and sand water filters
(Figure 3.11). Simple filters can have
layers of gravels, sand, activated charcoal,
and clean cloth. The gravels trap all visible
floating substances; the sand filters the
smaller suspended particles; the charcoal
kills some of the harmful bacteria; and
the clean cloth filters the tiniest particles.
Filtered water is therefore clearer, cleaner
and safer to use than unfiltered water. Figure 3.11: Examples of ceramic water
LY
filters
N
O

Activity 3.4
SE

Aim: To assemble a small water filter.

U

Materials: Piece of clean cloth, sand, activated charcoal, gravel, plastic bottle,
E

beaker, and muddy water

N

Note: Do not use sooty charcoal.

LI
N

Procedure
O

1. Cut off the bottom part of the plastic bottle.

R
FO

2. Invert the cut bottle and insert the clean piece of cloth at the bottom end, as
illustrated in Figure 3.12 (a).
3. Place some charcoal on top of the cloth, followed by some sand, then some
gravel.

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4. Place the inverted bottle into the beaker.

5. Pour some of the muddy water on top of the sand and leave it for some
time. Record your observation.
6. Repeat steps 1 to 6 at home using buckets as shown in Figure 3.12 (b).

Gravel

Sand

Charcoal

Cloth

Beaker

(a) A sketch of a filter (b) A simple filter

LY
Figure 3.12: Making a simple filter
N
Questions
O

1. Is the filtered water different from unfiltered water? Give reasons.

SE

2. What roles do the cloth, sand, gravel, and charcoal play?

U

Urban water treatment

E

Most of the water used in many urban areas is piped tap water. This water is
N

usually obtained from sources such as rivers, streams, and lakes, but it goes
LI

through various processes before it can be safe for consumption. These processes
N

are summarised in Figure 3.13.

O
R
FO

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on Storage
trati
ion
lat Fil
ccu
Flo

Se Supply
di
m n
en
tat tio
ec
io
n s inf
Di

Figure 3.13: Processes of water treatment

The first stage of water treatment involves coagulation and flocculation (1). At
this stage, chemicals such as aluminium sulphate, iron(III) sulphate, or sodium
aluminate are added in water to bind together small particles present in water and
form large particles called flocs. The second stage involves settling of flocs (large
solid clusters) to the bottom of the reservoir by gravity due to its weight. This
process is called sedimentation (2). The third stage is filtration (3) whereby the
LY
clear water on top of the flocs passes through the filter in order to remove the very
small and dissolved particles such as bacteria, other organisms, dust, and some
N

of the chemicals. The fourth stage is disinfection (4) which involves treatment
O

of filtered water using disinfectants such as chlorine, sodium hypochlorite, or

SE

ozone. These chemicals kill any remaining microorganisms such as bacteria,

hence protect the water from germs when is piped/pumped for consumption.
U

After disinfection, water is stored in tanks (5) ready for supplies (6).
E
N

Activity 3.5
LI
N

Site visitation
O

1. Visit a nearby water treatment plant.

R
FO

2. Ask as many questions as possible to the plant specialist about what takes
place in the water treatment process. Observe the processes that take place.
Note the chemicals used.
3. Write a report on the visit.

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4. Present the visit report before the class.

5. Discuss the findings of your visit.
Questions
1. Compare the treatment done at large scale with the small water treatment
done at home.
2. What chemicals were used at different stages of the water treatment plant
you visited?

Importance of water treatment and purification

Water treatment and purification are important due to the following reasons:
1. Water that has not been treated may contain harmful bacteria and other
microorganisms that can cause different diseases such as diarrhoea, typhoid,
cholera, and other illnesses. Untreated water will usually lead to usage of
large amounts of detergents such as soaps for cleaning.
2. Treated water is the best for use in laboratories and medical facilities to
ensure accurate results from experiments and effective medical treatments.
LY
3. Treated water is suitable for use in factories to ensure the manufactured
products are safe for consumption.
N
O

4. Treated water is more efficient to use for cleaning in industries and in

domestic settings.
SE

5. Treated water reduces corrosion of different containers and instruments.

U
E

Project
N
LI

1. Carry out a small project to find out the various diseases and illnesses caused
N

by using untreated water. In your environment, make use of a variety of

O

scientific books and articles to establish some facts.

R

2. Make a chart to illustrate the information you obtained from your

FO

investigation. Ensure that the chart is informative, yet simple and clear for
easy understanding.
3. Present your findings to the rest of the class.

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Chapter summary
1. Water occurs on the Earth in three main states: solid, liquid and gas.
2. Water is tasteless, odourless and colourless.
3. Water cycle is the sequence that describes continuous movements of water
on, above and below the surface of the Earth in different states.
4. The water cycle has four main stages: evaporation, condensation,
precipitation, and collection.
5. Water treatment is the process of making water safe for use or disposal.
6. Water purification is the removal of contaminants from water to produce
clean and safe water for drinking.
7. It is essential to treat water in order to reduce the occurrence of diseases or
illnesses.

Revision exercise 3

1. Choose the correct answer for each of the following:

LY
(i) Identify the process that involves conversion of water from vapour
N

to liquid.
O

(a) Condensation
SE

(b) Precipitation
U

(c) Evaporation
E

(d) Transpiration
N

(ii) Which among the following is the simplest way for water purification?
LI
N

(a) Cooling
O

(b) Filtering
R

(c) Boiling
FO

(d) Condensing
(iii) Fresh water constitutes about _______ percent of the total water on
Earth.
(a) 87 (b) 97 (c) 3 (d). 12

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(iv) What is the pH state of water at room temperature?

(a) Basic
(b) Acidic
(c) Sour
(d) Neutral
(v) Water can pass from the atmosphere to land and back into the
atmosphere. What term represents such a sequence?
(a) Water purification
(b) Precipitation
(c) Water cycle
(d) Evaporation
(vi) Identify the process used to remove contaminants from water.
(a) Water purification
(b) Sedimentation
(c) Electrolysis
(d) Contamination LY
(vii) What is the form of water when precipitation occurs?
(a) Rain and clouds
N
O

(b) Rain, hail and snow

(c) Water ice
SE

(d) Snow and hail

U

(viii) Which of the following statements about water is incorrect?

E

(a) Water is used in industry as a coolant.

N

(b) Water is used as a raw material to produce hydrogen.

LI

(c) Water is used as a solvent.

N
O

(d) Water is used as a raw material to produce carbon.

R

(ix) What is the objective of water treatment?

FO

(a) To minimize water diseases

(b) To remove unwanted materials

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(c) To remove mud

(d) To remove dissolved substances
2. A form two student wanted to test the presence of water in an unknown
compound using hydrated copper(II) sulphate. A small amount of hydrated
copper(II) sulphate was placed on a watch glass followed by addition of
few drops of the unknown compound. There was no change in the colour
observed.
(a) Why was there no change in the colour of the hydrated copper(II)
sulphate?
(b) Name two substances that could be used in place of the hydrated
copper(II) sulphate to observe the required colour change.
3. Describe the physical properties of water.
4. Why is water important in our daily life activities and in industries? Give
at least five reasons.
5. Explain three ways by which water can be purified at home.
6. Explain two chemicals which are added in various stages during large-scale
LY
water treatment.
7. The following diagram represents a simple water filter:
N
O
SE

F
U

E
E
N

D
LI
N

C
O

B
R
FO

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(a) Name the parts labelled A to F.

(b) What is the importance of each part?
(c) What would be the disadvantages of using such a filter to obtain
drinking water?

8. With the aid of a diagram, explain the processes that take place in the water
cycle.

9. Water is important in different economic activities. Comment on this

statement.

10. Differentiate water purification from water treatment.

11. Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen atoms, thus, it could be used
for the preparation of oxygen. It is also available in larger amount than
potassium chlorate and hydrogen peroxide, which are the chemicals used
to prepare oxygen in the laboratory. Why is it not used for the preparation
of oxygen in the laboratory?

LY
N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

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Chapter
Four Fuels and energy
­­­
Introduction
A fuel is any combustible substance which on burning in air gives a large amount
of heat energy, that can be used economically for domestic, transportation
and industrial purposes as well as other uses. Since combustion is a chemical
process, fuels are also called chemical fuels. In this chapter, you will learn about
categories of fuels and their characteristics, uses of fuels and the environmental
effects of using charcoal and firewood. You will also learn about energy and the
alternative sources of energy. The competencies developed will help you to use
fuels properly and economically.

Categories of fuels
Fuels can be categorised on the basis of their occurrence and physical states.
Categories of fuels according to their occurrence
LY
On the basis of their occurrence, fuels can be classified into natural fuels (or
N

primary fuels) and artificial fuels (or secondary fuels).

O

Natural fuels
SE

Natural fuels occur in nature, that is, they are not manufactured (not man-made).
U

They include wood, coal, petroleum, and natural gas.

E

Artificial fuels
N

Artificial fuels are either manufactured in industries or derived from primary

LI

fuels through refinery. Artificial fuels include petrol, kerosene, diesel, alcohols,
N

hydrogen, water gas, coal gas, and producer gas.

O

Categories of fuels according to their physical states

R

On the basis of their physical states, fuels can be classified as solid fuels, liquid
FO

fuels, and gaseous fuels. Table 4.1 shows different physical states of fuels with
their examples.

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Table 4.1: Categorisation of fuels according to the physical states

Physical state Primary/ natural Secondary/ artificial

Solid Wood and coal Charcoal/coke
Liquid Crude petroleum Kerosene, petrol, diesel, and biodiesel
Gaseous Natural gas Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), coal gas,
water gas, producer gas, hydrogen, and
alcohols.
Characteristics of a good fuel
Fuels can be classified according to their effectiveness (usefulness) or productivity
and convenience for use. The following are the characteristics that are considered
when choosing a good fuel:
Energy value - A good fuel should have high energy value (calorific value). The
energy value of a fuel is determined by the amount of energy produced per unit
mass of the fuel. This is called the heat value or calorific value of the fuel.
Velocity of combustion - This refers to the rate at which a fuel burns. A good fuel
should burn with moderate velocity for continuous supply of heat. It should not
LY
burn too fast or too slowly.
Ignition point - This is the temperature to which the fuel must be heated before
N

it starts burning. A good fuel should have a proper (average) ignition point. A
O

low ignition point is risky due to fire hazards, while high ignition point makes it
SE

difficult to start a fire with the fuel. Fuels with high ignition points are safe for
transportation and storage.
U

Non-combustible material content - A good fuel should have no or low content

E

of non-combustible materials. The non-combustible material is left in form of ash

N

once the fuel burns. A high content of non-combustible materials lowers the heat
LI

value of the fuel. Figure 4.1 shows ashes from burnt substances. High contents of
N

ashes per fuel burned indicate that the burnt substances are not good fuels.
O
R
FO

Figure 4.1: Ashes

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Non–hazardous products of combustion-

A good fuel should give clean gases during
combustion. The fuel should also give off very
little or no smoke. In general, the combustion
of a good fuel should not produce harmful
substances like soot, and toxic substances.
Figure 4.2 shows smoke from a chimney. This
indicates that the burning fuel is not good or
incomplete combustion takes place.

Figure 4.2: Smoke of a burning fuel

emitted from a chimney

Pyrometric burning effect - This is the highest

temperature that can be reached by the burning
fuel. A good fuel should have high pyrometric
effect. Burning gaseous fuels produce the
highest pyrometric effect. Figure 4.3 shows a
burning gaseous fuel. LY
N
O

Figure 4.3: Burning gaseous fuel

SE
U

Availability - A good fuel should be readily available in large quantities.

E

Affordability - A good fuel should be

N

cheap and affordable.

LI

Ease of transportation and storage -

N

A good fuel should be easy and safe to

O

transport, handle, and store. Figure 4.4

shows transportation of a gaseous fuel
R

using a truck.
FO

Figure 4.4: Transportation of liquefied petroleum

gas (LPG)

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Effects in the environment - A good fuel should not pollute the environment
during its production, storage, and use. Fossil fuels, which produce carbon
dioxide on burning, are major contributors to environmental pollution (Figure
4.5). Solid fuels like wood and coal are not good due to the following reasons:
(i) They produce harmful gases when burnt.
(ii) They leave solid residues.
(iii) The resulting ashes can cause health problems.
Liquid fuels, like petrol, kerosene and diesel, burn more smoothly than solid ones.
However, upon incomplete burning, they also produce poisonous gases and soot.

LY
Figure 4.5: Smoke emitted from burning fossil fuels
N

Charcoal
O

Charcoal is made by the dry distillation of wood. The dry distillation of wood is
SE

done at a temperature between 400 °C and 450 °C in an earth-pit kiln or earth-

mound kiln. In the earth-pit kiln, wood is heaped in a hemispherical pile in a
U

central pit. It is then covered with soil or pieces of turf (sod) leaving only a few
E

small air holes near the bottom. The wood is lit at the centre and allowed to
N

burn until the whole pile is on fire. The air inlets are then closed. A smouldering
LI

combustion takes place, utilizing the oxygen and hydrogen components of the
N

wood fibre. The products of this combustion are water, carbon dioxide, and
O

volatile organic compounds which escape into the atmosphere. The pit is kept
covered until the fire goes off and the charcoal cools. All the volatile matter
R

is driven out in this process. The residue consists of carbon and the inorganic
FO

components of the wood. The yield of charcoal is only 20% by weight and 75%
by volume of wood.

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The earth-mound kiln works in

the same way as the earth-pit kiln.
However, instead of a pit, the wood
is heaped in a pile above the ground
surface (Figure 4.6). The earth-mound
kiln is preferred where the soil is
rocky or the water table is close to the
surface.
Figure 4.6: Earth-mound kiln

Good charcoal (Figure 4.7) is porous,

and brittle. It burns with a non-
luminous flame and is easily ignited.

Figure 4.7: Charcoal

LY
Coal
N
O

Coal is the most important solid fuel. It is a fossil fuel formed by the anaerobic
(without oxygen) decay of plants that lived millions of years ago. The energy
SE

found in coal originates from the sun and it is stored in plants when photosynthesis
takes place. This energy remains in the coal after the decay process of plants.
U

Composition of coal
E
N

Coal contains mostly carbon, but it also has hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen
LI

as well as some inorganic components (minerals), and water (moisture). The

physical properties of coal include moisture, volatile matter, ash and fixed carbon
N

(coke). These properties are expressed in percentages. Moisture is water or other

O

liquids diffused in small quantities as vapour within a solid or condensed surface

R

of coal. Volatile matter is the material that is driven off when coal is heated to
FO

about 950 °C in the absence of air. It consists of gases and low-boiling point
organic compounds that condense into oils and tar when cooled. Ash is the non-
combustible residue material left after coal is burnt. Coke is the material left after
the volatile matters are driven off.

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Types of coal
There are different types of coal that vary in composition and properties. The most
important types of coal are lignite, sub-bituminous, bituminous and anthracite
(hard) coal. Lignite is a soft brown coal, sub-bituminous is a hard lustrous dark
brown coal, bituminous is a black and shiny coal, while anthracite is a hard coal
with metallic lustre. The common types of coal are shown in Figure 4.8.

Lignite Sub-bituminous Bituminous coal Anthracite

coal
Figure 4.8: Major types of coal

Destructive distillation
Destructive distillation is a process through which organic fuels such as wood,
coal, and oil shale are decomposed by heating in the absence of air (oxygen) to
obtain useful products such as coke, charcoal, oils and gases. Figure 4.9 shows a
set-up on how destructive distillation can be conducted in the laboratory.
LY
N

Boiling tube
O
SE

Powdered Coal gas or

coal or wood wood gas
U

Boiling tube
E
N

Bunsen Beaker
burner
LI

Coal or wood tar

N

Freezing mixture
O
R

Figure 4.9: Set-up on destructive distillation

FO

Destructive distillation of wood

In the destructive distillation of wood (Figure 4.10), wood gas is given off at the
side tube. A mixture of water, methyl alcohol and acetic acid is collected in the
boiling tube immersed in the freezing mixture. Wood tar collects at the bottom of
the boiling tube.

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Delivery tube
Boiling tube
Water + methyl alcohol
Saw dust + acetic acid

Wood gas
Boiling tube
Bunsen Beaker Gas jar
burner
Wood tar Water
trough
Freezing
mixture Water

Figure 4.10: Destructive distillation of wood

Destructive distillation of coal

The main aim of destructive distillation of coal is to get rid of the volatile matter.
Coal that contains a large amount of volatile matter burns with a smoky flame
and has low energy value. When coal is heated strongly in the absence of air,
destructive distillation occurs. The coal breaks down to give coal gas, ammonia,
coal tar, and coke. The tar is collected in the boiling tube which contains water,
while the coal gas escapes through the side tube. The residue left in the boiling
LY
tube is coke, which is nearly pure carbon. Coke is the most widely used coal
product. It is mainly used in metal-extraction furnaces. Ammonia dissolves in the
N

water forming a solution of ammonium hydroxide known as ammoniacal liquor.

O

Figure 4.11 shows the destructive distillation of coal.

SE

Delivery tube
U

Boiling tube
E
N

Powdered
coal Ammoniacal
LI

liquor
N
O

Bunsen Boiling tube Coal gas

burner
R

Beaker Gas jar

FO

Coal tar
Freezing Water trough
mixture Water

Figure 4.11: Destructive distillation of coal

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Destructive distillation of coal is generally carried out in two types of kilns. These
are the beehive kiln and the Otto Hoffmann kiln.

Beehive kiln
This is the earliest and the cheapest process of distilling coal. The kiln is a
dome-shaped structure made up of bricks. It has two openings, one at the top for
charging (adding) the coal, and the other on the side to discharge (remove) coke.
A side door is also used for supplying air to ignite the coal. A uniform layer of
coal is spread over the hearth (base) through the charging door. Air is supplied
through the side door to ignite the coal. The volatile matter escapes and burns
inside the partially closed side door. When the distillation is complete (which
takes 3 to 4 days), the hot coke is quenched (cooled) with water and taken out
through the side door. This process yields about 60% coke by mass. Figure 4.12
shows a beehive coke kiln.
Closed coal
Coal charging door Door for air supply or
coke discharging

LY
2.5 m
N
O
SE

4.4 m
U

Figure 4.12: Beehive coke kiln

E

Otto Hoffmann kiln

N
LI

The Otto Hoffmann kiln consists of a number of narrow silica chambers separated
N

by spaces for burning gas. Each chamber has a charging hole at the top, a gas
O

outlet and doors at each end for discharging coke as shown in Figure 4.13.
R

Coal is added into the chambers, then the chambers are closed. The coal is heated
FO

to drive out liquid or gaseous components in the materials. This is called dry
distillation. Heating is done externally by a part of coal gas produced during the
process, or by producer gas or by blast furnace gas. The heating is continued
until the evolution of volatile matter stops, which may take about 24 hours. The
coke that is formed is then pushed out and quenched using water spray. This is

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called wet quenching. In dry quenching, the red-hot coke is cooled using an inert
gas like nitrogen. Dry quenching produces strong, dense, clean and non-reactive
coke. The yield of coke from the Otto Hoffmann kiln is about 75% of coal by
mass. Otto Hoffmann kiln has advantages over the beehive kiln. This is because
the by-products of the distillation process, for example, ammonia, coal gas,
benzol oil, and tar are also recovered. Figure 4.13 shows the Otto Hoffmann kiln.

Chambers filled Interspaces for

with coal burning gases

Waste gases

LY
Air
N
O

To chimney
Regenerator
SE

Figure 4.13: Otto Hoffmann kiln

U
E

Activity 4.1
N
LI

Aim: To demonstrate the destructive distillation of wood and coal.

N
O

Requirements: P
 owdered coal, Bunsen burner, sawdust, crushed ice (freezing
mixture), retort stand and clamp, boiling tubes, 2-hole stopper,
R

test tube holder, delivery tubes, beaker, and wooden splints

FO

Procedure
1. Put some powdered sawdust into the boiling tube.
2. Set the apparatus as shown in Figure 4.9.

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3. Heat the sawdust slowly for about 20 minutes.

4. After about 10 minutes of heating, bring a burning wooden splint to the tip
of the narrow tube. Record your observations.

5. Stop the heating and dismantle the set-up when there is no more observable
change taking place in the boiling tube. Record all your observations.

6. Repeat the procedure (steps 1 to 5) using powdered coal in place of sawdust.

Questions
Referring to the two sets of the experiment;
1. What did you observe when you placed a burning wooden splint at the
opening of the tube in step 4?
2. Describe the appearance of the mixture that:
(a) remains in the boiling tube after heating.
(b) forms in the boiling tube immersed in the freezing mixture.

LY
Gaseous fuels
The most important gaseous fuels used in industries are natural gas, producer gas,
N

and water gas.

O

Natural gas
SE

Natural gas consists mainly of methane (about 95% of the total volume). Other
U

components in natural gas are ethane, propane, pentane, nitrogen, carbon

dioxide, and traces of other gases. Very small amounts of sulphur compounds are
E

also present. Since methane is the largest component of natural gas, generally,
N

properties of methane are used when comparing the properties of natural gas to
LI

other fuels. Natural gas has high calorific value. It mixes with air readily and does
N

not produce smoke or soot. Purified natural gas contains no sulphur. It is lighter
O

than air and disperses into air easily in case of leak.

R

Producer gas
FO

Producer gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and nitrogen. It is produced by

burning a solid carbonaceous fuel, for example coke, in a limited supply of air.
Carbonaceous fuels are fuels that contain a high proportion of carbon.

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Production of producer gas

Producer gas is manufactured in a producer furnace (Figure 4.14). The furnace
consists of a large air tight cylindrical vessel made of mild steel. The vessel is
lined on the inside with fire bricks. At the bottom, there is a pipe for blowing in
air and an opening for removing ash. Coal is added through a hopper at the top
and the producer gas comes out through an exit near the top.

Coal in

Producer gas out

Hopper

Ash out

Air in

Figure 4.14: Producer furnace

LY
When air, mixed with a little steam, is passed through the inlet, the carbon (from
N
coal) combines with oxygen (from air) in the lower part of the furnace to form
O

carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide formed rises up through the red-hot coal and
gets reduced to carbon monoxide. The nitrogen gas in the air is not affected at all
SE

during the process. Thus, a mixture of carbon monoxide and nitrogen, with traces
of carbon dioxide and some organic compounds, comes out through the exit at
U

the upper end of the furnace. Since more heat (406 kJ mol–1) is produced in the
E

lower part than is absorbed in the upper part (163 kJ mol–1), some excess heat is
N

obtained in the long run. This heat keeps the coal hot.
LI

Properties of producer gas

N
O

The properties of producer gas include the following:

R

1. Producer gas is toxic.

FO

2. It is insoluble in water.
3. It is heavier than air.

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Composition of producer gas

The average composition of producer gas is shown in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Composition of producer gas

Gas Composition (%)

Nitrogen 52–55
Carbon monoxide 22–30
Hydrogen 8–12
Carbon dioxide 3
Methane Trace amounts

Uses of producer gas

Producer gas is used as a fuel for heating open-hearth furnaces (in steel and glass
manufacturing), muffle furnaces and retorts (in the production of coke and coal
gas). It also provides a reducing atmosphere in extraction of some metals.
Water gas
LY
Water gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, with small amounts of
N
nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and methane.
O

Production of water gas

SE

Water gas is produced in a water gas generator (Figure 4.15) by the action of
U

steam on a bed of coke at 1000 °C. Since the reaction absorbs energy, the coke
E

cools down a few minutes within the process, and the reaction proceeds in a
N

different way to form carbon dioxide and hydrogen instead of water gas. In
LI

order to avoid such a reaction, the current of steam is alternated with a blast of
N

air. Hence, carbon reacts with oxygen to yield carbon dioxide, a reaction which
O

gives out energy (80 kJ mol–1). Again, carbon reacts with oxygen to yield carbon
monoxide, a reaction which gives out energy (247 kJ mol–1). As a result of these
R

reactions, the temperature of the carbon (coke) rises again. When the temperature
FO

reaches 1000 ºC, the entry of air is stopped and steam is passed again. Thus, in
modern water gas plants, steam and air are blown by alternation.

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The period of steam blow (cold blow) is usually 4 minutes, while the period of
air blow (hot blow) is very short (1–2 minutes). The duration of these periods is
adjusted in such a way that maximum yield of water gas is obtained. During the
steam blow, water gas is produced, which is led out through the water gas outlet.
On the other hand, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and methane are produced in small
amounts during the air blow. These are allowed to escape into the atmosphere.

Coke

Water gas out

Red-hot coke at
900 ºC –1000 ºC Grate

Steam in Air in

Refractory bricks

Ash out

Figure 4.15: Water gas generator

LY
Properties of water gas
N
1. Water gas burns with a non-luminous blue flame, hence is also called blue
O

water gas.
SE

2. It has an energy value of about 13628 kJ/mol.

3. It burns with high temperature flame of about 1200 °C.
U

Composition of water gas

E
N

The approximate composition of water gas is shown in Table 4.3.

LI

Table 4.3: Composition of water gas

N

Gas Composition (%)

O

Hydrogen 48
R
FO

Carbon monoxide 44
Carbon dioxide 4.2
Nitrogen 3.0
Methane 0.8

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Uses of water gas

Water gas has a high energy value and is therefore widely used as an industrial fuel,
especially in the making of steel. It is also used in the preparation of hydrogen.

Uses of fuels
The uses of fuels depend on the types of fuels and their efficiency. Wood, and
charcoal are used domestically as heat sources for cooking, boiling, and ironing.
Petrol, diesel, and liquefied petroleum gases are used for running industrial
plants, cars, planes, ships, and running trucks. Kerosene is used in kerosene
stoves for cooking and as a source of light in the kerosene lamps. Coal is used
in power plants to generate electricity, it is also used in industries to make dyes,
insecticides and fertilisers.
Environmental effects of using charcoal and firewood
Burning of charcoal and firewood causes various effects in the environment.
These include production of carbon dioxide which causes global warming.
Carbon dioxide produced from various processes traps the heat of the sun in
the lower atmosphere causing the Earth’s average temperature to rise. This is
referred to as the greenhouse effect that leads to global warming.
LY
Making charcoal and firewood involves cutting down trees which leaves the land
N
unprotected against wind blow and water flow that can cause soil erosion. Cutting
O

of trees may also cause drought, which results into food insecurity. Figure 4.16
shows a flooded area and dryland caused by global warming.
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O

Flooded area Dryland

R

Figure 4.16: Some effects of global warming

FO

Energy
Energy is the capacity or ability of a body or system to do work. The SI unit
for energy is the joule (J). Energy exists in two major forms, namely potential

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energy and kinetic energy. Potential energy is the energy in matter due to its
position or state. Examples of potential energy include chemical energy, elastic
energy, nuclear energy, and gravitational energy. Kinetic energy is the energy
possessed by a body due to motion. The motion could be of waves, electrons,
atoms, molecules or the object itself. Examples of kinetic energy include electric
energy, radiant energy, thermal energy, and sound energy. Mechanical energy
is the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy. Table 4.4 shows the different
forms of kinetic energy and potential energy.

Table 4.4: Examples of forms of kinetic energy and potential energy

Kinetic energy Potential energy

Electrical energy is energy possessed Chemical energy is energy possessed
by electrical charges in motion. For by matter due to its chemical make-
example, electricity and lightning. up, that is, arrangement of atoms and
molecules. For example, biomass,
petroleum and natural gas.
Radiant energy is electromagnetic Elastic potential energy is energy
energy that travels in transverse waves. stored in objects by the application
LY
For example, visible light, X-rays, of force. For example, compressed
gamma rays, radio waves, and solar springs and stretched rubber bands.
N
energy.
O

Thermal or heat energy is the internal Nuclear energy is energy possessed by

SE

energy in substances caused by the an atom in its nucleus. Nuclear energy

vibration and movement of atoms and holds the nucleus together. The energy
U

molecules within the substance. For is released when nuclei are combined
example, geothermal energy. or split apart.
E
N

Sound energy is the movement Gravitational energy is the energy

LI

of energy through substances in possessed by a body due to its position

longitudinal waves. Sound is produced or place. When an object is lifted
N

when force causes an object or or suspended in air, it possesses

O

substance to vibrate. gravitational energy due to its position.

R
FO

Conservation of energy
The principle of conservation of energy states that: “Energy can neither be created
nor destroyed, it can only be transformed from one form to another”. In practice,

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appliances only convert energy to different forms but they do not create it. The
efficiency of any appliance is always less than 100%. For example, an electric
bulb converts electric energy to light and heat energy. The total energy input is
always equal to the total energy output, irrespective of the form of energy.

Transformation of energy
The process of changing energy from one form to another is referred to as
transformation of energy. Below are five examples of how energy is transformed
from one form to another.
Changing mechanical energy to electrical energy
A hydroelectric power plant converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Figure 4.17 shows the structure of a hydroelectric power plant.

Inlet tunnel
Generator
Dam

To electricity users

Turbine
Earth
LY Outlet tunnel
N
O

Figure 4.17: Structure of hydroelectric power plant

SE

The still water in the dam possesses potential energy. When the water is allowed
U

to flow out, the potential energy is converted to kinetic energy. As the water
E

moves down to the turbine, its potential energy decreases while its kinetic energy
N

increases. By the time the water reaches the turbine, most of the potential energy
LI

will have been converted to kinetic energy. When water is used to rotate the
turbines to produce electricity, the kinetic energy possessed by the flowing water
N

is converted to mechanical energy and then to electrical energy.

O

Electrical energy can also be generated from wind. This is done using a windmill.
R

The wind possesses kinetic energy, which can rotate the blades of a windmill.
FO

If the windmill is used to rotate a dynamo, electrical energy is produced. The

combination of a windmill and a dynamo converts mechanical energy from the
wind to electrical energy.

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Changing electrical energy to heat energy

Appliances that produce heat when connected to a source of electricity include
the electric iron, electric kettle, electric cooker, electric heater and the tungsten
bulb (Figure 4.18). These devices make use of high resistance wires. When an
electric current passes through such wires, the electrical energy is converted to
heat energy.

Insertion heater Electric cooker Electric kettle Electric iron Electric bulb

Figure 4.18: Appliances that convert electrical energy to heat energy

Change of electrical energy to mechanical energy

When a source of electric current
is connected to an electric motor
(Figure 4.19), a rotation of the motor
occurs. In this way, electrical energy LY
is converted to mechanical energy.
N
O

Figure 4.19: Electric motor

SE
U

Conversion of solar energy to other forms of energy

The energy from the sun is called solar
E

energy. Solar energy can be converted

N

to other forms of energy. In photocells

LI

or solar panels, solar energy is

N

converted to electrical energy. Figure

O

4.20 shows a solar panel fixed on a

R

roof.
FO

Figure 4.20: A solar panel

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In solar cookers (Figure 4.21), a shiny metal surface is used to focus sun rays to
produce heat. Solar energy is, therefore, converted to heat energy. A solar cooker
can be in the form of a panel, box, parabola or tube.

Panel cooker Box cooker Parabolic cooker Tube cooker

Figure 4.21: Forms of solar cookers

Change of electrical energy to sound energy

In an electric bell, electrical energy is converted to sound energy. Figure 4.22
shows a simple electric bell.
Battery
(Electrical energy)

Springy strip
of metal
LY
Electromagnetic
Soft iron energy
N
Contact armature
O

screw
SE

Gong
U

Hammer
E
N

Sound energy
LI

(a) Sketch of an electric bell (b) Photo of an electric bell

N

Figure 4.22: Electric bell

O

The energy transformations in the electric bell shown in Figure 4.22 are
R

summarised in Figure 4.`23.

FO

Electric Magnetic Kinetic Sound

energy energy energy energy

Figure 4.23: Energy transformations in the electric bell

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Activity 4.2

Aim: To demonstrate the conversion of kinetic energy to electrical energy.

Requirements: Dynamos, connecting wires, stand with a clamp, a wheel (bicycle
wheel), 6 V bulb, and bulb holder
Procedure

1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 4.24.

Rotation of
the wheel
Dynamo
Bulb on a bulb
holder

LY
Connecting wire
N
O

Retort stand
Wheel
SE

Figure 4.24: Conversion of kinetic energy to electrical energy

U

2. Fix the wheel from the centre so that it can rotate freely.
E

3. Connect the wires to the bulb holder and the dynamo.

N
LI

4. Keep the wheel in contact with the dynamo before rotating.

N

5. Rotate the wheel at a constant speed.

O

Questions
R
FO

1. What form of energy does the rotating wheel possess?

2. Describe the energy transformations that take place from the rotating wheel
to the lit bulb.

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Energy value of a fuel

The energy value of any fuel is the total amount of heat liberated by the complete
combustion of a unit mass of the fuel in air (oxygen). Energy value is the most
important characteristic of a fuel. Since energy is measured in joules or kilojoules
and mass in grams or kilograms, energy value is given by the following equation:

Total energy liberated (J/kJ)

Energy value =
Mass of the fuel used (g/kg)
The unit of energy value is joules per gram (J/g) or kilojoules per kilogram (kJ/
kg).

Activity 4.3

Aim: To determine the energy value of methanol.

Requirements: M
 ethanol burner with a lid, laboratory thermometer, metallic tin
calorimeter, burette, weighing balance, retort stand and clamp,
draught shield, gas lighter or matchbox, methanol, and distilled
water
Procedure LY
1. Measure 200 cm3 of distilled water using a burette and put it into an
insulated metallic tin calorimeter.
N
O

2. Put some methanol, a volatile liquid in a burner. Weigh the burner with its
contents. Note the mass.
SE

3. Set the apparatus as shown in Figure 4.25.

U

Thermometer
E
N

Lid
LI

Calorimeter
N
O

Clamp
R

Water
FO

Draught shield
Methanol burner
Methanol

Figure 4.25: Set-up of the determination of energy value of methanol

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4. Record the initial temperature of the water in Kelvin (K).

5. Light the methanol burner. Heat the water while stirring ensuring that the
thermometer does not touch the bottom of the calorimeter, which is hotter
than water.
6. Put off the burner when the temperature rises between 10 ºC and 15 ºC
above the initial temperature.
7. Continue stirring and record the highest temperature reached in Kelvin.
8. Allow the burner to cool and weigh it again. Record your results as shown
in Table 4.5.
Table 4.5: Records for the determination of energy value of methanol

Initial temperature of water (To)

Final temperature of water (T1)

Temperature rise (T1 – To)

Initial mass of methanol + burner (Mo) LY

Final mass of methanol + burner (M1)
N

Mass of methanol used (Mo – M1)

O

Questions
SE

1. What is the use of the calorimeter?

U

2. The methanol burner should have a tight lid. Why?

E

3. Why should the thermometer not touch the bottom of the calorimeter while
N

stirring?
LI

4. Determine the energy value of methanol. Given that the quantity of heat Q
N

is calculated as:
O

Q = mcΔT;
R
FO

where; m is the mass of water (kg), c is the specific heat capacity of water
= 4.18 kJ kg–1 K–1 or 4.18 kJ kg–1 °C–1 and ΔT is the change in temperature.
The volume of water = 200 cm3 (0.0002 m3); and density of water = 1000
kg m–3

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Example 4.1
The following results were obtained in an experiment to measure the heat value
of biodiesel:
Initial temperature of water (To) = 24.7 °C = 297.7 K;
Final temperature of water (T1) = 68.5 °C = 341.5 K;
Mass of biodiesel burnt = 56 g.
If the volume of water used in the experiment was 12 litres, determine the heat
value of the biodiesel. (Specific heat capacity of water = 4.18 kJ kg–1 C–l; density
of water = 1000 kg m–3).
Solution
Mass of water used = density × volume = 1000 kg m–3 × 0.012 m3
= 12 kg
Change in temperature (ΔT) = T1 - To = (341.5 – 297.7 ) K = 43.8 K
Q = mcΔT
But, m = 12 kg, c = 4.18 kJ kg–1 K–1 , and ΔT = 43.8 K LY
Therefore,
N
Q = 12 kg × 4.18 kJ kg–1 K–1 × 43.8 K
O

= 2197 kJ
SE

Thus, 0.056 kg of biodiesel gives 2197 kJ of heat

U

2197
1 kg gives = 39,232 kJ kg–1 or 39.23 kJ g–1
0.056
E

Therefore, the heat value of biodiesel is 39,232 kJ kg–1

N
LI

Exercise
N

1. A mass of 20.0 g of petrol was burnt in air. The heat produced was used to
O

heat 2.5 litres of water. Given that, the heat value of petrol is 43640 kJ kg–1,
what was the temperature change of water?
R
FO

2. Kerosene has a heat value of 43400 kJ kg–1. Calculate the volume of

kerosene required to raise the temperature of 20 litres of water from 24 °C
to 100 °C.
(Specific heat capacity of water = 4.18 kJ kg–1 K–1; density of water = 1000
kg m–3; density of kerosene = 810 kg m–3).

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Alternative sources of energy

Alternative sources of energy can be divided into renewable and non-renewable
sources. Renewable sources of energy are those which are continually being
replaced within short periods of time. They include solar energy, wind energy, and
biomass. Non-renewable sources of energy are sources that cannot be replenished
within short periods of time. They include fossil fuels such as petroleum, natural
gas, coal, and nuclear energy.
Most of the energy being used in the world today comes from non-renewable
sources of energy, mainly fossil fuels. These fuels are being used faster than
they are being replaced. Since they take millions of years to form, they may
get depleted in the near future. Therefore, there is a need to develop alternative
sources of energy, especially the renewable ones.
Solar energy
Solar energy refers to energy that is obtained from sunlight. The origin of all
the types of energy is the sun. Remember that energy cannot be created nor
destroyed, but can just be changed from one form to another. Solar energy cannot
be depleted. As long as the sun exists, there will always be solar energy reaching
the Earth’s surface. This type of energy is clean since it does not release harmful
gases into the atmosphere. Solar energy can be tapped in various ways. These
LY
include the following:
N
(i) Using photovoltaic solar cells in generating electricity;
O

(ii) Using concentrated solar power in generating electricity;

SE

(iii) Using parabolic mirrors (Figure 4.26) that focus the sun’s rays to a central
position for heating and cooking, and;
U

(iv) Using solar chimneys for heating and cooling.

E
N
LI
N

Solar radiations
O
R
FO

Figure 4.26: Sketch of a solar cooker made using parabolic mirrors

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Biomass energy
Biomass refers to the organic matter in living organisms. Biomass energy is
contained in organic compounds that are produced in growing plants and
animals. Biomass energy is actually solar energy stored in organic matter. As
plants grow, they use solar energy to make food in the form of carbohydrates
through the process of photosynthesis. Carbohydrates are the organic compounds
that make up biomass. When plants die, they decay and release the energy stored
in the carbohydrates. Figure 4.27 shows a photo of some plants that are among
the sources of biomass energy.

LY
N
O
SE

Figure 4.27: Photo of maize plants that are among the sources of biomass energy
U

Biomass is a renewable energy source, because the growth of new plants

E

replenishes the supply. In addition, using biomass to produce energy is often

N

a way of disposing waste materials. Biomass can be used directly as fuel or

LI

indirectly to produce liquid biofuel. Biomass fuels such as biodiesel, ethanol,

and bagasse (a by-product of sugar cane processing) produced from agricultural
N

products can be used in internal combustion engines and boilers.

O

The main advantages of biofuels are that, they contribute very little to global
R

warming unlike fossil fuels. Since biofuels are produced from various sources
FO

such as straw, timber, manure, rice husks, sugarcane, flaxseed, and palm oil,
their supplies are almost limitless. Other biodegradable outputs from industry,
agriculture, households, and forestry can also be used as fuels. Biomass is
definitely going to be the fuel for the future.

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Biogas
Biogas is a gaseous fuel derived from decomposing biological waste. Biogas can
easily be produced from both domestic and industrial wastes such as agricultural
waste, sewage, and animal waste. The waste matter is put together and allowed
to ferment naturally, thus producing biogas. This can be done by converting the
existing waste disposal channels into biogas plants, sometimes called biogas
digesters (Figure 4.28). When a biogas plant has extracted all the methane, the
remains can be used as fertiliser.
Biogas
collection Removable
lid Overflow
tank
Seal

Inlet

Biogas

Slurry
Outflow LY
Photo of a biogas digester under
Sketch of a digester construction
N
Figure 4.28: Digester
O

Wind energy
SE

Wind is moving air. Wind energy is usually harnessed using windmills (Figure
4.29). The wind turns the blades of the windmills, which in turn run turbines and
U

produce energy. Areas which

have frequent strong wind
E

currents such as offshore areas,

N

and high-altitude areas, for

LI

example, Singida, Makambako

N

and Mwenga in Tanzania are

O

preferred locations for tapping

R

this form of energy. Figure 4.29

FO

shows the Mwenga windfarm

in Mufindi District.

Figure 4.29: Mwenga windfarm in Mufindi District-Tanzania

(Source: h ttps://csi.energy/project/installation-and-erection-of-the-
2-4mw-mwenga-hydro-wind-farm-tanzania/)

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Wind power is a renewable source of energy which does not release harmful
gases such as carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere. Wind strength
near the Earth’s surface varies, and thus, it cannot guarantee continuous power
supply unless combined with other sources of energy.
Water power
Water possesses energy in the form of kinetic energy due to motion or thermal
energy resulting from temperature differences. This energy can be harnessed and
used. There are various forms of water energy. These include:
(a)  ydroelectric energy, which is the energy produced in a hydroelectric
H
power plant;
(b) Tidal stream energy, which is the energy resulting from the flow of tides;
(c)  ave energy, which is the energy resulting from the movements of water
W
waves; and
(d)  cean thermal energy, which is the energy resulting from the temperature
O
difference between the warmer surface of the ocean and colder deep parts
of the ocean.
Geothermal energy
LY
Geothermal energy is the heat that comes from the sub-surface of the earth. It is
N
contained in the rocks and fluids beneath the earth's crust and can be found as
O

far down the hot molten rock called magma. To produce power from geothermal
SE

energy, wells are dug deep into underground reservoirs to access the steam and hot
water which can then be used to drive turbines connected to electric generators.
U

Chapter summary
E
N

1. Fuels are substances which undergo combustion reactions producing large

LI

amounts of heat that can be used in homes, transportation and industries as

N

well as in other uses.

O

2. Fuels can be classified into natural (primary) fuels and artificial (secondary)
R

fuels based on their occurrence.

FO

3. Based on their physical states, fuels can also be classified into solid fuels,
liquid fuels and gaseous fuels.
4. Fossil fuels contribute to environmental pollution and global warming.

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5. Fossil fuels are derived from organic materials which died and decayed
millions of years ago.
6. Fossil fuels might be exhausted in the near future since they are non-
renewable.
7. Sources of energy are classified into renewable and non-renewable sources.
8. Energy is the capacity or ability of a system to do work.
9. The principle of conservation of energy states that “energy can neither be
created nor destroyed, it is only transformed from one form to another”.
10. Alternative sources of energy include solar energy, biomass, biogas, wind,
and water powers.

Revision exercise 4

1. Choose the correct answer for each of the following items:

(i) Which of the following is not a fossil fuel?
(a) Coal (b) Biodiesel
LY
(c) Natural gas (d) Petroleum
N
(ii) Which of the following can be classified as a renewable source of
O

energy?
(a) Biomass (b) Diesel
SE

(c) Coal (d) Petroleum

U

(iii) Wind is a promising future source of energy because

E

(a) it does not produce harmful gases.

N
LI

(b) it does not involve chemical reactions.

N

(c) it is renewable.
O

(d) it cannot be seen.

R

(iv) A good fuel is determined by its

FO

(a) energy value.

(b) high content of non-combustible material.
(c) scarcity.
(d) high production of carbon dioxide.

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(v) The main aim of destructive distillation of coal is

(a) removal of oxygen in the atmosphere.
(b) removal of volatile matter.
(c) addition of volatile matter.
(d) addition of oxygen in the furnace.
(vi) A good charcoal burns with
(a) luminous flame.
(b) non-luminous flame.
(c) very low energy value.
(d) high production of gases.
(vii) Gaseous fuels include
(a) water gas and petrol.
(b) water gas and kerosene.
(c) water gas and producer gas.
(d) coke and producer gas.
LY
2. Describe the energy transformations that take place in each of the following
cases:
N

(a) Energy from the sun is used to generate electricity for lighting a
O

house.
SE

(b) Mechanical energy from the waterfalls is used to generate electricity.

(c) A bicycle wheel is used to turn a dynamo. The electric energy from
U

the dynamo is used to power a bulb to produce light.

E

3. Give two examples of each of the following fuels:

N

(a) Solid fuels

LI

(b) Liquid fuels

N
O

(c) Gaseous fuels

R

4. (a) Explain why petroleum and coal are non-renewable sources of energy.
FO

(b) Give five alternative sources of renewable energy.

5. Explain the environmental effects of using charcoal as a source of fuel.
6. Explain the working mechanism of a biogas plant.

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Chapter
Five Atomic Structure

Introduction
Substances are made up of very small particles called atoms. In this chapter,
you will learn about the atomic theory, sub-atomic particles, arrangement of
electrons, atomic number, mass number, and the isotopes. The competencies
developed will help you to determine the composition, behaviour, and properties
of different chemical substances.

The atom
You have already learnt that chemistry is the study of matter and its particulate
nature. About the year 400 BC, a Greek philosopher known as Democritus was
the first to consider the idea that matter is made up
of particles. Such idea was not accepted because
there was no experimental evidence to support LY
it. About 2000 years later, an English man called
John Dalton revived the discussion. He used
N
experimental evidence to convince people that
O

matter is made up of particles called atoms. It is

through that experiment he deduced the Dalton’s
SE

Figure 5.1: Dalton’s model of

spherical model of the atom as shown in Figure 5.1. the atom

U
E

The atomic theory

N

In 1803, Dalton developed the theory about the atom. The four main points
LI

(assumptions) of Dalton’s Atomic Theory are summarised as follows:

N

1. Matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms. (The word atom means
O

‘unsplittable’ in Greek).
R

2. Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed.

FO

3. Atoms of the same element are identical, and have the same mass and
properties. Atoms of a given element are different from those of any other
element. The atoms of different elements can be distinguished from one
another by their respective relative weights.

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4. Compounds are formed by a combination of two or more different kinds of

atoms. The atoms always combine in simple whole number ratios.
Dalton never imagined that anyone would ever be able to see an atom. However,
modern technology has provided direct evidence that shows the positions and
patterns of individual atoms. The use of modern technology has enabled scientists
to carry out experiments on the atom that Dalton could not. This has led to slight
modifications to the Dalton’s Atomic Theory and thus formulated the so called
modern concepts of Dalton’s Atomic Theory.
These modifications include the following:
1. Atoms can be created or destroyed or split by means of nuclear reactions.
For example, an atom of uranium-235 can be split into two separate atoms
by a process called nuclear fission.
2. Some elements have atoms of more than one kind which differ slightly
in mass. Such atoms are called isotopes. For example, carbon has three
isotopes known as carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14.
3. An atom is made up of smaller sub-atomic particles called protons, neutrons,
and electrons.
LY
4. Atoms of different elements may combine in many different ratios to form
complex compounds.
N
O

Sub-atomic particles
SE

In the nineteenth century, J. J. Thomson carried out experiments and described

an atom as a sphere of positive charge, with negative particles called electrons
U

spread throughout the sphere. This model of the atom was referred to as ‘plum
pudding’ model and is shown in Figure 5.2. Thomson therefore, managed to
E

discover the electron among the three sub-atomic particles.

N
LI
N

A positively
O

charged sphere
Electrons
R
FO

Figure 5.2: Thomson’s ‘plum pudding’ model of the atom

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However, another scientist called Ernest Rutherford reasoned that if Thomson’s

model was correct, then the mass of the atom was evenly spread throughout the
atom. He carried out experiments and discovered that most of the mass of an
atom is actually concentrated in the nucleus (central core) of the atom. Within the
nucleus there are positively charged particles called protons. This was the second
sub-atomic particle to be discovered.
Rutherford’s findings are summarized as follows:
1. Protons, the positively charged particles of an atom are located in the
nucleus.
2. Most of the mass of the atom is located in the nucleus.
3. The nucleus has a relatively smaller volume compared to the whole atom.
4. Electrons have very small masses compared to the protons.
5. Most of the space in an atom is empty.
6. Electrons are the negatively charged particles in an atom. They move
around the nucleus in orbits.
Rutherford thus developed the planetary model of the atom as shown in Figure
LY
5.3.
Electron in orbit
N
around the nucleus
O

Orbit
SE

Nucleus (with positive charge)

U

Empty space
E
N
LI
N
O

Figure 5.3: Rutherford’s planetary model of the atom

R

In 1934, another scientist called Chadwick established that there were neutrons
FO

which also formed part of the nucleus. Figure 5.4 shows the location of neutrons
in an atom. Neutrons have the same mass as the protons but no charge. They are
located in the nucleus of an atom. They were the third sub-atomic particles to be
discovered.

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The properties of the neutrons are summarized as follows:

1. They have no charge (are neutral).
2. They have nearly the same mass as the corresponding protons.
3. They have a mass nearly 1840 times the mass of an electron.

Key
p – protons
p
n – neutrons
n – electrons

Nucleus

Figure 5.4: Location of sub-atomic particles of the atom

Table 5.1 gives a summary of the properties of sub-atomic particles of an atom.

LY
Table 5.1: Properties of sub-atomic particles
N

Sub-atomic Relative
O

Symbol Location Charge Real mass (g)

particle mass
SE

In the
Proton p +1 1.6726 × 10–24 1
nucleus
U

In the
E

Neutron n 0 1.6750 × 10–24 1

nucleus
N

Outside the 1
LI

Electron e– –1 9.109 × 10–28

nucleus 1840
N
O

Electron arrangement
R

In 1913, Neils Bohr suggested that electrons rotate around the nucleus in special
FO

regions called shells or orbits. These shells (also known as energy levels) are
at fixed distances from the nucleus. Each shell can only hold a specific number
of electrons. The maximum number of electrons held within each shell can be
determined by the formula 2n2, where n is the position of the shell from the

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nucleus. According to this formula, the:

first shell can hold (2 × 12) = 2 electrons;
second shell can hold (2 × 22) = 8 electrons; and
third shell can hold (2 × 32) = 18 electrons.
The first four shells are represented by the letters K, L, M, and N, respectively
as shown in Figure 5.5. Each electron in an atom is in a particular shell and the
electrons must first occupy the lowest available shell nearest to the nucleus.

Figure 5.5: First four shells of an atom

LY
For reasons beyond the scope of this book, the 3rd shell is more stable with 8
N

electrons. This is why even though the 3rd shell can hold up to 18 electrons, the
O

potassium element which has 19 electrons has only 8 electrons in its 3rd shell, and
SE

the last electron moves to the 4th shell. This is the same for calcium which has 20
electrons, where the last two electrons move to the 4th shell after the 3rd shell is
U

completely filled.
E

A shell which contains its maximum number of electrons is called a fully-filled

N

shell. An atom with fully-filled outermost shell is said to be stable. Some atoms
LI

have 2 electrons (e.g. helium) or 8 electrons (e.g. neon). The elements with 2
N

electrons in their outermost shells are said to exhibit a duplet state, while those
O

with 8 electrons are said to exhibit an octate state. Electrons are arranged so that
the lowest shells are filled first. This arrangement of electrons in different shells
R

in an atom is called electronic configuration. Figure 5.6 shows the diagrammatic

FO

electronic configurations of hydrogen, helium, neon, potassium, and sulphur

atoms.

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Figure 5.6: Electronic configurations of some atoms

Note that the hydrogen atom has no neutron in its nucleus. Helium and neon
atoms have their outermost shells completely filled with electrons, and so they
are stable atoms. The electrons are not fixed at particular positions within the
LY
sphere or shell, instead, they move extremely fast and can be at any point within
N
the shell.
O

Bohr’s findings provided more information about elements that are summarised
SE

in a table which shows the number of electrons in each shell. This table is called
the Periodic Table (Appendix 1). Note that the number of electrons or protons in
U

an atom determines the position of an element in the Periodic Table. At this level,
E

you will learn the first twenty elements in the Periodic Table. The electronic
N

arrangements of the twenty elements are shown in Table 5.2.

LI
N
O
R
FO

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Table 5.2: The electronic arrangements of the first twenty elements in the Periodic Table
Element Chemical Number of electrons in each shell Electronic
symbol Number of 1st 2nd 3rd 4th configuration
electrons (arrangement)

Hydrogen H 1 1 1
Helium He 2 2 2
Lithium Li 3 2 1 2:1
Beryllium Be 4 2 2 2:2
Boron B 5 2 3 2:3
Carbon C 6 2 4 2:4
Nitrogen N 7 2 5 2:5
Oxygen O 8 2 6 2:6
Fluorine F 9 2 7 2:7
Neon Ne 10 2 8 2:8
Sodium Na 11 2 8 1 2:8:1
Magnesium Mg 12 2 8 2 2:8:2
Aluminium Al 13 2 8 3 2:8:3
Silicon Si 14 2 8 4 LY 2:8:4
Phosphorus P 15 2 8 5 2:8:5
Sulphur S 16 2 8 6 2:8:6
N

Chlorine Cl 17 2 8 7 2:8:7
O

Argon Ar 18 2 8 8 2:8:8
SE

Potassium K 19 2 8 8 1 2:8:8:1
Calcium Ca 20 2 8 8 2 2:8:8:2
U
E
N

Task 5.1
LI

1. You are provided with twenty folded pieces of paper, each containing a
N

name among the first twenty elements of the Periodic Table.

O

2. Form groups of three to five students and perform the following activities:
R

(a) Pick randomly four pieces of folded papers.

FO

(b) List down the four elements you have picked.

(c) Using coloured markers and manila papers, draw circles to represent
the nucleus and the respective number of shells for each type of atom.

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(d) Use dots of different colours to represent the three types of sub-
atomic particles.
(e) Compile all the illustrations and let them be pinned on the laboratory
notice-board. This should be systematically arranged in the order of
the positions of the elements in the Periodic Table.

Atomic number and mass number

You have noted that atoms are made up of three main sub-atomic particles:
protons, neutrons, and electrons. These particles have relations to the atomic
number and mass number of the atom.
Atomic number
The atomic number is the number of protons in an atom. It is also known as
the proton number. For example, the atomic number of hydrogen is 1 since it
has only one proton. A sodium atom has 11 protons in the nucleus, therefore,
its atomic number is 11. Since the number of protons is equal to the number of
electrons in the atom, the atomic number also indicates the number of electrons
in the atom. Thus, for a neutral atom, the atomic number is not only the number
of protons in an atom, but it is also the number of electrons.
LY
Therefore;
Atomic number = Number of protons = Number of electrons
N
O

Mass number
SE

Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus of an atom and are called nucleons.
The sum of the protons and neutrons in one atom of an element is called the mass
U

number or nucleon number or atomic mass. This number is actually taken as the
mass of the atom since the mass of the electron is negligible.
E
N

Thus, Number of protons + Number of neutrons = Mass number

LI

For example;
N
O

(i) Hydrogen has 1 proton and 0 neutrons. Therefore, its atomic number is 1,
and mass number is 1 + 0 = 1.
R
FO

(ii) Boron has 5 protons and 6 neutrons. Its atomic number is 5 and mass
number is 5 + 6 = 11.

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(iii) Nitrogen has 7 protons and 7 neutrons. Its atomic number is 7 and mass
number is 7 + 7 = 14.
It is also possible to calculate the number of neutrons and number of electrons of
an atom if its mass number and atomic number are given.
Example 5.1
Atom Q has a mass number of 49 and an atomic number of 24. What is its number
neutrons? What is the number of electrons in atom Q?
Solution
Mass number = 49; atomic number = 24
(a) Neutron number = mass number – atomic number = 49 – 24 = 25
(b) Number of electrons = number of protons = atomic number = 24
Note: For the mass number with fractions, for example, chlorine (35.5),
calculating the number of neutrons and electrons involves only a whole
number. In this case, for chlorine, 35 is used.

Exercise 5.1 LY
Complete the table below by filling in the number of protons, electrons, and
N
neutrons of the atoms. The atomic numbers and mass numbers are given.
O

Atomic Mass
SE

Atom Protons Electrons Neutrons

number number
U

Sodium 11 23
E

Oxygen 8 16
N

Beryllium 4 9
LI

Fluorine 9 19
N
O

Nuclide notation
R

Atoms of different elements can be represented by chemical symbols that indicate

FO

their respective atomic numbers and mass numbers. Using an arbitrary element X,
the mass number (A) is placed on its upper left end, while its atomic number (Z)

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A
is placed on the lower left end. Thus, element X is shown as Z X . This is known
as the nuclide notation. The following are examples of nuclide representations of
different atoms:
(i) Hydrogen ® 11 H (ii) Boron ® 11
5
B
(iii) Nitrogen ® 14
7
N (iv) Oxygen ® 16
8
O

With this information, it is possible to deduce the number

of neutrons and electrons in the atom, and to write the
electronic configuration. For example, in the oxygen
atom, 16 is the mass number and 8 the atomic number.
Therefore, the number of neutrons is 16 – 8 = 8. The
nucleus of the oxygen atom can therefore be represented Figure 5.7: The nucleus
as shown in Figure 5.7. of the oxygen atom

Example 5.2

Potassium atom has 19 electrons and the mass number of 39.

(a) Workout the:
LY
(i) atomic number, and
N
O

(ii) number of neutrons.

SE

(b) The symbol for potassium is K. Give the nuclide notation.

U

(c) Show the representation of the nucleus of the potassium atom.

E

(d) Draw the electronic configuration of potassium.

N

Solution
LI
N

(a) (i) Atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons = 19

O

(ii) Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons

R

Number of neutrons = mass number – number of protons

FO

= 39 – 19

= 20
39
(b) 19 K ; where 39 is the mass number and 19 the atomic number.

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(c)

(d)

Isotopes
Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons. However, the
number of neutrons in the atoms of the same element may vary. This means that
the atomic number of an element does not vary but the mass number can vary.
Such atoms of an element are called isotopes. Isotopes are atoms of the same
LY
element with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons. Such
existence of the element is called isotopy. Isotopy is the existence of atoms of the
N

same element having the same atomic number but different mass numbers. It is
O

also possible to get the number of sub-atomic particles in a given isotope.

SE

Example 5.3
U

State the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in the following isotopes:
E
N

14
(a) 12
6 C and 6 C
LI

3
(b) H, H and H
N

1 2
1 1 1
O

Solution
R
FO

12
(a) 6 C , Mass number = 12
Number of protons = atomic number = 6
Number of electrons = number of protons = 6
Number of neutrons = 12 – 6 = 6

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14
6 C , Mass number = 14
Number of protons = 6
Number of electrons = 6
Number of neutrons = 14 – 6 = 8
(b) 1
1 H, Mass number = 1
Number of proton = 1
Number of electron = 1
Number of neutron = 1 – 1 = 0
2
1 H , Mass number = 2

Number of proton = 1
Number of electron = 1
Number of neutrons = 2 – 1 = 1
3
1 H , Mass number = 3
Number of proton = 1
Number of electron = 1 LY
Number of neutrons = 3 – 1 = 2
N

Example 5.4
O

An isotope of carbon has a mass number of 13 and an atomic number of 6.

SE

(a) Write its nuclide notation.

U

(b) How many neutrons does it have?

E

(c) How many electrons does it have?

N
LI
N

Solution
O

(a) 13
C
R

6
FO

(b) Number of neutrons = 13 – 6 = 7

(c) Number of electrons = atomic number = 6

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Many elements that occur naturally usually display isotopy. The most abundant
(plentiful) isotope of an element is taken to be the representative of that element.
This abundance is usually given in percentage. Examples of common elements
that display isotopy are hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, chlorine, nitrogen, and neon
(Table 5.3).

Table 5.3: Examples of isotopes and their abundances

Element Chemical Atomic Isotopes Abundance

symbol number
1
1H
(protonium or
hydrogen) 99.99%

Hydrogen H 1 2
1H (deuterium) 0.01%
3
1H (tritium) Very rare
12
6C 98.9%

Carbon C 6 13
6C 1.1%
14
6C Trace
LY
35
17 Cl 75%
Chlorine Cl 17
N
37
17 Cl 25%
O

16
8O 99.8%
SE

Oxygen O 8 17
8O 0.037%
U

18
8O 0.20%
E
N

20
10 Ne 90.5%
LI

Neon Ne 10 21
10 Ne 0.3%
N
O

22
10 Ne 9.2%
R

14
N 99.6%
FO

15
Nitrogen N 7 7 N 0.4%
13
7 N Very rare

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Relative atomic mass

An atom is very small and it would be difficult to measure its actual mass.
To overcome this difficulty, chemists developed a simpler way to express the
mass of an atom. This involved expressing the mass of an atom in relation to a
chosen standard atomic mass. The carbon atom was chosen as the standard atom
(reference atom) and its mass was arbitrarily chosen as 12 units (not actual value).
Then, using an instrument called a mass spectrometer, all the other atoms were
compared to this standard atom. This reference is called the carbon-12 scale. For
example, it was found that:
(i) the magnesium atom was twice as heavy as the reference atom; so its mass
was put at 24.
1
(ii) the hydrogen atom was as heavy as the reference atom; so its mass was
12
put at 1.
1
(iii) the helium atom was as heavy as the reference atom; so its mass was put
3
at 4.
The mass of an atom obtained by comparing it with the arbitrary mass of a
carbon-12 atom is called its relative atomic mass (R.A.M. or Ar). The relative
atomic mass of an element is the average mass of one atom of the element
LY
1
relative to the mass of one atom of carbon-12. Therefore, R.A.M. may not
12 th
N

necessarily be a whole number.

O

Average mass of atom of an element

That is, A r !
SE

1
the mass of carbon -12 atom
12 th
U

Table 5.4 gives the atomic numbers and relative atomic masses of the first 20
E

elements in the Periodic Table. From Table 5.4 you can see that not all relative
N

atomic masses are whole numbers. This is because most elements display a degree
LI

of isotopy. The relative atomic mass of such elements is obtained by calculating

the average mass of all the isotopes of each element.
N
O

For isotopic elements, the relative atomic mass (R.A.M.) can be calculated using
the following formula:
R
FO

Relative atomic mass (R.A.M.) = 

The sum of isotopic mass × Percentage
abundance

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Table 5.4: Atomic numbers and relative atomic masses of some elements

Element Atomic number Relative atomic mass

Hydrogen 1 1
Helium 2 4
Lithium 3 6.9
Beryllium 4 9
Boron 5 10
Carbon 6 12
Nitrogen 7 14
Oxygen 8 16
Fluorine 9 19
Neon 10 20.2
Sodium 11 23
Magnesium 12 24.3
Aluminium 13 27
Polluted water body LY
Silicon 14 28.1
Phosphorus 15 31
N
O

Sulphur 16 32
Chlorine 17 35.5
SE

Argon 18 39.9
U

Potassium 19 39.1
E

Calcium 20 40.1
N
LI

Example 5.5
N
O

(a) Chlorine has two isotopes:

Cl ! 75% " and Cl ! 25% "
R

35 37
17 17
FO

The relative atomic mass of chlorine is:

⎛ 75 ⎞ ⎛ 25 ⎞
⎜ 35 × ⎟ + ⎜ 37 × ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠

⎛ 90.5 ⎞ ⎛ 0.3 ⎞ ⎛ 9.2 ⎞

100
⎜ 20 × ⎟ + ⎜ 21 × ⎟ + ⎜ 22 × ⎟
Student’s Book Form Two
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2625 + 925
=
100

3550
= = 35.5
100
(b) 75 ⎞ ⎛
Neon has⎛three isotopes: 25 ⎞
⎜ 35 × ⎟ + ⎜ 37 × ⎟
20 ⎝
Ne (90.5%), 100
21 ⎠ ⎝
Ne (0.3%), 100
22
Ne⎠(9.2%)
10 10 10

The relative atomic mass of neon is:

⎛ 90.5 ⎞ ⎛ 0.3 ⎞ ⎛ 9.2 ⎞
⎜ 20 × ⎟ + ⎜ 21 × ⎟ + ⎜ 22 × ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠ ⎝ 100 ⎠

1810 + 6.3 + 202.4

=
100 of compounds
Nomenclature
2018.7 in the universe bears a name to differentiate it from others. Chemical substance
Everything
=
100 from those of elements to those of compounds. The name of a substance can oc
that range
of origin, founder, use, and type or classification. Items or substances that fall under a pa
= 20. 187 are named systematically. A systematic way of assigning names to items
classification LY
particular group or classification is called nomenclature.
It can be noted that for both chlorine and neon, the R.A.M. is very close to
Nomenclature of binary inorganic compounds
N
35
the mass number of the isotope with the highest abundance, namely 17 Cl and
O

20 While an inorganic compound is any substance in which two or more chemical elements (u
10 Ne , respectively.
carbon) are combined, always in definite proportions, a binary compound is the one wh
SE

two chemical substances. For example, CaO, NaCl, and PCl3 are binary inorganic compo
Task 5.2 Inorganic compounds are categorised into ionic and covalent. The nomenclature of io
U

Design a modelbinary
of aninorganic compounds
atom using locally isavailable
as follows:
materials. For example, you
E

can use paintedBinary

circlesionic
of different
compounds sizes to construct the shells of an atom. Use
N

different colours to indicate the nucleus containing protons and neutrons. You
LI

Binary
can also use small ionic compounds
coloured are formed……
balls to indicate electrons in the respective shells.
N
O

Chapter summary
R
FO

1. An atom is the smallest particle of an element. It can only be split or

destroyed by nuclear reaction.
2. There are three major sub-atomic particles, namely:

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(a) protons (positively charged),

(b) neutrons (neutral), and
(c) electrons (negatively charged).
3. Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus of an atom while electrons
are found in the shells or energy levels around the nucleus.
4. The arrangement of electrons in different shells of an atom is known as
electronic arrangement or electronic configuration.
5. Each shell can contain only a certain number of electrons, with the maximum
being 2n2, where n is the position of the shell from the nucleus.
6. For any element:
Number of protons = atomic number
Number of electrons = number of protons = atomic number
Number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number
7. Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons
but different number of neutrons.
8. The relative atomic mass of an element is the average mass of one atom of
LY
1
the element relative to the mass of one carbon-12 atom.
12 th
N
O
SE

Revision exercise 5
U

1. Choose the correct answer for each of the following items:

E

(i) Which description corresponds to a proton?

N
LI

(a) Relative mass = 1, charge = + 1

N

(b) Relative mass = 1, charge = 0

O

1
(c) Relative mass = , charge = –1
1840
R

(d) Relative mass = 4, charge = +2.

FO

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(ii) What are nucleons?

(a) Neutrons and electrons
(b) Neutrons and protons
(c) Electrons and protons
(d) Protons, neutrons and electrons
(iii) What is the mass of an electron compared to that of a proton?
1 1 1 1
(a) (b) (c) (d)
18 184 1840 18400
(iv) Most atoms are neutral because
(a) the nucleus is only made up of neutrons.
(b) they have equal numbers of electrons and protons in the shells.
(c) the neutrons normally have zero charge.
(d) the number of electrons balances out the number of protons in
the atom.
(v) Which of these statements is true about isotopes of an element?
(a) The number of protons is the same, but the number of neutrons
is different. LY
(b) The number of neutrons is the same, but the number of protons
is different.
N
O

(c) The number of protons and neutrons is the same, but the number
of electrons is different.
SE

(d) The number of protons is the same, but electrons are added to
the nucleus.
U

(vi) An isotope of cadmium has an atomic number of 48 and a mass

E

number of 112. This means that cadmium atom has

N
LI

(a) 48 protons, 64 neutrons, and 48 electrons.

N

(b) 64 protons, 48 neutrons, and 64 electrons.

O

(c) 48 protons, 112 neutrons, and 48 electrons.

R

(d) 112 protons, 48 neutrons, and 112 electrons.

FO

(vii) Which sub-atomic particles are in equal number with protons in a

neutral atom?
(a) Electrons
(b) Neutrons

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(c) Electrons of its ion

(d) Neutrons of its ion
(viii) What is the maximum number of electrons in the innermost shell of
an atom?
(a) 3 (b) 4
(c) 1 (d) 2
(ix) The atomic number for an element T is 9. What is its electronic
configuration?
(a) 2 : 4 : 3 (b) 2:5:2
(c) 2 : 7 (d) 2:6:1
(x) Which value represents the mass number of an atom that has 12
neutrons and 11 electrons?
(a) 22 (b) 24
(c) 23 (d) 11
2. Copy the following table and fill the missing details of the arbitrary elements
given. LY
Element Atomic Mass Number Number of Electronic
number number of protons electrons configuration
N

P 17 35
O

Q 40 20
SE

R 12 2:4
S 9 4
U

T 3 7
E

U 23 2:8:1
N

V 31 15
LI
N

3. State the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in the following atoms:
O

27 137
(a) 13 Al (b) 56 Ba (c) 11 H (d) 90
38 Sr (e) 235
92 U
R

4. Explain briefly the following terms:

FO

(a) Proton
(b) Neutron
(c) Electron

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(d) Atomic number

(e) Isotope
(f) Mass number
(g) Nuclide notation
(h) Relative atomic mass
5. Draw the structure of an atom according to the
(a) Dalton’s Atomic Theory.
(b) Rutherford’s Atomic Model.
6. An isotope of neon has a mass number of 21 and an atomic number of 10.
(a) Write its nuclide notation.
(b) How many neutrons does it have?
(c) How many electrons does it have?
7. Oxygen exists naturally in three different isotopes, which are
16
8
O (99.76%), 178 O (0.04%) and 188 O (0.20%) . Calculate the relative atomic
mass of oxygen. LY
8. Write down the four assumptions of the Dalton’s Atomic Theory.
N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

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Chapter
Six Periodic classification

Introduction
There are many elements which have been discovered, and therefore, it is very
dificult to study each element separately. The elements are better studied and dealt
with when they are classified. The best way to classify them is by using a table
known as the Periodic Table. In this chapter, you will learn about the meaning
and development of the Periodic Table, periodicity, and the general trends. The
competencies developed will build the basics of how to study elements, which will
also be a foundation to the understanding of Chemistry in general.

Development of the Periodic Table

For a long time, chemists have used various ways of grouping elements with
similar properties. The simplest of these has been classifying elements as either
metals or non-metals. In 1866, a British chemist, John Newlands, thought of the
LY
idea of arranging elements in order of their increasing atomic masses. Newlands
N
arranged the elements according to Table 6.1. At that time, the noble gases had
not been discovered.
O
SE

Table 6.1: Newlands’ first arrangement of elements

U

H Li Be B C N O F Na Mg Al Si P S Cl K Ca
E
N

Newlands noticed that an element tends to display characteristics similar to the

LI

8th element in front of it. He arranged the elements in columns according to a

law he called the Law of octaves (Table 6.2). However, his classification was
N

unfortunate since he grouped together certain elements which had very different
O

characteristics. For example, oxygen (O) was placed in the same group as iron
R

(Fe) and sulphur (S). Newlands’ ideas were therefore rejected by many scientists.
FO

Table 6.2: Newlands’ octaves of elements

H Li Be B C N O
F Na Mg Al Si P S
Cl K Ca Cr Ti Mn Fe

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A Russian chemist, Dimitri Mendeleev, later improved the Newlands’ ideas and
convinced other chemists to use them. He intended to illustrate recurring trends
(periodic trends) in the properties of elements. In 1869, Mendeleev summarised his
Periodic Law which states that: the properties of elements are a periodic function
of their relative atomic masses. He arranged elements in order of their increasing
atomic masses and by similarity of properties. This resulted in an early version
of the Periodic Table of elements (Table 6.3). A vertical column of elements is
called a group and a horizontal row is called a period. He, however, left gaps in
the table predicting that there were existing elements yet to be discovered. His
table did not include the noble gases, which had not been discovered at the time.
Table 6.3: Part of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table of 1871

Group
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Period
1 H
2 Li Be B C N O F
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
LY Ti, V, Cr,
4 K Ca ̶ ̶ ̶ ̶ ̶ Mn, Fe,
N
Co, Ni
O

5 Cu Zn ̶ ̶ As Se Br
SE

Modern Periodic Table

U

The Modern Periodic Table of elements is a table of elements arranged

systematically according to their increasing atomic numbers. It is a result of
E

several modifications to Mendeleev’s Periodic Table. The modifications were

N

made as new elements were discovered and new theories developed to explain
LI

the chemical behaviour of elements. Note that, unlike the Mendeleev’s Periodic
N

Law, the elements in the Modern Periodic Table are listed in order of increasing
O

atomic numbers.
R

Periodicity and general trends

FO

In this section, you will learn about the periodicity and the general trends in the
Periodic Table.

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Periodicity
The Modern Periodic Law states that ‘the properties of elements are a periodic
function of their atomic numbers’. The layout of the Periodic Table demonstrates
recurring (periodic) chemical properties. The periodic recurrence of similar
properties when elements are arranged according to their atomic numbers is called
periodicity. For example, lithium is described as a very reactive metal, with one
electron in the outermost shell. The eighth element after lithium is sodium. It is
also a very reactive metal with one electron in its outermost shell. The eighth
element after sodium is potassium, which is a very reactive metal as well, with
one electron in its outermost shell.
Groups and periods
In the Periodic Table, the elements are arranged in groups and periods. The
groups are the columns and the periods are the rows ofthe Periodic Table. Table
6.4 shows the first 20 elements in the Periodic Table. The full Periodic Table is
given in Appendix 1.
Table 6.4: Position and electronic arrangements of the first twenty elements in the Periodic Table

Groups I II III IV V VI VII VIII/0

LY
2
He
Period 1 H
N
1
2
O

1
Li Be B C N O F Ne
SE

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Period 2
2:1 2:2 2:3 2:4 2:5 2:6 2:7 2:8
U

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
E

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Period 3
N

2:8:1 2:8:2 2:8:3 2:8:4 2:8:5 2:8:6 2:8:7 2:8:8

LI

19
K 20
Ca
Period 4
N

2:8:8:1 2:8:8:2
O

Groups
R
FO

From Table 6.4, you can observe that there are elements with different numbers
of electrons in the outermost shells. For example:
(i) one electron in their outermost shells for hydrogen, lithium, sodium and
potassium.

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(ii) two electrons in their outermost shells for beryllium, magnesium and
calcium.
Elements with the same number of electrons in their outermost shells belong to
the same group. For example, lithium, sodium and potassium have one electron in
their outermost shells, therefore, they belong to Group I. The groups are usually
indicated using Roman numerals; I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII (Figure 6.1).

Metals Non-metals

Groups
I II III IV V VI VII VIII/0
Alkaline earth
Alkali metals

Inert gases
Halogens
Transition
metals

metals

Key: Metalloids
Figure 6.1: Outline of the Periodic Table showing groups of elements
LY
It is important to note that the group number signifies the number of electrons in
N
the outermost shell. For easy observation of such outermost number of electrons,
O

you should write the electronic configuration of an element. The groups are
numbered from left to right. The metals in Group I are called the alkali metals
SE

because they react with water to form alkaline solutions. Note that, even though
hydrogen is placed in Group I, it is not an alkali metal. It carries some properties
U

which are similar to those of group I elements and some which are similar to
E

those of group VII elements. Therefore, some Periodic Tables place it above
N

Group VII.
LI

Group II metals are called alkaline earth metals. They have properties similar to
N

those of Group I metals but they are less reactive compared to Group I metals.
O

Group VII elements are called halogens (‘salt formers’ in Greek) because they
react with metals to form compounds called salts. Group VIII elements are
R

usually referred to as Group 0 elements. They are called noble gases and all
FO

their shells are completely filled with electrons. They were formerly called inert
gases because they do not readily react to form compounds. The elements in the
block between Group II and Group III are transition elements. These metals have
high densities and melting points, form coloured compounds, and often act as
catalysts.

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On the basis of their general physical properties and chemical properties, nearly
every element in the Periodic Table may be classified as either a metal or a non-
metal. However, few elements tend to display both metallic and non-metallic
characteristics. These are referred to as metalloids, and they include boron (B),
silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb) and tellurium (Te).
In some publications, germanium and antimony are usually classified as poor
metals and the rest as non-metals.
Note: As solids, metals are more ductile than non-metals, whereas non-metals
are more brittle than metals.
From Table 6.4, you can observe that elements with the same number of shells
belong to the same period. The period number signifies the number of shells.
Periods are numbered from 1 to 7. The electronic configuration entails the
number of shells for each element. Periods and number of shells of the first
twenty elements are shown in Table 6.5.
Table 6.5: Periods and number of shells of the first twenty elements

Period Elements Number of shells

Period 1 Hydrogen, helium 1
Lithium, beryllium, boron, carbon, nitrogen,
LY
Period 2 2
oxygen, fluorine, neon
N

Sodium, magnesium, aluminium, silicon,

O

Period 3 3
phosphorus, sulphur, chlorine, argon
SE

Period 4 Potassium, calcium 4

General periodic trends
U

Since elements in the Periodic Table have been placed in a systematic way, it is
E

expected that there are trends within the periods and groups. The trends observed
N

include variations in melting points, boiling points, densities, electronegativities,

LI

ionization energy, and atomic radii.

N

Melting point is the temperature at which a solid changes to form a liquid. Boiling
O

point is the temperature at which a liquid changes to form a gas. Density is the
R

degree of compactness of a substance, which means the mass per unit volume of a
FO

substance. Electronegativity is the ability or tendency of an atom to attract shared

electrons towards itself. Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an
electron from an atom or ion. Atomic radius is the distance between the nucleus
of an atom and the outermost shell. Reactivity refers to how likely (or vigorously)
an atom of a given element reacts with other substances.

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Trends across periods

(i) The atomic radii of elements in a period decrease from left to right.
(ii) Elements on the left of the Periodic Table show metallic properties, while
elements on the right show non-metallic properties.
(iii) Electronegativity increases from left to right.
(iv) The number of electrons and protons increase from left to right.
(v) The physical states of elements at room temperature (25 °C) vary from
solid to gas.
General group trends
(i) Atomic radii increase down the group as successive shells are filled with
electrons.
(ii) Densities increase down the group.
(iii) Melting points decrease down the group as the elements become more
metallic in nature.
(iv) Electronegativity and ionization energy decrease down the group.
Trends in the groups LY
Group I: Alkali metals
N
Group I consists of five metals, namely lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium
O

(K), rubidium (Rb), and caesium (Cs) as shown in the Table 6.6. Each of these
elements has one electron in its outermost shell. Lithium, sodium and potassium
SE

react very readily with water or air, and are stored in oil.
U

Table 6.6: Trends in Group I

E

Name Atomic Atomic 1st ionization

Electronic Melting Density Electro-
N

number radius energy

(Symbol) configuration point (°C) (g/cm3) negativity
(z) (picometres) (kJ /mol)
LI

Lithium
3 2:1 152 526 180 0.54 1.0
N

(Li)
Sodium
O

11 2:8:1 186 504 98 0.97 0.9

(Na)
Potassium
R

19 2:8:8:1 231 425 64 0.86 0.8

(K)
FO

Rubidium
37 2:8:18:8:1 244 410 39 1.5 0.8
(Rb)
Caesium
55 2:8:18:18:8:1 262 380 29 1.9 0.7
(Cs)

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Note: 1. Francium (Fr) is also an alkali metal, but is rarely included in the
group. It is among the rarest naturally occurring elements.
2. The way electronic configurations of rubidium and caesium are
written, is above the scope of this book. However, for the sake of
understanding this section, the electronic configurations are written
to show the period number, group number, and their relations to
the trends.
The Group I elements have the following properties:
Physical properties
(i) They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
(ii) They are soft metals.
(iii) They have low density.
(iv) They have shiny surfaces when freshly cut.
Chemical properties
(i) They burn in oxygen or air with a characteristic flame colour to form white
LY
solid oxides. These oxides dissolve in water to form alkaline solutions of
the metal hydroxides.
N
O

Metal + Oxygen Metal oxide

SE

(ii) They react vigorously with water to give alkaline solutions and hydrogen
U

gas.
E

Metal + Water Metal hydroxide + Hydrogen gas

N

Group II: Alkaline earth metals

LI
N

Group II consists of the following metals: beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg),

O

calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), barium (Ba), and radium (Ra) as shown in Table
6.7. These elements have two electrons in their outermost shells. Magnesium and
R

calcium are usually available in school laboratories.

FO

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Table 6.7: Trends in Group II elements

Atomic 1st ionization Melting

Name Electronic Atomic radius Density Electro-
number energy point
(Symbol) configuration (picometres) (g/cm3) negativity
(z) (kJ/mol) (°C)
Beryllium
4 2:2 112 899 14849 1280 1.5
(Be)

Magnesium
12 2:8:2 160 738 7730 651 1.2
(Mg)

Calcium
20 2:8:8:2 197 590 4741 851 1.0
(Ca)

Strontium
38 2:8:18:8:2 215 549 4207 800 1.0
(Sr)

Barium
56 2:8:18:18:8:2 217 503 3420 850 0.9
(Ba)

Note: T
 he way electronic configurations of strontium and barium (Table 6.7) are
written, is above the scope of this book.
Group II elements have the following properties:
Physical properties
LY
(i) They are harder metals than those in Group I.
N
O

(ii) They are silvery grey in colour when pure and clean. However, they tarnish
quickly when left in air due to the formation of the respective metal oxides.
SE

(iii) They are good conductors of heat and electricity.

U

Chemical properties
E
N

(i) They burn in oxygen or air with a characteristic flame colour to form a
LI

solid white oxide.

N

Metal + Oxygen Metal oxide

O

(ii) They react with water but much less vigorously than the elements in Group
R

I.
FO

Metal + Water Metal hydroxide + Hydrogen

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(iii) The reactivity of metals increases down the group. For example, the
reaction of calcium with water is vigorous, while that of magnesium with
water is very slow.
Task
In groups, draw the Modern Periodic Table. You can make use of manila paper,
coloured marker pens, ruler, and your Chemistry textbook. Using a different
marker for each group of the Periodic Table, fill in the block with the respective
chemical symbols for the elements. For each element, include the atomic
number, relative atomic mass, and electronic configuration. The neatest and
most accurate chart should be pinned on the classroom noticeboard.

Activity

Aim: To demonstrate the differences in reactivity of calcium and magnesium

with water.
Requirements: Two test tubes, magnesium, calcium, distilled water, and
measuring cylinder
Procedure
LY
1. Transfer about 3 cm3 of distilled water in a test tube.
N
O

2. Add a small amount of calcium (spatulaful) straight from the container in

which it is stored. Record your observation.
SE

3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 using a clean piece of magnesium ribbon. Record your
U

observations.
E

Questions
N

1. What happens when a piece of calcium is dropped in water?

LI
N

2. What happens when the magnesium ribbon is dropped in water?

O

3. Comment on the reactivities of calcium and magnesium.

R
FO

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Chapter summary

1. The Periodic Table of elements is a method of displaying chemical

elements in a table format. It was developed after several modifications to
the Mendeleev’s Periodic Table.
2. Mendeleev’s Periodic Law states that “the properties of elements are
periodic functions of their relative atomic masses”.
3. The Modern Periodic Law states that “the properties of elements change
systematically according to their atomic numbers”.
4. Periodicity refers to the regular periodic changes of properties of elements
due to changes in atomic numbers.
5. Elements with the same number of electrons in their outermost shells
belong to the same group.
6. The group number signifies the number of electrons in the outermost shell
of an element.
7. Elements with the same number of shells belong to the same period.
8. The period number signifies the number of shells.
LY
9. Electronic configuration of an element entails the electronic arrangements
N

in the shell(s), number of shells, and the group to which the element belongs.
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

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Revision exercise 6

1. Write the electronic configuration and indicate the group and period for
each of the following elements in the table:

Element Electronic configuration Group Period

Carbon
Phosphorus
Beryllium
Oxygen
Lithium
Fluorine
Silicon
Magnesium
Aluminium
Potassium
Nitrogen
LY
2. Choose the correct answer in each of the following items:
N
O

(i) Non-metals are ________ than metals.

SE

(a) better conductors of electricity

(b) more brittle
U

(c) more ductile

E

(d) better conductors of heat

N

(ii) The electronic arrangement of an element is 2:3. This element is in

LI

_______ of the Periodic Table.

N

(a) Group 2
O

(b) Group 8
R

(c) Period 3
FO

(d) Period 2

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(iii) Which of the following statements does not describe the alkaline
earth metals?
(a) They burn in oxygen to form solid white oxides.
(b) They become less reactive down the group.
(c) They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
(d) They react with water.
(iv) Mendeleev classified elements on the basis of
(a) mass number.
(b) atomic number.
(c) proton number.
(d) neutron number.
(v) An element T with electronic configuration 2:8:3 belongs to group
___ and period __ of the Periodic Table.
(a) III and 3
(b) III and 2
(c) II and 3
(d) II and 2
LY
(vi) Identify the electronic configuration of an element with 16 electrons.
N

(a) 2:8:3
O

(b) 2:8:4
SE

(c) 2:8:6
U

(d) 2:10:4
E

(vii) Hydrogen is placed in group I elements because

N

(a) it is a metal.
LI

(b) it loses an electron.

N

(c) it is an inert gas.

O

(d) its atomic number is 1.

R
FO

(viii) The list of elements belonging to alkali metals includes;

(a) sodium, potassium, and lithium.
(b) magnesium, potassium, and sodium.

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(c) magnesium, lithium, and sodium.

(d) magnesium, calcium, and beryllium.
(ix) Group I elements burn in oxygen to form
(a) metal oxides.
(b) non-metal oxides.
(c) hydroxides.
(d) carbon dioxides.
(x) The electronegativities of elements ___________ across the periods.
(a) decrease
(b) increase
(c) remain the same
(d) fluctuate
3. Write TRUE for a correct statement and FALSE for an incorrect statement.
(a) Lithium and sodium belong to the same period in the Periodic Table.
(b) Mendeleev classified elements according to the Law of Octaves.
(c) Helium and argon belong to the same group. LY
(d) Beryllium, magnesium and aluminium are all alkaline earth metals.
N
(e) Helium, neon and argon have their shells completely filled with
O

electrons.
(f) The number of protons increase from left to right across the periods
SE

of the Periodic Table.

U

(g) The Group I metals of the Periodic Table are harder than those of
E

Group II.
N

(h) For any group in the Periodic Table, the densities of the elements
LI

increase down the group.

N

4. Briefly explain the following terms:

O

(a) Periodicity
R

(b) Halogens
FO

(c) Periodic Law

(d) Alkali metals
(e) Electronegativity
(f) Ionization energy

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(g) Transition elements

(h) Alkaline earth metals
5. A particular metal reacts slowly with water to give a strong alkaline solution.
In which group of the Periodic Table would you place it?
6. (a) What are noble gases?
(b) In which group of the Periodic Table do noble gases belong?
(c) What is common about the noble gases regarding the following
properties?
(i) Electronic arrangements
(ii) Chemical reactions
7. (a) 
Why are certain elements in the Periodic Table referred to as
metalloids?
(b) Give three examples of metalloids.
8. The following diagram represents the Periodic Table with four areas
denoted by 1, 2, 3 and 4: LY
N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N

(a) Which area is most likely to contain non-metals?

O

(b) Which area is most likely to contain elements whose oxides dissolve
R

in water?
FO

(c) Which area contains transition elements?

(d) Which area is most likely to contain elements with both metallic and
non-metallic characteristics?

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9. (a) Given the elements calcium, sulphur, chlorine, helium and neon,
write down their:
(i) period numbers.
(ii) group numbers.
(iii) atomic numbers.
(iv) number of electrons in one atom.
(v) electronic configurations.
(b) Which of the above elements would you expect to have similar
properties? Give reasons.
10. Element R belongs to Period 3 and Group VI in the Periodic Table.
(a) Draw its atomic structure.
(b) Determine its atomic number.

11. The following diagrams show the structures of atoms of elements X and Y:

LY
N
O
SE
U

(a) Which one is stable?

E

(b) Which of the two elements can conduct electricity?

N

(c) Which of the two elements is chemically more reactive? Explain.

LI

(d) Identify elements X and Y.

N
O

12. Why do the thermal conductivities and electrical conductivities of elements

in the Periodic Table decrease across the periods?
R
FO

13. Write any three physical properties of alkali earth metals.

14. What happens when alkali earth metals burn in oxygen?
15. Consider elements 11T and Q. Which of the two elements is more
17
electronegative? Explain.

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Chapter
Chemical bonding, formula
Seven and nomenclature

Introduction
Bonding involves holding atoms together to form molecules or compounds. A
chemical formula refers to symbols and numbers that represent the composition
of a certain chemical substance. Nomenclature means naming. In this chapter,
you will learn about chemical bonding, valencies, chemical formulae, oxidation
states, radicals, covalent bonding, electrovalent bonding, and nomenclature of
chemical substances. The competencies developed will enable you to identify the
chemical substances used in daily life activities that are formed when different
materials are bonded together. This will enable you to study the relationships
existing among chemical substances and how to apply them in the learning and
in different activities related to Chemistry.

Bonding
LY
A bond is anything that holds two or more substances together. Many things
N
used in our daily lives are constructed using different materials joined together
O

by some bonds. For example, in a brick wall (Figure 7.1), each brick is joined to
the other by a bond made of mortar. Similarly, chemical substances are made of
SE

atoms that are held together by chemical bonds.

U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

Figure 7.1: Bricks bonded using mortar to form a wall

A chemical bond is a force of attraction that holds atoms or ions together to form
molecules or compounds. The bond may result from forces of attraction between
oppositely charged ions or through the sharing of electrons.

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A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or compound which can normally

exist separately.
Chemical bonding
Chemical bonding involves electrons in the outermost shells of atoms. When the
outermost shells are completely filled with electrons, the atoms are said to be
stable, otherwise they are unstable. Table 7.1 shows the electronic arrangements
of some elements and the stability of atoms of the elements.

Table 7.1: Electronic arrangements and stability of the first 20 elements of the Periodic Table

Element Number of Electronic Stability of an atom

electrons arrangement
Hydrogen 1 1 Unstable
Helium 2 2 Stable
Lithium 3 2:1 Unstable
Beryllium 4 2:2 Unstable
Boron 5 2:3 Unstable
Carbon 6 2:4 Unstable
Nitrogen 7 2:5 Unstable LY
Oxygen 8 2:6 Unstable
Fluorine 9 2:7 Unstable
N

Neon 10 2:8 Stable

O

Sodium 11 2:8:1 Unstable

SE

Magnesium 12 2:8:2 Unstable

Aluminium 13 2:8:3 Unstable
U

Silicon 14 2:8:4 Unstable

E

Phosphorus 15 2:8:5 Unstable

N

Sulphur 16 2:8:6 Unstable

LI

Chlorine 17 2:8:7 Unstable

N

Argon 18 2:8:8 Stable

O

Potassium 19 2:8:8:1 Unstable

R

Calcium 20 2:8:8:2 Unstable

FO

From Table 7.1, only helium, neon, and argon have stable electronic arrangements.
Helium has a maximum number of 2 electrons in its outermost shell. Neon and
argon have a maximum of 8 electrons in each of their respective outermost shells.
These types of stable atoms are generally unreactive and can exist freely as single

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atoms. Unstable atoms cannot exist freely as single atoms. For unstable atoms to
become stable, they should acquire electronic arrangements similar to those of
noble gases. This means that they can either lose, gain or share electrons through
chemical bonding.
Formation of ions
When an atom loses an electron to acquire a stable electronic arrangement, the lost
electron is transferred to another atom which then becomes stable. The resulting
species become ions. The one that loses an electron becomes a positively charged
ion, while the one that gains an electron becomes a negatively charged ion. The
number of electrons gained or lost will be equal to the charge of an ion. The
positively charged ion is called a cation and the negatively charged ion is called
an anion. Electrons are negatively charged while protons are positively charged;
thus, the charge of the ion is due to the unbalanced number of electrons and
protons. For example, a sodium atom has eleven protons and eleven electrons. Its
charge is 0 because (+11) + (–11) = 0. After sodium loses one electron it will have
10 electrons. Its charge will become +1 because (+11) + (–10) = +1 (Figure 7.2).

Charge = 0 Charge = +1

LY
N
O

Loses one electron

SE
U
E

An unstable atom A stable ion

N

Figure 7.2: Sodium atom and its ion

LI

Electrovalent bonding
N
O

Electrovalent (ionic) bonding is the attraction between ions of opposite charges.

When an atom loses an electron, it becomes a positively charged ion, while the
R

atom that accepts the electron becomes a negatively charged ion. These charged
FO

ions attract each other due to their opposite charges.

Electrovalent bonding usually occurs between a metal and a non-metal. The
metal loses electron(s) and the non-metal gains electron(s). For example, when
sodium and chlorine react to form sodium chloride, the sodium atom must lose an

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electron to acquire a stable noble gas structure of neon, while the chlorine atom
must gain an electron to acquire a stable noble gas structure of argon. This results
in a positively charged sodium ion and a negatively charged chloride ion which
attract each other to form a sodium chloride crystal as shown in Figure 7.3. For
the sake of this chapter, electrons are represented by dots with different colours.
Na Cl

Na+ Cl–

LY
N
O
SE
U

Figure 7.3: Electrovalent bonding in sodium chloride

E

Molecules of electrovalent compounds are not discrete. This means that the
N

electrons are not localized or attached to particular ions of opposite charges to

LI

form pairs. Instead, a group of cations surround an anion and a group of anions
N

surround a cation. This means that, ions can move freely around each other,
O

especially when in molten or in solution forms.

R

Properties of electrovalent compounds

FO

Electrovalent (ionic) compounds have the following properties:

(i) They are generally soluble in water.
(ii) They conduct electricity in solution or molten forms, but not in their solid
forms.

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(iii) They are usually crystalline solids at room temperature.

(iv) They have high melting and boiling points.
(v) They are generally insoluble in non–polar solvents such as carbon
tetrachloride and hexane. Non–polar solvents contain bonds between atoms
with similar electronegativities.

Exercise 7.1

1. Explain why cations are slightly smaller than their neutral atoms, whereas
anions are slightly larger than their neutral atoms.
2. Magnesium and oxygen atoms combine to form magnesium oxide.
(a) What is the charge on the magnesium ion in the oxide?
(b) What is the charge on the oxide ion?
(c) Illustrate the electron transfer using dots.

Covalent bonding
Covalent bonding involves the sharing of electrons between atoms of the same
or different elements. Atoms may gain the noble gas electronic structures without
LY
becoming ions but by sharing of the outermost electrons. For example, a
N
hydrogen atom needs one electron to acquire the helium electronic configuration.
O

It can combine with another hydrogen atom and share the electrons so that each
acquires a stable helium configuration. This results in the formation of a hydrogen
SE

molecule (Figure 7.4). The kind of the bond formed between the two atoms is
called a covalent bond. A covalent bond is a chemical bond formed by the sharing
U

of one or more electrons between atoms.

E

The two electrons are

N

shared to form one

covalent bond
LI
N
O
R
FO

Or

Figure 7.4: Covalent bonding in a hydrogen molecule

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Note: A
 single line between two atoms indicates a single covalent bond carrying
an electron pair. Two lines are used to represent bonding of two pairs,
three lines represent three pairs, and so on.
Oxygen requires two electrons to acquire the stable atomic structure. Thus, two
atoms of oxygen combine and share four electrons between them (Figure 7.5).
Two pairs of electrons
are shared to form
double covalent bond

Oxygen atom Oxygen atom Oxygen molecule

Or, considering only the outermost shells:

Figure 7.5: Double covalent bond in oxygen

Covalent bonding also occurs between atoms of different elements such as
LY
between hydrogen and chlorine. Hydrogen requires one electron to attain a
stable helium electronic configuration, while chlorine requires one electron to
N

acquire the argon electronic configuration. The two atoms combine by sharing
O

two electrons between them (Figure 7.6).

SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R

Hydrogen atom Chlorine atom Hydrogen chloride molecule

FO

or H–Cl
Figure 7.6: Sharing of electrons in a hydrogen chloride molecule

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The same happens to the combination between oxygen and hydrogen. Oxygen
requires two electrons to acquire a stable structure, while hydrogen requires one
electron. Thus, one oxygen atom combines with two hydrogen atoms as shown
in Figure 7.7, whereby each hydrogen provides one electron for sharing with
oxygen.

8p 8p
8n 8n

Two hydrogen atoms Oxgen atom Water molecule

or

or H–O–H
LY
Figure 7.7: Covalent bonding in a water molecule
N

Covalent bonds are usually formed between non-metals. Molecules of covalent

O

compounds are discrete or distinct. This means that the atoms forming the
SE

molecules cannot exist freely in the compounds. They remain bound together in
molecules and their electrons are not free to form bonds with other atoms.
U

Properties of covalent compounds

E

The properties of covalent compounds include the following:

N
LI

(i) Their melting and boiling points are usually low.

N

(ii) They are usually liquids or gases at room temperatures.

O

(iii) They do not conduct electricity.

R
FO

(iv) They are generally soluble in non-polar solvents such as carbon tetrachloride
and hexane.
(v) They are generally insoluble in water.

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Activity 7.1

Aim: To illustrate the formation of covalent bonds.

Requirements: Manila paper, pens, coloured markers and a pair of compasses

Procedure
1. In groups, illustrate using circles and dots the covalent bonds in methane
(CH4), ammonia (NH3) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
2. In each case, indicate the number of covalent bonds present and the pairs
of electrons involved.
Question
What determines the number of covalent bonds that an atom can form?

Valency
Valency refers to the ability of an atom of a given element to combine with other
atoms, and is measured by the number of electrons that the atom will donate,
receive or share to form a chemical bond. It is the combining power/capacity of
an element or a radical. The combining capacity of an atom of a given element is
LY
determined by the number of hydrogen atoms it combines with. For example, the
N
valency of chlorine is 1 because one atom of hydrogen combines with one atom
O

of chlorine to form hydrogen chloride (HCl). The valency of zinc is 2 because

two atoms of hydrogen are displaced from dilute acids by one atom of zinc.
SE

It is easy to predict the valencies of elements from the Periodic Table. Group
U

I elements have one electron in their outermost shells, and so, their valency is
1. Group II elements have two electrons in their outermost shells, hence their
E

valency is 2. Valencies are rarely above 4. For elements with more than four
N

electrons in the outermost shells, the valency number is usually obtained by

LI

subtracting the number of electrons from eight. For example, sulphur with six
N

electrons in the outermost shell has a valency of 8 – 6 = 2, and the electrons found
O

in it are called valence electrons. Some elements have more than one valency. For
R

example, iron has valencies of 2 and 3, copper has valencies of 1 and 2, lead has
the valencies of 2 and 4, and manganese has valencies of 2, 4 and 7. Table 7.2
FO

shows the valencies of some elements and radicals.

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Radicals
A radical is a group of atoms which behaves as a single unit and has a positive or
negative charge. It contains at least one unpaired electron. Such a group maintains
its identity throughout any chemical reaction. Radicals can gain or lose electrons
to form ions. Most radicals form the non-metallic part of a compound, so their
ions are negatively charged. Examples are CO32– and SO42– ions. An exception
is for the ammonium radical, NH4+, which behaves like the metallic part of a
compound and forms a positive ion. The valency of the radical is the same as
the numerical value that the group acquires when it loses or gains an electron to
form an ion. The common radicals with their formulae and valencies are shown
in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2: Valencies of some elements and radicals

Valency 1 Valency 2 Valency 3

Category
Element Ion/ Element Ion/ Element Ion/
radical radical radical
Metals Potassium (K) K+ Barium (Ba) Ba2+ Aluminium Al3+
Silver (Ag) Ag+ Calcium (Ca) Ca2+ (Al) Fe3+
Sodium (Na) Na+ Iron (Fe) Fe2+ Iron (Fe)
Lead (Pb) Pb2+
Magnesium Mg2+
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(Mg)
Mercury (Hg) Hg2+
N

Zinc (Zn) Zn2+

O

Non- Chlorine (Cl) Cl– Oxygen (O) O2–

metals Hydrogen (H) H+ Sulphur (S) S2–
SE

Fluorine (F) F–
Radicals *Ammonium NH4+ Carbonate CO32– Phosphate PO43–
U

radical Dichromate Cr2O72–

E

Chlorate ClO3– Sulphate SO42–

N

Cyanide CN– Sulphite SO32–

LI

Hydroxide OH– Thiosulphate S2O32–

Hydrogencar- HCO3–
N

bonate
O

Hydrogensul- HSO4–
R

phate
FO

Nitrate NO3–
Nitrite NO2–
Permanganate MnO4–

Note: Ammonium radical (NH4+) has a valency of 1 and can react like metals. Its
compounds are similar to those of group I elements.

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Role play
Assume each of your hands is a valence electron that can be used for covalent
bond formation. Participate in a role play with your fellow students to construct
the following molecules:
(a) O2 (b) SO2

Oxidation state
Oxidation state (also called oxidation number) is the total number of electrons
that an atom either gains or loses in order to form a chemical bond with another
atom. It is the measure of the electron control that an atom has in a compound
compared to the atom in the pure element. The neutral atom has no charge. The
following are the rules used to assign oxidation states of the elements:
1. The oxidation number of free elements is zero. For example, all elements
in the Periodic Table have oxidation number of zero.
2. The sum of the oxidation states of all atoms forming a molecule or ion is
the net charge of that species. For example, nitrogen (N2), hydrogen (H2)
and oxygen (O2) molecules have the oxidation number of zero.
3. In simple ions that consist of only one atom, the oxidation number is equal
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to the charge on the ion. For example, the oxidation number of a sodium
ion (Na+) is +1, aluminium (Al3+) is +3, iron(II) (Fe2+) is +2, and iron(III)
N

(Fe3+) is +3. In an oxide ion (O2–), the oxidation number of oxygen is –2.
O

4. In their compounds, Group I metals have an oxidation number of +1. Group

SE

II metals have an oxidation number of +2, while, Group III metals have an
oxidation number of +3.
U

5. In their compounds, halogens always have an oxidation number of –1.

E
N

6. Hydrogen has an oxidation state of +1 in most compounds. The exception

LI

is in hydrides of active metals where the oxidation number is –1. For

example, the hydrogen atom gains an electron from the lithium atom in
N

lithium hydride (LiH).

O

7. Oxygen has an oxidation state of –2 when present in most compounds,

R

except:
FO

(i) in peroxides, e.g. H2O2, where the oxidation number is –1.

(ii) when bonded with fluorine to form F2O, the oxidation number is +2.
All oxidation numbers must be consistent with the conservation of charge.

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This means that for all neutral molecules, the oxidation number of all the atoms
must add up to zero. For example, in H2O, two hydrogen atoms each of charge
+1 combine with one oxygen atom of charge –2. The charge of the H2O molecule
is +2 – 2 = 0.
Note: T here is a close relationship between valency and oxidation state, however,
they are not the same. Valency is a fixed value, but oxidation state is an
arbitrary value (it may vary).
Example 7.1
Find the oxidation state of chlorine in KClO3
Solution
The oxidation number of potassium is +1
The oxidation number for oxygen is –2
For the three oxygen atoms, the oxidation number is (–2 × 3) = –6
KClO3 is a neutral compound, and therefore, the oxidation number of the
compound is zero.
Therefore, + 1 + Cl – 6 = 0
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Cl = 6 – 1 = +5
N
O

The oxidation number of chlorine in KClO3 is +5

SE

Example 7.2
Find the oxidation number of sulphur in SO42–
U

Solution
E
N

The total charge on the sulphate ion is –2

LI

The oxidation number of oxygen is –2

N

Therefore, S + (–2 × 4) = –2
O

S – 8 = –2
R
FO

S=8–2
S = +6
The oxidation state of sulphur in SO42– is +6

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Example 7.3
Give the oxidation number of Cr in Cr2O72–
Solution
Total charge on the dichromate ion is –2
For oxygen, – 2 × 7 = –14
Therefore, 2Cr – 14 = –2
2Cr = +12
Cr = +6
Therefore, the oxidation number of Cr is +6
Exercise 7.2
Calculate the oxidation number of each of the underlined elements in the following
chemical substances:
(a) Na3PO4 (b) SO32– (c) NO2–

Chemical formulae
LY
A chemical formula is a representation that uses symbols to show the proportions
N
of the elements present in a chemical compound. The number of atoms or groups
O

of atoms are shown by number subscripts. For example, the chemical formula for
sodium sulphide is Na2S, which clearly shows that two atoms of sodium combine
SE

with one atom of sulphur to form the molecule of sodium sulphide. For groups
of atoms (i.e. radicals), a bracket is used to show that they are being considered
U

as a unit under one valency. For example, in calcium nitrate, Ca(NO3)2, the NO3–
E

radical is in brackets. There are some points to remember when writing chemical
N

formulae.
LI

1. Positively charged ions (cations) are written before the negatively charged
N

ions (anions).
O

2. A radical must be treated as a unit.

R
FO

3. The name of the cation is the same as the neutral element from which it is
derived (e.g. Na+ is sodium ion).
4. The mono-atomic anions are named by adding -ide to the root of the
name of the non-metal that forms the anion. For example, Cl- is chloride.

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Polyatomic anions (negatively charged radicals) follow different patterns

depending on their compositions.
5. Brackets are not used for single elements.
6. The valency 1 is simply assumed and not written in the formula.
The symbols and valencies of the atoms and radicals are important in writing a
chemical formula. For example, for arbitrary elements W and X with valencies m
and n, respectively, and where X can be a radical or an atom, the following steps
can be used to come up with a chemical formula of their compounds:
Step 1: Write the symbols of the elements and radicals, in this case W and X.
Step 2: Write down the ions used, with their valencies as superscripts, that is
Wm X n.
Step 3: Interchange the valencies of W and X and write them as subscripts.

With practice, the crossing lines are left out since the valencies are exchanged.
The formula of the chemical compound is WnXm. LY
Note: When m and n are equal, there is no need for the exchange, and therefore,
N
are not written, since they are in a ratio of 1:1.
O

Example 7.4
SE

1.
Give the formula of the compound of calcium and chlorine atoms.
Step 1: Write down the symbols for the elements or radicals.
U

Ca Cl
E

Step 2: Write down the ions used in the compound with their valencies
N

as superscripts.
LI

Ca2+ Cl–
N

Step 3: Write the valencies as superscripts.

O

Ca2 Cl1
R

Step 4: Interchange the valencies and write them as subscripts.

FO

Ca2 Cl1

1 2
CaCl2

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The formula of the chemical compound is CaCl2. The compound contains two
chlorine atoms for every one calcium atom.

Example 7.5

Give the formula of the compound of aluminium and sulphate.

Step 1: Al SO4
Step 2: Al3+ SO42–
Step 3: Al3 SO42
Step 4:
Al3 SO42

2 3
Al2(SO4)3

The chemical formula is Al2 (SO4)3.

LY
Exercise 7.3
N

1. Write the steps used to arrive to the following chemical formulae of the
O

compounds:
SE

(a) MgCl2 (b) Na2SO4 (c) NH4NO3

U

2. Write down the chemical formula of each of the compounds formed by the
E

combination between the following elements:

N

(a) Potassium and chlorine

LI

(b) Calcium and sulphur

N

(c) Lithium and fluorine

O
R

Types of chemical formulae

FO

Chemical formulae can basically be divided into three types, namely empirical
formula, molecular formula, and structural formula.

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Empirical formula is the formula which represents the simplest ratio of the
atoms or ions in a compound. The simplest formula is usually determined by
considering experimental data. That is why it is called ‘empirical’ which means
‘based on experimentation’. For example, CH2 shows there are twice as many
hydrogen atoms as carbon atoms. It does not show the exact number of each atom
of the element in the compound.
A molecular formula shows the actual number of each atom in a molecule. It
is a multiple of the empirical formula. For example, if the empirical formula is
CH2, its molecular formula may be C2H4, C4H8, C6H12, and so on. Therefore, a
molecular formula is equal to n × empirical formula, where n is a whole number.
Note that when n is 1, the empirical formula equals the molecular formula.
A structural formula is a graphic representation of molecular structure showing
how the atoms are arranged. At this level, only the empirical and molecular
formulae will be studied.
Formula calculations
When the percentage compositions of the elements that make up a compound
are known, it is possible to obtain both the empirical and molecular formulae of
such a compound. The following are the steps considered when calculating the
LY
empirical formula:
Step 1: Obtain the mass of each element in the sample compound. If expressed
N

in percentages, convert the percentage of each of the elements to mass.

O

If the mass or relative molecular mass (R.M.M.) of the compound is

SE

not given, an arbitrary mass of 100 g is usually used.

U

Note: The R.M.M. is the sum of the relative atomic masses (R.A.M.)
of all the atoms in a molecule of the compound. The R.A.M.
E
N

can also be obtained from the Periodic Table (See Appendix 1).
LI

Step 2: Divide the mass of each element by its R.A.M.

N

Step 3:  ivide each of the values obtained in step 2 by the lowest value
D
O

among them.
R

Step 4: Convert the ratios in step 3 to whole numbers. These whole numbers
FO

give the ratio of each element in the compound. This is the empirical
formula.

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Example 7.6

What is the empirical formula for a compound of mass 8.1 g if it consists of 4.9
g of magnesium and 3.2 g of oxygen?

Solution

Step 1: Obtain the mass of each element in the compound. These are already
given:

Mass of magnesium = 4.9 g

Mass of oxygen = 3.2 g

Step 2: Divide the mass of each element by its R.A.M.

4.9
Magnesium, = 0.20
24
3.2
Oxygen, = 0.20
16
Step 3: Divide by the lowest quotient.

Mg : O LY
0.20 0.20
:
0.20 0.20
N
O

Step 4: Obtain their whole number ratios directly or by approximation.

SE

Mg : O
U

1 : 1
E

The empirical formula is MgO.

N

Example 7.7
LI
N

Given that a certain compound is 69.59% barium, 6.09% carbon and the rest is
O

oxygen. Calculate the empirical formula of this compound.

R

Solution
FO

Step 1: A
 ssuming that you have 100 g of the compound, then the mass of each
element will be:

Ba = 69.59 g

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C = 6.09 g
The mass of oxygen will be 100 g – (mass of barium + mass of carbon)

= 100 g – (69.59 g + 6.09 g) = 24.32 g

Note that the 100 g is arbitrary for simplifying the calculations.
Step 2: Divide the mass of each element in the sample by its R.A.M.
Ba ! 69.59 ! 0.51
137.3

6.09
C = = 0.51
12

24.32
O= = 1.52
16
Step 3: Divide each value by the smallest number,
0.51
=1
0.51

0.51
=1 LY
0.51
1.52
N

= 2.98
O

0.51
Step 4: Obtain the whole number ratios.
SE

Ba : C : O
U

1 : 1 : 3
E

The empirical formula is therefore, BaCO3.

N
LI

The empirical formula together with the relative molecular mass can then be used
N

to establish the molecular formula of the compound.

O

Molecular formula = n × empirical formula, where n is a whole number.

R

Hint: R.M.M. = n × sum of R.A.M.

FO

Example 7.8
A compound contains 15.8% carbon and 84.2% sulphur. Calculate its empirical
formula. If its relative molecular mass is 76, what is its molecular formula?

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Solution
Step 1: Assume that you have 100 g of the compound, then find the mass of
each element in grams.
C = 15.8 g
S = 84.2 g
Step 2: Divide the mass of each element in the sample by its R.A.M., i.e.
Mass in sample
R .A.M.
15.8 g
C! ! 1.32
12 g
84.2 g
S! ! 2.63
32 g
Step 3: Divide throughout by the smallest value, in this case 1.32:

1.32 2.63
: = 1:1.99
1.32 1.32
Step 4: Obtain whole number ratios: LY
C:S
N
1: 2
O

The empirical formula is therefore, CS2.

SE

The molecular formula = n × empirical formula = n(CS2)

U

Now, R.M.M. = n × sum of R.A.M.

E

76 = n × [12 + (2 × 32)]
N

76 = n × (12 + 64)
LI

76 = 76 n
N
O

n=1
Therefore, the molecular formula is CS2.
R
FO

Exercise 7.4
1. A compound has 1.121 g of nitrogen, 0.161 g of hydrogen, 0.480 g of
carbon and 0.640 g of oxygen. What is its empirical formula?

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2. A compound has an empirical formula CH. If it has a relative molecular

mass of 78.11, what is its molecular formula?
3. A compound is analysed and found to contain 52.17% carbon, 13.04%
hydrogen, and 34.78% oxygen. Calculate:
(a) its empirical formula.
(b) its molecular formula, if its relative molecular mass is 46.

Nomenclature of binary inorganic compounds

Everything in the universe bears a name to differentiate it from others. Chemical
substances also bear names that range from those of elements to those of
compounds. The name of a substance can occur due some factors such as the
place of origin, founder, use, and type or classification. Items or substances
that fall under a particular group or classification are named systematically. A
systematic way of assigning names to items that belong to a particular group or
classification is called nomenclature.
Binary inorganic compounds
While an inorganic compound is any substance in which two or more chemical
elements (usually other than carbon) are combined, always in definite propor-
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tions, a binary compound is the one which is formed by two chemical substances.
For example, CaO, NaCl, and PCl3 are binary inorganic compounds.
N
O

Inorganic compounds are categorised into ionic and covalent. The nomenclature
of ionic compounds differs slightly from that of covalent compounds.
SE

Nimenclature of binary ionic compounds

Ionic compounds are formed when a metal combines with a non-metal. The
U

following are the steps considered when naming binary ionic compounds:
E
N

1. Name the metallic ion that appears first in the formula using the name of
LI

the element itself.

N

2. The second part of the formula which is usually an anion in the compound
O

will end with a suffix “ide”. For example, oxygen becomes oxide, hydrogen
becomes hydride and chlorine becomes chloride.
R
FO

Note:
Some metals always have fixed charges when they form ions, that is,
(a) Group I metals have a charge of +1.
(b) Group II metals have a charge of +2.

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(c) Group III metals have a charge of +3.

(d) Silver (Ag) has a charge of +1.
(e) Zinc (Zn) has a charge of +2.
Other metals are multivalent and can thus form more than one ion. For example;
iron (Fe) is bivalent; it has valencies of 2 and 3, copper (Cu) is also bivalent; it has
valencies of 1 and 2. Compounds formed from these metals must be distinguished
by stating which valency has been used in the compound. The valency of the
respective metal is indicated by capital Roman numbers in parentheses (brackets)
Example 7.9
What is the name of the compound with the formula FeCl3?
Solution
The total charge of the molecule is zero and Cl– has a negative charge.
(i) Let x be the charge of Fe
(ii) 1(x) + 3(–1) = 0
(iii) x = +3 LY
(iv) So, the Fe is in the +3 oxidation state. Write the name ‘iron’ and place III
in brackets beside it.
N
O

(v) Use the name chlorine but change the last three letters to “ide”: So the
name is iron(III) chloride.
SE

Example 7.10
U

What is the name of the compound with the formula CuS?

E

Solution
N
LI

(i) Let x be the charge of Cu.

N

(ii) Sulphur has a charge of –2.

O

(iii) 1(x) + 1(–2) = 0

R
FO

x = +2 for Cu

(iv) Write the name copper and place II in brackets beside it.
(v) Use the name sulphur but change the last two letters to “ide”. The name of
the compound is copper(II) sulphide.

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Other examples of binary ionic compounds are given below.

(a) MgO is named magnesium oxide.
(b) AlCl3 is named aluminium chloride .
(c) MnO2 is named manganese(IV) oxide.
Note: M
 anganese can have more than one charge, but each oxygen ion has a
charge of –2. In order for the compound to be neutral, Mn must have a
charge of +4.
Nomenclature of binary covalent compounds
Covalent compounds are formed between two non-metal elements. These
compounds are named differently from ionic compounds. The number of atoms
are presented by prefixes as shown in Table 7.3.
Table 7.3: Examples of prefixes

Number Prefix Number Prefix

1 mono- 6 hexa-
2 di- 7 hepta-
3 tri- 8 octa-
LY
4 tetra- 9 nona-
N
5 penta- 10 deca-
O

The following are the steps considered when naming binary covalent compounds:
SE

1. Give the name of the first element.

U

2. Give the name of the second element with the ending changed to –ide.
E

3. If more than one compound is possible between the two elements, give
N

prefixes to indicate the number of atoms of each element.

LI

Example 7.11
N
O

Give the name for PCl3.

R

Answer
FO

(i) Since there is one phosphorus atom, use it as the first part of the name.
(ii) There are three chlorine atoms, so use ‘tri’ in front of chlorine, then drop
the ‘ine’ in chlorine and replace with ‘ide’.
The name is phosphorus trichloride.

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Example 7.12
What is the name for N2O4?
Answer
(i) Use the prefix ‘di’ in front of nitrogen since there are two atoms.
(ii) Use the prefix ‘tetra’ in front of the oxygen since there are four atoms.
(iii) Drop ‘–ygen’ and replace with ‘ide:
(iv) The name is dinitrogen tetraoxide.
Table 7.4 gives the formulae and names of some binary covalent compounds.
Table 7.4: Some binary covalent compounds

Formula Name
CO2 Carbon dioxide
CO Carbon monoxide
N2O5 Dinitrogen pentoxide
HCl Hydrogen chloride
LY
NO Nitrogen monoxide
SF6 Sulphur hexafluoride
N
O

Note: T
 he names of compounds involving radicals according to the International
SE

Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) are provided in Appendix

2.
U

Chemical names of common substances

E
N

Chemical names are usually used to give accurate descriptions of the compositions
of substances including those we encounter daily. For instance, it is very rare to
LI

ask someone to give you some sodium chloride (common salt) to use in your
N

food, instead, you will ask for common salt. That is why there are ‘common
O

names’ for some substances. However, it is important to note that some common
R

names are inaccurate and may vary from one place to another, and therefore, they
FO

cannot tell the chemical composition of a substance. Table 7.5 lists the common
names for some chemicals and their respective chemical formulae.

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Table 7.5 Common names and formulae of some substances

Common name Chemical name Chemical formula

Baking soda Sodium hydrogen carbonate or NaHCO3
sodium bicarbonate
Gypsum Hydrated calcium sulphate CaSO₄·2H₂O
Marble Calcium carbonate CaCO3
Caustic soda Sodium hydroxide NaOH
Caustic potash Potassium hydroxide KOH
Chalk Calcium carbonate CaCO3
Common salt Sodium chloride NaCl
Soda ash Sodium carbonate Na2CO3
Lime water Calcium hydroxide solution Ca(OH)2
Slaked lime Calcium hydroxide solid Ca(OH)2
Quick lime Calcium oxide CaO
Plaster of Paris (POP) Calcium sulphate CaSO4
Water Dihydrogen monoxide LY H2O
Vitamin C Ascorbic acid C6H8O6
N
Sugar Sucrose C12H22O11
O

Sulphate of ammonia (SA) Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4

SE

Urea Carbamide CO(NH2)2

Fluospar/fluorite Calcium fluoride CaF2
U

Asbestos Magnesium silicate Mg3Si2O5(OH)4

E
N

Aspirin Acetylsalicylic acid C9H8O4

LI

Chloroform Trichoromethane CHCl3

N

Dolomite Calcium magnesium carbonate CaMg(CO3)2

O

Limestone Calcium carbonate CaCO3

R

Milk of magnesia Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2

FO

Bleach Sodium hypochlorite NaOCl

Saltpetre Potassium nitrate KNO3

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Chapter summary
1. Chemical bonding involves electrons in the outermost shell of an atom.
When the outermost shell is fully-filled, the atom is said to be stable.

2. Ions are formed when an atom gains or loses electron(s). Cations are
positively charged ions that result from atoms losing one or more electrons.
Anions are negatively charged ions that result from atoms gaining one or
more electrons.

3. Ionic (electrovalent) bonding usually occurs between a metal and a non-

metal. It involves the transfer of electron(s) from the atoms of the metal to
the atoms of the non–metal.

4. Covalent bonding takes place between two or more non-metals. It involves

atoms of the non-metals sharing electrons that are in their outermost shells.

5. The ability of an atom to combine with other atoms according to the number
of electrons it can give, take or share is known as valency.

6. The oxidation state (oxidation number) of an element is the number of

electrons that need to be added, shared or removed by its atom, to make a
LY
neutral molecule. The oxidation number is arbitrary and may be positive,
negative or zero.
N
O

7. A radical is a group of atoms which behaves as a single unit and has a

SE

positive or negative charge. A radical can also be an atom, molecule or

ion that has unpaired valence electron. Such a group maintains its identity
U

throughout any chemical reaction.

E

8. A chemical formula is a representation that uses chemical symbols to show

N

the proportions of the elements present in a chemical compound.

LI
N

9. An empirical formula is the simplest way of writing a chemical formula

O

and indicates the ratio of the atoms in a compound.

R

10. A molecular formula is a chemical formula that shows the total number of
FO

atoms of each element in a molecule.

11. A systematic way of naming items or substances of a particular category is

known as nomenclature.

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Revision exercise 7

Choose the correct answer to each of the questions 1 to 11.

39
1. An element with chemical symbol 19 K has a valency of
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
2. What name is given to the force of attraction that holds atoms together to
form a molecule?
(a) Chemical change
(b) Chemical bond
(c) Friction
(d) Centripetal
3. During the formation of ions,
(a) non-metal atoms gain protons.
(b) metal atoms lose their outermost electrons.
(c) metal atoms gain electrons in their outermost shells.
(d) non-metal atoms lose electrons of their outermost shells.
LY
4. Usually, electrovalent bonding occurs between
N
(a) metals and metals.
O

(b) metals and non-metals.

SE

(c) metals and inert gases.

(d) non-metals and non-metals.
U

5. The following atoms cannot exist freely as single atoms, except

E

(a) sodium atom.

N
LI

(b) chlorine atom.

N

(c) argon atom.

O

(d) magnesium atom.

R

6. A covalent bond is formed due to

FO

(a) opposite charges of atoms.

(b) transfer of electrons of atoms.
(c) forces of attraction between atoms.
(d) sharing of electrons between atoms.

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7. Which of the following is a property of covalent compounds?

(a) They do not conduct electricity.
(b) They conduct heat easily.
(c) They are mostly soluble in water.
(d) Their melting and boiling points are very high.
8. What is the oxidation number of nitrogen in the radical NH4+?
(a) +2 (b) –3 (c) +4 (d) +5
9. The valency of the phosphate radical is
(a) 1 (b) –3 (c) 3 (d) 4
10. Which of the following sets of symbols represent cations?
(a) K+ and Mg
(b) Mg and Al
(c) Al3+ and Cl–
(d) K+ and Al3+
11. Identify the chemical formula for potassium chlorate(V).
(a) K2ClO3 (b) K(ClO3)2 (c) K5ClO3 (d) KClO3
LY
12. (a) Identify the compounds with the correct or incorrect IUPAC names.
N

(i) KCl – Potassium chloride

O

(ii) Fe2(SO4)3 – Iron(II) sulphate(VI)

SE

(iii) CaCl2 – Calcium dichloride

U

(iv) Na2SO4 – Sodium tetraoxosulphate(VI)

E

(b) Rename the incorrectly named compound(s) in (a) using the IUPAC
N

rules.
LI

13. What do you understand by the following terms?

N

(a) Valency
O

(b) Oxidation state

R

(c) Radical
FO

(d) Empirical formula

(e) Ionic bond
(f) Binary compounds

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14. You are provided with the following list of substances: Mg, Ca2+, Cl, N2,
Al3+, and H2. Which of these substances are:
(a) atoms?
(b) molecules?
(c) ions?
15. A molecule of a certain gas can be represented by the following diagram:

(a) What is the name of the molecule?

(b) What is the molecular formula of the gas?
(c) What type of bonding holds the atoms of the molecule?
(d) Name other compounds with this type of bonding.
16. Write the electronic configuration of each of the following species:
(a) Sodium
(b) Aluminum ion
LY
(c) Magnesium
N

(d) Chlorine ion

O

(e) Sulphur
SE

(f) Neon
U

17. Choose the correct formula for the combination of the following ions:
E

(i) Mg2+ and PO43–

N

(a) Mg3(PO4)2 (b) Mg2PO4 (c) Mg2(PO)3 (d) MgPO4

LI

(ii) Ba2+ and N3–

N

(a) BaN (b) BaN2 (c) Ba2N3 (d) Ba3N2

O

(iii) Al3+ and SO42–

R
FO

(a) AlSO4 (b) Al (SO4)2 (c) Al2 (SO4)3 (d) Al3(SO4)2

(iv) Zn2+ and C2H3O2–
(a) ZnC2H3O2 (b) Zn2C2H3O2 (c) Zn(C2H3O2)2 (d) Zn2(C2H3O2)2

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18. Name the following compounds:

(a) MgI2 (b) N2O5 (c) CCl4 (d) FeBr2 (e) CuI2
(f) H2S (g) Hg2Cl2 (h) K2O (i) PCl5 (j) SF6
19. The colour of CrO42–(aq) is yellow and that of Cr2O72–(aq) is orange.
Calculate the oxidation number of Cr in both of these radicals.
20. A compound of sulphur and oxygen is 40.1% sulphur by mass. What is the
empirical formula for the compound? The R.A.M. of S and O are 32.07 and
16.00, respectively.
21. Write the chemical formulae of the following compounds:
(a) Sodium hydrogen carbonate
(b) Silver trioxonitrate(V)
(c) Copper(I) oxide
(d) Aluminium tetraoxosulphate(VI)
22. Write down any two different ionic states in each of the following elements:
(a) Fe (b) Cu (c) Pb (d) Mn LY
23. An atom of element X (atomic number 11) and an atom of element Y
(atomic number 9) combine to form a compound.
N

(a) Write the formula of the compound.

O

(b) State the type of the bond present in the compound.

SE

24. A hydrocarbon contains 88.88% carbon and 11.12% hydrogen by mass.

U

Calculate the empirical formula of the molecule.

E

25. A compound consists of calcium 40%, carbon 12% and oxygen 48% by
N

mass. Calculate the empirical formula of the compound.

LI

26. (a)  alculate the oxidation number of the underlined elements in the
C
N

following compounds:
O

(i) NH4Cl (ii) Na2SO4 (iii) Al2O3 (iv) H2O2

R
FO

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27. Elements T and Q have atomic numbers 12 and 17, respectively. Use the
two elements to answer the following questions:
(a) Write the electronic configuration of element Q.
(b) What is the valency of element T?
(c) Write the chemical formula of a compound formed when T and Q
combine.
(d) Mention the type of the bond formed by the combination of elements
T and Q.
(e) In which group and period in the Periodic Table does element Q
belong?
28. An organic compound contains 26.70% carbon, 2.20% hydrogen and
71.10% oxygen. If its vapour density is 45. Determine its molecular formula.

LY
N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

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b
Lead

LY
N
O
SE
U
E
Appendix 1: The Periodic Table

N
LI
N
O
R
FO
Appendices

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Appendix 2: IUPAC names for common compounds

Formula Common name IUPAC name

Sulfuric acid or
H2SO4 Sulphuric acid
Tetraoxosulphate(VI) acid
HNO3 Nitric acid Nitric acid or Trioxonitrate(V) acid
HCl Hydrochloric acid Hydrochloric acid
H2CO3 Carbonic acid Trioxocarbonate(IV) acid
HNO2 Nitrous acid Dioxonitrate(III) acid
H2SO3 Sulphurous acid Trioxosulphate(IV) acid
Na2CO3 Sodium carbonate Sodium trioxocarbonate(IV)
NaNO3 Sodium nitrate Sodium trioxonitrate(V)
CO2 Carbon dioxide Carbon(IV) oxide
CO Carbon monoxide Carbon(II) oxide
SO2 Sulphur dioxide Sulphur(IV) oxide
SO3 Sulphur trioxide Sulphur(VI) oxide
N2O Dinitrogen oxide or nitrous oxide Nitrogen(I) oxide
NO Nitrogen monoxide or nitric oxide Nitrogen(II) oxide
LY
N2O4 Dinitrogen tetraoxide Dinitrogen tetraoxide
N
Na2SO4 Sodium sulphate Sodium tetraoxosulphate(VI)
O

CuSO4 Cupric sulphate/Copper sulphate Copper(II) tetraoxosulphate(VI)

SE

Al(NO3)3 Aluminium nitrate Aluminium trioxonitrate(V)

CaCO3 Calcium carbonate Calcium trioxocarbonate(IV)
U

CO32– Carbonate ion Trioxocarbonate(IV) ion

E

FeCO3 Ferrous carbonate Iron(II) trioxocarbonate(IV)

N

PbO Lead monoxide Lead(II) oxide

LI

FeO Ferrous oxide Iron(II) oxide

N
O

Fe2O3 Ferric oxide Iron(III) oxide

SO42– Sulphate ion Tetraoxosulphate(VI) ion
R

SO3 Sulphite ion Trioxosulphate(IV) ion

FO

2–

HCO3– Hydrogencarbonate ion Hydrogen trioxocarbonate(IV) ion

MnO2 Manganese dioxide Manganese(IV) oxide
MnO4– Permanganate ion Tetraoxomanganate(VI) ion
Cr2O72– Dichromate ion Heptaoxodichromate(VI) ion

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Glossary

Acidic oxide an oxide that reacts with water to form an acid, or with a
base to form salt and water. Acidic oxides are oxides of
either non-metals or of metals in high oxidation states
Anode
a positively charged electrode to which negative ions

move towards it
Anhydrous it contains no water
Basic oxide an oxide that shows basic properties and that can either
react with water to form a base; or reacts with an acid to
form salt and water
Biogas a mixture of methane and other minor gases such as carbon
dioxide
Catalyst a substance that alters the rate of a chemical reaction but it
remains unchanged at the end of the reaction
Cathode 
a negatively charged electrode to which positive ions
LY
move towards it
N

Decomposition breaking down of a chemical compound into elements or

O

simpler compounds
SE

Distillation 
the action of purifying a liquid by a process of heating and
cooling
U

Electrode a positive or negative pole to which negative or positive

E

ions move, respectively, during electrolysis

N
LI

Electrolysis 
the breaking down of compound in solution form by means
N

of electricity
O

Fractional distillation the separation of liquid components from a liquid mixture

R

with closer boiling points of the components

FO

Globe World, Earth, Universe or Planet

Haber process an industrial method of manufacturing ammonia from
nitrogen and hydrogen, using a metal catalyst at high
temperature and pressure

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Liquefaction a process that generates a liquid from a solid or a gas

Mortar a mixture of cement, sand and water

Oxidation addition of oxygen to a substance or removal of hydrogen

from a substance

Oxidizing agent a substance that adds oxygen to another substance or

removes hydrogen from another substance

Orbit passing through/revolve or a path through which to revolve

Ores a natural rock or sediment that contains one or more

valuable minerals, typically metals, that can be mined and
treated for different purposes

Oxy-hydrogen flame a very hot flame produced by the combustion of a mixture

of oxygen and hydrogen

Reduction the addition of hydrogen to a substance or removal of

oxygen from a substance

Reducing agent a substance which adds hydrogen to another substance or

LY
removes oxygen from another substance
N
Respiration a process in living organisms involving the production of
O

energy, typically with the intake of oxygen and the release

of carbon dioxide from the oxidation of complex organic
SE

substances
U

Saline water the water containing dissolved salts (salty water)

E

Sod a rectangular piece that has been cut from an area of grass
N

or a surface on the ground with the grass growing on it

LI
N

Steam reforming a method of producing hydrogen from organic compounds

O

such as methane, whereby the compound decomposes into

carbon monoxide and hydrogen
R
FO

Transpiration a process by which plants lose water through the stomata

of their leaves to the atmosphere

Universal solvent a solvent capable of dissolving all or many chemical

substances

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Bibliography

Chang, R. (2010). Chemistry (10th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies
Inc.
Jespersen, N. D & Brady, J. E. (2012). Chemistry, The Molecular Nature of Matter
(6th ed.). River street, Hoboken, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Kenkel, J. (2011). Basic Chemistry Concepts and Exercises. Broken Sound
Parkway, NW: Taylor and Francis Group LLC.

SCSU & MoEVT-Zanzibar. (2008). Chemistry for Zanzibar Secondary Schools,

Forms 1 &2. Dar es Salaam: Oxford University Press Tanzania Ltd.
Tanzania Institute of Education. (2019). General Chemistry Textbook for
Advanced Secondary Education, TIE, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
Tanzania Institute of Education. (2019). Inorganic Chemistry Textbook for
Advanced Secondary Education, TIE, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
Tanzania Institute of Education. (2019). Organic Chemistry Textbook for
Advanced Secondary Education, TIE, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
Tanzania Institute of Education. (2019). Physical Chemistry Textbook for
LY
Advanced Secondary Education, TIE, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
N
Tanzania Institute of Education. (1995). Secondary School Chemistry Book One
O

(1st ed.). Dar es Salaam: Dar es Salaam University Press.

SE

Tanzania Institute of Education. (1995). Secondary School Chemistry Book Two

(1st ed.). Dar es Salaam: Dar es Salaam University Press.
U

Zumdahl, S. S. & Zumdahl, S. A. (2014). Chemistry (9th ed.). Belmont: Mary

E

Firich.
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

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Index
A beryllium 92, 94, 100, 113, 116, 118, 122
beverages 47
acidic gases 41 bituminous coal 63
acidic oxides 5, 9 bleach 143
acid rain 41 boilers 81
activated charcoal 50 boiling 5, 11, 12, 42, 44, 49, 54, 62, 63,
agriculture 47, 81 64, 66, 67, 71, 110, 121, 125, 127,
air 1, 5, 8, 11-13, 16-19, 22-24, 26, 30- 146, 152
34, 39, 41, 57, 58, 61-70, 72, 77, boron 92, 93, 95, 100, 122
79, 82, 111-113 breath 16
algae 49 bubbles 3, 4
alkali 109, 111, 118 Bunsen burner 6, 7, 33, 42, 63, 64, 66
alkaline solutions 109, 112 burn 6-10, 14, 59, 61, 112, 113, 117, 118,
aluminium 7, 52, 92, 100, 110, 116, 118, 120
122, 129, 130, 134, 141, 148, 151 burning 6-8, 10, 11, 13, 15, 18, 22, 23,
aluminium sulphate 52, 134 25, 40, 58,-61, 65-67
ammonia 27, 30, 32, 33, 34, 64, 66, 128, burning splint 22, 23
143, 152
amount 26, 50, 56, 57, 59, 64, 69, 70, 77 C
apparatus 3, 20, 21, 24, 43, 66, 76, 77 calcium 7, 8, 16, 24, 25, 35, 90, 109, 110,
LY
aquatic 15 112, 114, 118, 120, 132, 133, 134,
aqueous 48 143, 148
N

artificial ponds 47 calcium chloride 24, 25, 35, 133

O

aspirin 143 calcium oxide 9, 143

SE

atmosphere 18, 19, 21, 30, 32, 34, 39, 41, calorimeter 77, 78
55, 57, 61, 69, 70, 71, 80, 83, 84, candle 5, 6, 7
153
U

carbon 6, 9, 10, 11, 19, 20, 27, 29, 33,

atom 72, 86-99, 101-105, 110, 120, 122, 34, 41, 55, 61, 62, 64, 67-71, 83,
E

123, 125, 126-128, 130-133, 135, 84, 87, 92, 97, 98, 99, 102, 100,
N

140, 141, 144, 145, 148 110, 116, 118, 122, 125, 127, 128,
LI

atomic radii 110, 111 135-137, 139, 142, 148, 149, 151,
N

atomic theory 86 152, 153

B
O

carbon dioxide 10, 11, 33, 41, 61, 67-71,

83, 84, 118, 128, 142, 151-153
R

bacteria 49, 50, 52, 53 carbon monoxide 27, 67-70, 142, 151,
FO

baking powder 48 153

Baking soda 143 catalyst 1, 2, 5, 16,-18, 23, 27, 28
basic oxides 5, 7, 17 caustic soda 143
beaker 42, 44, 43, 50, 51, 63, 64, 66 caution 8
beehive shelf 3, 4, 20, 21 chalk 48,143

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charcoal 50, 51, 58, 61-63, 71, 85 cooling 11, 54, 67, 80, 152
chemical processes 13, 14, 16, 17, 48 copper 7, 24, 25, 32, 44, 45, 56, 128, 140
chemicals 1, 13, 16, 44, 47, 49, 52, 53, copper 9, 17, 24, 25, 35, 148, 151
56, 57, 142 copper(II) oxide 9
chimney 60, 66 copper(II) sulphate 24, 25, 32, 44, 45, 56
chloride 1, 28, 44, 45, 123, 124, 126, 128, corrosion 53
134, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 146 covalent bonding 121
chloroform 143 crews 14
clouds 10, 39, 45, 55 crystal 124
coal 19, 58, 59, 61, 62-69, 71, 80, 84, 85
coke 59, 62-67, 69, 70, 85
D
cold blow 70 decomposition 1, 2, 5, 16, 18, 33
collection 38, 54, 82 deflagrating spoon 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 18
colour 7, 8, 21, 25, 35, 42, 45, 56, 93, delivery tube 3, 33
112, 113, 126, 148 denser 5, 32, 34
colourless 5, 16, 19, 23, 31, 33, 42, 54 densities 109, 110, 118
combination 1, 19, 21, 31, 57, 73, 87, diarrhoea 53
127, 134, 147, 149 diesel 48, 58, 59, 61, 71
combining power 128 dilute acids 20, 34, 128
combustible 58, 59, 62, 84 dinitrogen tetraoxide 142
combustion 5, 15, 16, 17, 24, 25, 26, 33, dips 43, 47
58, 59, 60, 61, 77, 81, 83, 153 disinfectants 52
LY
combustion engines 81 disinfection 49, 52
commercial filters 49, 50 displacement 2, 4, 18, 19, 21, 33
N

common salt 48, 142 downward displacement 4

O

compound 2, 32, 56, 122, 129, 130, 131, distillation 17, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 84, 152
132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, distillation 11, 152
SE

139, 140, 141, 144, 146, 147, 148, diver 13

149, 152, 153 dolomite 143
U

compounds 1, 2, 4, 19, 21, 27, 34, 37, 61, drinking 45, 46, 47, 49, 50, 54, 56
E

62, 68, 81, 87, 109, 117, 121, 124, dry distillation 61, 65
N

127, 129, 130, 133, 134, 139, 141, dry quenching 66

LI

142, 146, 148, 151, 152, 153 duplet state 90

condensation 38, 39, 54 dust 11, 52, 64
N

condense 62
E
O

construction 47, 82
R

contaminants 49, 54, 55 earth-mound kiln 61, 62

FO

contaminate 41 earth-pit kiln 61, 62

contaminated 41, 45 economic activities 46, 47, 57
convenience 59 effectiveness 59
cooking 46, 48, 71, 80 efficiency 71, 73
coolant 47, 55 elastic energy 72

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electric current 26, 32, 74 flame 6-10, 17, 18, 23, 25-28, 30, 32-35,
electric energy 72, 73 62, 64, 70, 85, 112, 113, 153
electrolysis 11, 20, 26, 31, 55, 152 flame 8
electron 87, 89, 90, 93, 97, 103, 108, 109, flammable 23, 30, 31, 33, 34
110, 111, 117, 123, 125, 126, 127, flat bottomed flask 3
128, 129, 130, 144 floc 52
electronic configuration 90, 95, 102, 104, Fluorine 92, 94, 100, 116, 122, 129
109, 110, 114, 116, 117, 125, 126, fluorite 143
147, 149 fluospar 143
electrovalent bonding 121, 145 food 15, 46, 47, 48, 71, 81, 142
element 7, 10, 19, 31, 50, 86, 90, 91, 93, formula 89, 90, 99, 121, 129, 132, 133,
94, 95, 96, 98, 99, 101, 102, 103, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140,
104, 106, 108, 109, 110, 114, 115, 141, 142, 143, 144, 146, 147, 148,
116, 117, 119, 122, 125, 128, 130, 149
132, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 141, fossil fuel 62, 84
144, 145, 148, 149 fractional distillation 11, 12, 152
elements 2, 10, 16, 17, 19, 21, 23, 30, 34, freeze 5, 11, 42, 63, 66, 67
86, 87, 92, 93, 94, 98, 99, 100, 104, fresh water 37
106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, fuel 13, 14, 27, 29, 40, 58, 59, 60, 61-63,
113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 67, 69, 71, 77, 80-85
120, 122, 125, 126, 128, 129, 130, fumes 4
132, 133, 135, 141, 144, 148, 152 fungi 49 LY
energy 4, 35, 39, 47, 58, 59, 62, 64, 69,
70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78,
G
N

80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 89, 102, 110, gas 1-13, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20-37, 42, 44,
O

111, 113, 119, 153 54, 58-61, 63-72, 77, 80, 82-85,
energy value 59, 64, 70, 71, 77, 78, 84, 85 110, 111, 112, 117, 123, 125, 147,
SE

environment 49, 53, 61, 71, 153 152, 153

environmental conservation 13, 17, 37, gas jar 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 16, 18, 20,
U

40 21, 23, 26
E

ethanol 42, 48, 81 genes 19, 32

N

evaporation 38, 39, 40, 54, 55 germs 52

LI

experimental data 135 glass 13, 14, 16, 24, 42, 43, 44, 45, 56,
extinguish 6 66, 69
N

extraction 47, 64, 69 global warming 71, 81, 83

O

F glowing splint 6, 7, 16, 34

R

gravitational energy 72
FO

fertiliser 27, 32, 71, 82 groundwater 37, 40

filtration 11, 49, 52 group 107, 109, 111-113, 116, 118, 120,
fire 7, 8, 10, 33, 59, 61, 68 128, 130, 139, 154
firewood 58, 71 gypsum 143
fishing 47

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H J
Haber process 27, 32, 152 jar 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 16, 18, 20, 21,
habitat 37 23, 26, 64
hail 37, 39, 45, 55
hazards 59
K
heat energy 58, 72, 73, 74, 75 kerosene 58, 71, 79, 85
heating 1, 4, 25, 39, 42, 43, 49, 63, 65, kerosene 59, 71, 79
67, 69, 80, 152 kerosene, petrol 58
heat value 59, 79 kerosene, petrol 59
helium 33, 90, 99, 110, 120, 122, 125, kerosine 48, 71
126 kinetic energy 72, 73, 76, 83
hydrochloric acid 20, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31,
32, 36, 151
L
hydroelectric power 73, 83 laboratory 1, 4, 5, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22,
hydrogen 1-4, 16,-35, 44, 55, 57, 59, 61, 31, 33, 35, 57, 63, 93
69-71, 90-93, 95, 98-100, 108-110, laboratory 1, 19
112, 113, 117, 122, 125, 126-131, lakes 37, 38, 40, 46, 47, 51
135, 139, 142, 143, 148, 149, 151, land 40, 55, 71
153 lead 7, 24, 25, 40, 53, 128
hydrogenation 28 lid 4, 20, 21, 26, 77, 78
hydrogen peroxide 1, 2, 3, 4, 16, 18, 57 limestone 143 LY
hydroxides 44, 112, 118 lime water 143
I liquefaction 11, 152
N

liquefied air 11, 12, 17

O

ignition point 59 liquid 11, 12, 27, 28, 31, 37, 38, 39, 42,
impurities 23, 47, 49 43, 45, 48, 49, 54, 58, 65, 77, 81,
SE

incineration 13, 15 83, 110, 152

Industrial production 11, 26 liquid oxygen 11, 12
U

industries 47, 53, 58, 67, 71, 83 liquids 42, 48, 127
E

inorganic compounds 139 lithium 92, 100, 110, 111, 116, 118, 122,
N

insecticides 71 134
LI

ionization energy 110, 111, 113 litmus paper 7, 8, 9, 10, 17, 44, 45
ions 121, 123-125, 129, 130, 132, 133, litmus papers 21, 22, 23, 44
N

135, 139, 144, 147, 148, 152

M
O

iron 7, 27, 41, 49, 52, 74, 75, 106, 128,

R

130, 140 magnesium 6, 7, 8, 99, 109, 110, 112,

FO

iron(III) oxide 9, 151 114, 117, 118, 125, 136, 141, 145
iron(III) sulphate 52 magnesium 8, 9, 17, 92, 100, 112, 113,
irrigation 47 116, 122, 125, 129, 136, 143, 147
irritate 4 magnesium oxide 7, 125, 141
isotope 96, 97, 98, 101, 103, 105 magnesium oxide 9
isotopes 86, 87, 96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 103

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manganese dioxide 18
manganese dioxide 151
N
manganese(IV) oxide 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 16, natural gas 19, 26, 27, 31, 58, 67, 72, 80
141 nature 7, 9, 10, 18, 19, 37, 58, 86, 111
marble 143 neon 33, 92, 98, 100, 101, 122, 147
margarine 26, 27, 28, 30, 32, 34 neutrons 87, 88, 89, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97,
mass number 86, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 101, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105
102, 103, 104, 105, 117 Newlands 106, 107
measuring cylinder 48, 114 nickel 27, 28
medicine 48 nitric acid 27
melting 42, 44, 109, 110, 125, 127, 146 nitric acid 151
melting points 109, 110 nitrogen 11, 12, 27, 30, 41, 62, 66, 67,
melts 9, 10, 17 68, 69, 70, 92, 94, 95, 98, 100, 110,
Mendeleev 107, 115, 117 116, 122, 130, 139, 142, 146, 151
mercury oxide 4 nitrogen dioxide 41
metal 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 15, 17, 24, 27, 28, nomenclature 121, 139, 144
44, 64, 75, 108, 109, 110, 112, 113, non-metals 6, 7, 9, 106, 109, 110, 116,
117, 118, 123, 139, 141, 144, 145 129 144, 145
metallic 63, 77, 109, 110, 111, 119, 129, nuclear energy 72, 80
139 nuclear fission 87
metals 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 17, 20, 24, 28, nucleus 72, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95,
31, 34, 44, 69, 106, 109, 110, 111, 101, 102, 103, 110
LY
112, 113, 114, 116, 117, 118, 119, nuclide notation 94, 105
120, 127, 129, 130, 139, 140, 144, O
N

145, 152, 153

O

meteorologists 30 ocean 40, 46

methane 26, 27, 31, 67, 69, 70, 82, 83, odourless 5, 16, 19, 23, 31, 33, 42, 54
SE

128, 152, 153 oil 28, 31, 48, 63, 66, 81, 111
milk of magnesia 143 open-hearth furnaces 69
U

minerals 1, 47, 49, 62, 153 orbits 88, 89

E

mining 40, 47 organic matter 81

N

mist 37, 45 organic solvents 48

LI

misty 10 outermost shell 90, 108, 109, 110, 111,

mixture 4, 11, 12, 23, 26, 29, 63, 64, 66, 115, 122, 128, 144
N

67, 68, 69, 152, 153 oxidation 24, 31, 121, 130, 131, 132,
O

modern periodic table 107 140, 144, 146, 148, 152, 153
R

moisture 8, 32, 62 oxidation state 130, 131, 140, 144

FO

molecules 1, 72, 121, 127, 130, 131, 147, oxide 1-5, 7, 9, 10, 16, 17, 24, 25, 34, 35,
153 41, 44, 112, 113, 117-119, 125,
molten 124 130, 139, 141, 143, 148, 151, 152
muffle furnaces 69 acidic oxide 5, 152
basic oxide 5, 7, 9, 17

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oxidising agent 5 productivity 59

oxygen 1-19, 23, 24, 26, 28, 31-33, 37, products 7-10, 24, 25, 27, 35, 53, 60, 61,
57, 61-63, 68, 69, 77, 84, 92, 94, 63, 66
95, 98, 100, 105, 106, 110, 112, protons 87, 88, 89, 91, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97,
113, 116,-118, 120, 122, 125, 126, 101, 102, 103, 104, 111, 118, 123,
127, 130-132, 136, 137, 139, 141, 145
142, 148, 149, 153 pulp 13, 16
ozone 13, 49, 52 purification 37, 49, 53, 54, 55, 57
P purifier 49
pyrometric effect 60
paper 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 16, 17, 35, 44, 45,
47, 92, 114, 128
Q
parasites 52, 53 quick lime 143
period 70, 107, 110, 111, 112, 115, 116,
117, 118, 120, 149
R
periodic classification 106 radiant energy 72
periodic Law 107, 108, 115, 118 radical 121, 128, 129, 132, 133, 142, 144,
petrol 58, 59, 61, 71, 79, 85 146
petroleum 19, 58, 59, 60, 71, 72, 80, 85 rain 37, 39, 41, 45, 55
phosphorus 6, 9, 10, 92, 100, 110, 116, reactions 1, 2, 5, 8, 10, 19, 20, 24, 25, 31,
122, 141 44, 69, 83, 84, 87, 119
refinery 58
LY
phosphorus trichloride 141 relative atomic mass 99, 100, 105
phosphorus(V) oxide 10 renewable source 83, 84
N

photosynthesis 81 respiration 13, 14, 15, 16, 39

O

physical state 58, 59 rivers 37, 40, 46, 47, 51

pipe 68
SE

rocket 14, 29, 32, 34

planetary model 88 rockets 14, 29
plants 13, 37, 39, 40, 41, 62, 69, 71, 81, rubber bung 3, 20, 21
U

82, 153
S
E

plaster of paris 143

N

pollutants 40, 41, 45, 49 salt 1, 7, 48, 109, 142, 143, 152
LI

pollution 40, 61, 83 saltpetre 143

porcelain bowl 24, 25
N

salty water 37, 153

potassium 1, 2, 4, 6,-8, 18, 57, 90, 95, sand filters 50
O

108, 109, 111, 117, 129, 130, 131, sedimentation 52, 55

R

146 separation 12, 47, 152

FO

potassium chlorate 1, 2, 4, 18, 57, 146 shell 48, 89-92, 102, 104, 108-111, 115,
potassium oxide 9 122, 128, 144
potential energy 72 shells 89-92, 101-103, 108-112, 115, 118,
precipitation 38, 40, 54, 55 122, 126, 128, 144, 145
producer gas 58, 59, 65, 67, 68, 69, 85 silicon 10, 11, 92, 100, 116, 122

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silicon dioxide 10 sugar 48, 81

skin 4 sulphate of ammonia 143
slaked lime 143 sulphur 6, 9, 16, 41, 49, 90, 106, 110,
smoke 10, 60, 67 120, 128, 131, 132, 137, 140, 148
smouldering 61 sulphur 10, 11, 16, 17, 92, 100, 122, 129,
snow 37, 39, 45, 55 140, 142, 147, 151
soap 48 sulphur dioxide 41
soda ash 143 sulphur dioxide 10, 151
sodium 6, 7, 8, 52, 93, 108, 109, 111, sun 19, 34, 39, 71, 74, 75, 80, 85
117, 118, 123, 124, 129, 130, 132, swimming 47
142, 145 synthetic fuels 13
sodium 8, 9, 92, 94, 100, 110, 111, 122,
123, 129, 143, 146, 147, 148, 151
T
sodium aluminate 52 tasteless 5, 16, 23, 42, 54
sodium hypochlorite 52 temperature 4, 19, 23, 28, 34, 43, 44, 46,
sodium oxide 9 59, 60, 61, 69, 70, 71, 78, 79, 83,
solar cooker 75, 80 110, 111, 124, 127
solid 9, 10, 17, 18, 35, 37, 42, 45, 52, 54, test tubes 21, 22, 48, 114
62, 67, 83, 110, 111, 112, 113, 117, textile 47
124, 143 thermal energy 72, 83
solubility 15, 48 thermometer 42, 43, 44, 77, 78
solubility 15 thistle funnel 3, 20, 21
LY
soluble 2, 5, 15, 16, 19, 23, 40, 124, 127, transpiration 39, 54
146 transport 14, 17, 46, 59, 60, 153
N

solutions 7, 9, 109, 112 transportation 45, 46, 58, 60, 83

O

solvent 42, 47, 48, 55, 153 treatment 13, 37, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 56,
sound energy 72, 75 57
SE

spatula 48 typhoid 53
sport fishing 47
U
U

stars 19, 34
E

steam 24, 26, 27, 31, 33, 37, 39, 44, 45, universal solvent 42, 48
N

47, 68, 69, 70, 153 urea 143

LI

steam blow 70
steam engines 47
V
N

steam methane reforming 27 valencies 121, 128, 129, 133, 140

O

steam reforming 26, 31, 33 valency 128, 129, 131, 146

R

steam reforming 27, 153 velocity 59

FO

steel 68, 69, 71 velocity 59

stopper 21, 22, 66 vitamin 143
storage tank 12 volatile 61, 62, 64, 65, 77, 84
structural formula 134, 135 volatile matter 61, 62, 64, 65, 84
sub-marines 14 volatile matter 62

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W welding 15, 28, 31

welding 14, 28
water 1-5, 7,-11, 13, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, wet quenching 66
21, 23, 24-26, 28,-34, 37-59, 61-65, windfarm 82
67-71, 73, 77- 79, 83, 84, 85, 109, wind power 83
111-114, 117, 119, 124, 127, 143, wood 58, 61, 62, 63, 64, 66
146, 152, 153 wooden splint 5, 6, 67
water cycle 37, 38, 45, 54, 55, 57
water treatment 37, 49, 51, 52, 53, 57 Z
water trough 3, 20, 21 zinc 7, 9, 17, 20, 21, 31, 34, 35, 36, 128,
water vapour 32, 38, 39, 41 129, 139
water vapour 11, 41 zinc oxide 9
weather balloons 27, 30, 32, 34

LY
N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

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