Deep Blue (chess computer)

Deep Blue was a chess-playing expert system run on a

Deep Blue
unique purpose-built IBM supercomputer. It was the
first computer to win a game, and the first to win a
match, against a reigning world champion under
regular time controls. Development began in 1985 at
Carnegie Mellon University under the name ChipTest.
It then moved to IBM, where it was first renamed Deep
Thought, then again in 1989 to Deep Blue. It first
played world champion Garry Kasparov in a six-game
match in 1996, where it won one, draw two and lost
three games. It was upgraded in 1997 and in a six-
game re-match, it defeated Kasparov by winning two
games and drawing three. Deep Blue's victory is
considered a milestone in the history of artificial
intelligence and has been the subject of several books
and films.

History Active 1995 (prototype)

1996 (release)
While a doctoral student at Carnegie Mellon 1997 (upgrade)
University, Feng-hsiung Hsu began development of a Architecture 1995: IBM RS/6000
chess-playing supercomputer under the name Workstation with 14 custom
ChipTest. The machine won the North American VLSI first-generation "chess
Computer Chess Championship in 1987 and Hsu and chips"[1]
his team followed up with a successor, Deep Thought, 1996: IBM RS/6000 SP
in 1988.[2][3] After receiving his doctorate in 1989, Hsu Supercomputer with 30
and Murray Campbell joined IBM Research to PowerPC 604 "High 1" 120
continue their project to build a machine that could MHz CPUs and 480 custom
defeat a world chess champion.[4] Their colleague VLSI second-generation "chess
Thomas Anantharaman briefly joined them at IBM chips"
before leaving for the finance industry and being 1997: IBM RS/6000 SP
replaced by programmer Arthur Joseph Hoane.[5][6] Supercomputer with 30
Jerry Brody, a long-time employee of IBM Research, PowerPC 604e "High 2" 200
subsequently joined the team in 1990.[7] MHz CPUs and 480 custom
VLSI second-generation "chess
After Deep Thought's two-game 1989 loss to
chips"
Kasparov, IBM held a contest to rename the chess
machine: the winning name was "Deep Blue", Operating IBM AIX
submitted by Peter Fitzhugh Brown,[8] was a play on system
IBM's nickname, "Big Blue".[a] After a scaled-down Space 2 cabinets
version of Deep Blue played Grandmaster Joel Speed 11.38 GFLOPS (1997)
[10]
Benjamin, Hsu and Campbell decided that Purpose playing chess
Benjamin was the expert they were looking for to help
develop Deep Blue's opening book, so hired him to assist with the preparations for Deep Blue's matches
against Garry Kasparov.[11] In 1995, a Deep Blue prototype played in the eighth World Computer Chess
Championship, playing Wchess to a draw before ultimately losing to Fritz in round five, despite playing
as White.[12]

Today, one of the two racks that made up Deep Blue is held by the National Museum of American
History, having previously been displayed in an exhibit about the Information Age,[13] while the other
rack was acquired by the Computer History Museum in 1997, and is displayed in the Revolution exhibit's
"Artificial Intelligence and Robotics" gallery.[14] Several books were written about Deep Blue, among
them Behind Deep Blue: Building the Computer that Defeated the World Chess Champion by Deep Blue
developer Feng-hsiung Hsu.[15]

Deep Blue versus Kasparov

Subsequent to its predecessor Deep Thought's 1989 loss to Garry
Kasparov, Deep Blue played Kasparov twice more. In the first
game of the first match, which took place from 10 to 17 February
1996, Deep Blue became the first machine to win a chess game
against a reigning world champion under regular time controls.
However, Kasparov won three and drew two of the following five
games, beating Deep Blue by 4–2 at the close of the match.[16]

Deep Blue's hardware was subsequently upgraded,[3][17][b]

Garry Kasparov playing a
doubling its speed before it faced Kasparov again in May 1997,
simultaneous exhibition in 1985
when it won the six-game rematch 3½–2½. Deep Blue won the
deciding game after Kasparov failed to secure his position in the
opening, thereby becoming the first computer system to defeat a reigning world champion in a match
under standard chess tournament time controls.[19][20] The version of Deep Blue that defeated Kasparov
in 1997 typically searched to a depth of six to eight moves, and twenty or more moves in some
situations.[21] David Levy and Monty Newborn estimate that each additional ply (half-move) of forward
insight increases the playing strength between 50 and 70 Elo points.[22]

In the 44th move of the first game of their second match, unknown to Kasparov, a bug in Deep Blue's
code led it to enter an unintentional loop, which it exited by taking a randomly selected valid move.[23]
Kasparov did not take this possibility into account, and misattributed the seemingly pointless move to
"superior intelligence".[20] Subsequently, Kasparov experienced a decline in performance in the following
game,[23] though he denies this was due to anxiety in the wake of Deep Blue's inscrutable move.[24]

After his loss, Kasparov said that he sometimes saw unusual creativity in the machine's moves,
suggesting that during the second game, human chess players had intervened on behalf of the machine.
IBM denied this, saying the only human intervention occurred between games.[25][26] Kasparov
demanded a rematch, but IBM had dismantled Deep Blue after its victory and refused the rematch.[27]
The rules allowed the developers to modify the program between games, an opportunity they said they
used to shore up weaknesses in the computer's play that were revealed during the course of the match.
Kasparov requested printouts of the machine's log files, but IBM refused, although the company later
published the logs on the Internet.[28]

The 1997 tournament awarded a $700,000 first prize to the Deep Blue team and a $400,000 second prize
to Kasparov. Carnegie Mellon University awarded an additional $100,000 to the Deep Blue team, a prize
created by computer science professor Edward Fredkin in 1980 for the first computer program to beat a
reigning world chess champion.[29]

Aftermath

Chess
Kasparov initially called Deep Blue an "alien opponent" but later belittled it, stating that it was "as
intelligent as your alarm clock".[30] According to Martin Amis, two grandmasters who played Deep Blue
agreed that it was "like a wall coming at you".[31][32] Hsu had the rights to use the Deep Blue design
independently of IBM, but also independently declined Kasparov's rematch offer.[33] In 2003, the
documentary film Game Over: Kasparov and the Machine investigated Kasparov's claims that IBM had
cheated. In the film, some interviewees describe IBM's investment in Deep Blue as an effort to boost its
stock value.[34]

Other games
Following Deep Blue's victory, AI specialist Omar Syed designed a new game, Arimaa, which was
intended to be very simple for humans but very difficult for computers to master;[35][36] however, in
2015, computers proved capable of defeating strong Arimaa players.[37] Since Deep Blue's victory,
computer scientists have developed software for other complex board games with competitive
communities. The AlphaGo series (AlphaGo, AlphaGo Zero, AlphaZero) defeated top Go players in
2016–2017.[38][39]

Computer science
Computer scientists such as Deep Blue developer Campbell believed that playing chess was a good
measurement for the effectiveness of artificial intelligence, and by beating a world champion chess
player, IBM showed that they had made significant progress.[3] Deep Blue is also responsible for the
popularity of using games as a display medium for artificial intelligence, as in the cases of IBM Watson
or AlphaGo.[40]

While Deep Blue, with its capability of evaluating 200 million positions per second,[41] was the first
computer to face a world chess champion in a formal match,[3] it was a then-state-of-the-art expert
system, relying upon rules and variables defined and fine-tuned by chess masters and computer scientists.
In contrast, current chess engines such as Leela Chess Zero typically use reinforcement machine learning
systems that train a neural network to play, developing its own internal logic rather than relying upon
rules defined by human experts.[38]
In a November 2006 match between Deep Fritz and world chess champion Vladimir Kramnik, the
program ran on a computer system containing a dual-core Intel Xeon 5160 CPU, capable of evaluating
only 8 million positions per second, but searching to an average depth of 17 to 18 plies (half-moves) in
the middlegame thanks to heuristics; it won 4–2.[42][43]

Design

Software
Deep Blue ran under the AIX operating system, and its chess
playing program was written in C. Its evaluation function was
initially written in a generalized form, with many to-be-
determined parameters (e.g., how important is a safe king position
compared to a space advantage in the center, etc.). Values for these
parameters were determined by analyzing thousands of master
games. The evaluation function was then split into 8,000 parts,
many of them designed for special positions. The opening book
encapsulated more than 4,000 positions and 700,000 grandmaster
games, while the endgame database contained many six-piece
endgames and all five and fewer piece endgames. An additional
database named the "extended book" summarizes entire games
played by Grandmasters. The system combines its searching One of Deep Blue's processors
ability of 200 million chess positions per second with summary
information in the extended book to select opening moves.[44]

Before the second match, the program's rules were fine-tuned by grandmaster Joel Benjamin. The
opening library was provided by grandmasters Miguel Illescas, John Fedorowicz, and Nick de
Firmian.[45] When Kasparov requested that he be allowed to study other games that Deep Blue had
played so as to better understand his opponent, IBM refused, leading Kasparov to study many popular PC
chess games to familiarize himself with computer gameplay.[46]

Hardware
Deep Blue used custom VLSI chips to parallelize the alpha–beta search algorithm,[47] an example of
symbolic AI.[48] The system derived its playing strength mainly from brute force computing power. It
was a massively parallel IBM RS/6000 SP Supercomputer with 30 PowerPC 604e processors and 480
custom 600 nm CMOS VLSI "chess chips" designed to execute the chess-playing expert system, as well
as FPGAs intended to allow patching of the VLSIs (which ultimately went unused) all housed in two
cabinets. The chess chip has four parts: the move generator, the smart-move stack, the evaluation
function, and the search control. The move generator is a 8x8 combinational logic circuit, a chess board
in miniature.[49][50][51][52]
In 1997, Deep Blue was upgraded again to become the 259th most powerful supercomputer according to
the TOP500 list, achieving 11.38 GFLOPS on the parallel high performance LINPACK benchmark.
Deeper Blue was capable of evaluating 200 million positions per second, twice as many as the 1996
version.[53]

See also
Chess portal

Anti-computer tactics, which exploit the repetitive habits of computers

IBM Watson, which could adeptly answer questions in human language
Mechanical Turk, an 18th- and 19th-century hoax purported to be a chess-playing machine
X3D Fritz, which also tied Kasparov
Rematch, a 2024 TV miniseries about the 1997 match

References

Notes
a. IBM renamed "Deep Thought" because the name resembled the title of the hit pornographic
film Deep Throat.[9]
b. Unofficially nicknamed "Deeper Blue".[18]

Citations
1. "Deep Thought (Chess)" (https://www.game-ai-forum.org/icga-tournaments/program.php?id
=349). ICGA Tournaments. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20201106232811/http://w
ww.game-ai-forum.org/icga-tournaments/program.php?id=349) from the original on 6
November 2020. Retrieved 11 January 2022.
2. Newborn 2002, pp. 11–20
3. Greenemeier, Larry (2 June 2017). "20 Years after Deep Blue: How AI Has Advanced Since
Conquering Chess" (https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/20-years-after-deep-blue-ho
w-ai-has-advanced-since-conquering-chess/). Scientific American. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20180630025017/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/20-years-after-de
ep-blue-how-ai-has-advanced-since-conquering-chess/) from the original on 30 June 2018.
Retrieved 29 June 2018.
4. Hsu 2002, pp. 92–95
5. Hsu 2002, p. 107
6. Hsu 2002, p. 132
7. IBM. "Deep Blue – Overview" (https://web.archive.org/web/20081212221319/http://www.res
earch.ibm.com/deepblue/meet/html/d.4.2.html). IBM Research. Archived from the original (ht
tp://www.research.ibm.com/deepblue/meet/html/d.4.2.html) on 12 December 2008.
Retrieved 19 August 2008.
8. Hsu 2002, pp. 126–127
9. Zuckerman 2019, p. 178
10. "Joel Benjamin playing a practice game with Deep Blue" (https://www.computerhistory.org/c
hess/stl-431614f67f976/). Computer History Museum. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20200217172921/https://www.computerhistory.org/chess/stl-431614f67f976/) from the
original on 17 February 2020. Retrieved 17 February 2020.
11. Hsu 2002, pp. 160–161, 174, 177, 193
12. "8th World Computer Chess Championship" (https://web.archive.org/web/20081007035001/
http://www.grappa.univ-lille3.fr/icga/tournament.php?id=29). ICGA Tournaments. Archived
from the original (http://www.grappa.univ-lille3.fr/icga/tournament.php?id=29) on 7 October
2008. Retrieved 4 June 2020.
13. "Deep Blue Supercomputer Tower" (http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/n
mah_1005331). National Museum of American History. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20190202044640/http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/search/object/nmah_1005331)
from the original on 2 February 2019. Retrieved 1 February 2019.
14. "Deep Blue II" (https://www.computerhistory.org/chess/art-43305f13ef377/). Computer
History Museum. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20191004174218/https://www.comp
uterhistory.org/chess/art-43305f13ef377/) from the original on 4 October 2019. Retrieved
8 June 2020.
15. (Hsu 2004)
16. Newborn 1997, p. 287
17. McPhee, Michele; Baker, K.C.; Siemaszko, Corky (10 May 2015). "IBM's Deep Blue beats
chess champion Garry Kasparov in 1997" (http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/kasparo
v-deep-blues-losingchess-champ-rooke-article-1.762264). Daily News. New York. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20170803171244/http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/kas
parov-deep-blues-losingchess-champ-rooke-article-1.762264) from the original on 3 August
2017. Retrieved 3 August 2017.
18. IBM Research Game 2 (http://www.research.ibm.com/deepblue/games/game2/html/c.2.sht
ml) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20071019031508/http://www.research.ibm.com/d
eepblue/games/game2/html/c.2.shtml) 19 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Deep
Blue IBM
19. Saletan, William (11 May 2007). "Chess Bump: The triumphant teamwork of humans and
computers" (http://www.slate.com/id/2166000/). Slate. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20070513035007/http://www.slate.com/id/2166000/) from the original on 13 May 2007.
20. Roberts, Jacob (2016). "Thinking Machines: The Search for Artificial Intelligence" (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20180819152455/https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/thi
nking-machines-the-search-for-artificial-intelligence). Distillations. 2 (2): 14–23. Archived
from the original (https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/thinking-machines-th
e-search-for-artificial-intelligence) on 19 August 2018. Retrieved 22 March 2018.
21. Campbell 1998, p. 88
22. Levy & Newborn 1991, p. 192
23. Plumer, Brad (26 September 2012). "Nate Silver's 'The Signal and the Noise' " (https://www.
washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2012/09/26/nate-silvers-the-signal-and-the-noise/). The
Washington Post. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20121109100324/http://www.washi
ngtonpost.com/blogs/ezra-klein/wp/2012/09/26/nate-silvers-the-signal-and-the-noise/) from
the original on 9 November 2012. Retrieved 18 August 2021.
24. LC Catalog – Item Information (Full Record). LCCN 2017304768 (https://lccn.loc.gov/20173
04768).
25. Silver, Albert (19 February 2015). "Deep Blue's cheating move" (https://en.chessbase.com/p
ost/deep-blue-s-cheating-move). Chess Base. Chess News. Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20200729034238/https://en.chessbase.com/post/deep-blue-s-cheating-move) from
the original on 29 July 2020. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
26. Hsu 2004, p. x
27. Warwick 2004, p. 95
28. "Deep Blue – Replay the Games" (https://web.archive.org/web/20080701232743/http://www.
research.ibm.com/deepblue/watch/html/c.shtml). IBM Research. Archived from the original
(http://www.research.ibm.com/deepblue/watch/html/c.shtml) on 1 July 2008. Retrieved
10 June 2020.
29. Boyle, Alan (16 June 2004). "How prizes pushed progress" (https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wb
na5191763). NBC News. Retrieved 23 January 2024.
30. Baldwin, Alan (11 April 2020). "On this day: Born April 13, 1963; Russian chess champion
Garry Kasparov" (https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sport-anniversary-kasparov/on-this-day
-born-april-13-1963-russian-chess-champion-garry-kasparov-idUSKCN21U060). Reuters.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20201102103220/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-s
port-anniversary-kasparov/on-this-day-born-april-13-1963-russian-chess-champion-garry-ka
sparov-idUSKCN21U060) from the original on 2 November 2020. Retrieved 18 August
2021.
31. Amis 2011, p. vii
32. Barrat 2013, p. 13
33. "Owen Williams replies to Feng-hsiung Hsu" (http://www.chess.co.uk/twic/owenfeng.html).
The Week in Chess. 13 January 2000. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120729131
411/http://www.chess.co.uk/twic/owenfeng.html) from the original on 29 July 2012.
Retrieved 11 May 2012.
34. " 'Game Over' : Did IBM Cheat Kasparov?" (https://web.archive.org/web/20071012234501/ht
tp://chess.about.com/library/weekly/aa05f04.htm). About.com: Chess. June 2005. Archived
from the original (http://chess.about.com/library/weekly/aa05f04.htm) on 12 October 2007.
Retrieved 4 June 2020.
35. Syed & Syed 2003, p. 138
36. "Deep Blue: Cultural Impacts" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140330200410/http://www-03.
ibm.com/ibm/history/ibm100/us/en/icons/deepblue/impacts/). IBM100. IBM. Archived from
the original (http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/ibm100/us/en/icons/deepblue/impacts/) on
30 March 2014. Retrieved 5 June 2020.
37. Wu 2015, p. 19
38. Silver, David; Hubert, Thomas; Schrittwieser, Julian; et al. (6 December 2018). "A general
reinforcement learning algorithm that masters chess, shogi, and Go through self-play" (htt
p://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/10069050/1/alphazero_preprint.pdf) (PDF). Science. 362 (6419):
1140–1144. Bibcode:2018Sci...362.1140S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018Sci...362.
1140S). doi:10.1126/science.aar6404 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aar6404).
PMID 30523106 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30523106). S2CID 54457125 (https://api.
semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:54457125). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190901
220135/http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/10069050/1/alphazero_preprint.pdf) (PDF) from the
original on 1 September 2019. Retrieved 4 January 2022.
39. "Google's AlphaGo retires on top after humbling world No. 1" (https://phys.org/news/2017-05
-google-alphago-humbling-world.html). phys.org. 27 May 2017. Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20170528000109/https://phys.org/news/2017-05-google-alphago-humbling-world.
html) from the original on 28 May 2017. Retrieved 4 January 2022.
40. Barbierato, Enrico; Zamponi, Maria Enrica (2022). "Shifting Perspectives on AI Evaluation:
The Increasing Role of Ethics in Cooperation" (https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fai3020021). AI. 3
(2): 331–352. doi:10.3390/ai3020021 (https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fai3020021).
hdl:10807/259716 (https://hdl.handle.net/10807%2F259716).
41. Strogatz, Steven (26 December 2018). "One Giant Step for a Chess-Playing Machine" (http
s://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/26/science/chess-artificial-intelligence.html). The New York
Times. ISSN 0362-4331 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331). Archived (https://web.
archive.org/web/20220104004951/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/26/science/chess-artifi
cial-intelligence.html) from the original on 4 January 2022. Retrieved 4 January 2022.
42. Schulz, André (23 November 2006). "Das letzte Match Mensch gegen Maschine?" (https://e
n.chessbase.com/post/the-last-man-vs-machine-match-) [The last man vs machine match?].
Der Spiegel (in German). Translated by ChessBase Chess News. Archived (https://web.arch
ive.org/web/20121016172318/http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=3504)
from the original on 16 October 2012. Retrieved 18 August 2021.
43. "Chess champion loses to computer" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6212076.stm). BBC
News. 5 December 2006. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20071231112514/http://ne
ws.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6212076.stm) from the original on 31 December 2007. Retrieved
4 May 2008.
44. Campbell 1999, p. 66
45. Weber, Bruce (18 May 1997). "What Deep Blue Learned in Chess School" (https://www.nyti
mes.com/1997/05/18/nyregion/what-deep-blue-learned-in-chess-school.html). The New
York Times. ISSN 0362-4331 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331). Archived (https://
web.archive.org/web/20170517052341/http://www.nytimes.com/1997/05/18/nyregion/what-d
eep-blue-learned-in-chess-school.html) from the original on 17 May 2017. Retrieved 4 July
2017.
46. Weber, Bruce (5 May 1997). "Computer Defeats Kasparov, Stunning the Chess Experts" (htt
ps://www.nytimes.com/1997/05/05/nyregion/computer-defeats-kasparov-stunning-the-chess
-experts.html). The New York Times. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2020042415512
2/https://www.nytimes.com/1997/05/05/nyregion/computer-defeats-kasparov-stunning-the-c
hess-experts.html) from the original on 24 April 2020. Retrieved 18 May 2020.
47. Hsu, Campbell & Hoane 1995 p. 240
48. Greenemeier, Larry. "20 Years after Deep Blue: How AI Has Advanced Since Conquering
Chess" (https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/20-years-after-deep-blue-how-ai-has-adv
anced-since-conquering-chess/). Scientific American. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20211220224453/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/20-years-after-deep-blue-how-
ai-has-advanced-since-conquering-chess/) from the original on 20 December 2021.
Retrieved 3 January 2022.
49. Hsu, Feng-hsiung (March–April 1999). "IBM's Deep Blue Chess Grandmaster Chips" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20041228122752/http://www.csis.pace.edu/~ctappert/dps/pdf/ai-ch
ess-deep.pdf) (PDF). IEEE Micro. 19 (2): 70–81. doi:10.1109/40.755469 (https://doi.org/10.1
109%2F40.755469). Archived from the original (http://www.csis.pace.edu/~ctappert/dps/pdf/
ai-chess-deep.pdf) (PDF) on 28 December 2004. Retrieved 11 January 2022.
50. Festa, Paul (2 September 1997). "IBM upgrades Deep Blue" (https://www.cnet.com/news/ib
m-upgrades-deep-blue/). Clnet. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220103234251/http
s://www.cnet.com/news/ibm-upgrades-deep-blue/) from the original on 3 January 2022.
Retrieved 11 January 2022.
51. Gonsalves 2017, p. 234
52. Hsu, Feng-hsiung (3 May 2022). Behind Deep Blue: Building the Computer That Defeated
the World Chess Champion (https://books.google.com/books?id=7aBMEAAAQBAJ).
Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-23514-1.
53. "TOP500 List – June 1997 (201–300)" (https://web.archive.org/web/20090213103245/http://
www.top500.org/list/1997/06/300). Top 500. 13 February 2009. Archived from the original (ht
tp://www.top500.org/list/1997/06/300) on 13 February 2009. Retrieved 10 June 2020.

Bibliography
Amis, Martin (2011). "Foreword". In Mann, Windsor (ed.). The Quotable Hitchens: From
Alcohol to Zionism (https://books.google.com/books?id=BG6Rc80E8toC). Da Capo Press.
ISBN 978-0-306-81983-4. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220329192008/https://w
ww.google.com/books/edition/The_Quotable_Hitchens/BG6Rc80E8toC) from the original on
29 March 2022. Retrieved 18 August 2021.
Barrat, James (2013). Our Final Invention (Kindle ed.). St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-
62237-4.
Campbell, Murray (1998). "An Enjoyable Game". In Stork, D. G. (ed.). HAL's Legacy: 2001's
Computer as Dream and Reality. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-19378-8.
Campbell, Murray (1999). "Knowledge discovery in deep blue" (https://doi.org/10.1145%2F3
19382.319396). Communications of the ACM. 42 (11). Association for Computing
Machinery: 65–67. doi:10.1145/319382.319396 (https://doi.org/10.1145%2F319382.31939
6). S2CID 176390 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:176390).
Campbell, Murray; Hoane, A. Joseph Jr.; Hsu, Feng-hsiung (2002). "Deep Blue" (https://doi.
org/10.1016%2FS0004-3702%2801%2900129-1). Artificial Intelligence. 134 (1–2). Elsevier:
57–83. doi:10.1016/S0004-3702(01)00129-1 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0004-3702%280
1%2900129-1). ISSN 0004-3702 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0004-3702).
Gonsalves, Tad (2017). "The Summers and Winters of Artificial Intelligence". In Khosrow-
Pour, Mehdi (ed.). Encyclopedia of Information Science and Technology (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=kvIoDwAAQBAJ). Vol. 1. IGI Global. pp. 229–238. ISBN 978-1-5225-2256-
0. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220329192009/https://www.google.com/books/e
dition/Encyclopedia_of_Information_Science_and/kvIoDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1) from the
original on 29 March 2022. Retrieved 19 June 2020.
Hsu, Feng-hsiung; Campbell, Murray; Hoane, A. Joseph Jr. (1995). "Deep Blue System
Overview" (https://web.archive.org/web/20181017043132/http://www.top-5000.nl/ps/Deep%
20blue%20system%20overview.pdf) (PDF). Proceedings of the 9th International Conference
on Supercomputing. 1995 International Conference on Supercomputing. Association for
Computing Machinery. pp. 240–244. doi:10.1145/224538.224567 (https://doi.org/10.1145%2
F224538.224567). ISBN 978-0-89791-728-5. Archived from the original on 17 October 2018
– via top-5000.nl.
Hsu, Feng-hsiung (2002). Behind Deep Blue: Building the Computer that Defeated the
World Chess Champion (1st ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-09065-8.
Hsu, Feng-hsiung (2004) [2002]. Behind Deep Blue: Building the Computer that Defeated
the World Chess Champion (https://books.google.com/books?id=WOk9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PR
10) (revised ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-11818-5. Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20220322035626/https://books.google.com/books?id=WOk9DwAAQBAJ
&pg=PR10) from the original on 22 March 2022. Retrieved 10 December 2018.
King, Daniel (1997). Kasparov v. Deeper Blue: The Ultimate Man v. Machine Challenge.
Batsford. ISBN 978-0-7134-8322-2.
Levy, David; Newborn, Monty (1991). How Computers Play Chess. Computer Science
Press. ISBN 978-0-7167-8121-9.
Newborn, Monty (1997). Kasparov versus Deep Blue: Computer Chess Comes of Age (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=IiXjBwAAQBAJ) (1st ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-94820-
1. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210818060021/https://books.google.com/books?
id=IiXjBwAAQBAJ) from the original on 18 August 2021. Retrieved 31 August 2020.
Newborn, Monty (2002). Deep Blue: An Artificial Intelligence Milestone (https://archive.org/d
etails/springer_10.1007-978-0-387-21790-1). Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-95461-5.
Syed, Omar; Syed, Aamir (2003). "Arimaa – a New Game Designed to be Difficult for
Computers" (http://arimaa.com/arimaa/papers/030801ICGA/). International Computer
Games Association Journal. 26 (2). Leiden University: 138–139. doi:10.3233/ICG-2003-
26213 (https://doi.org/10.3233%2FICG-2003-26213). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20201106232533/http://arimaa.com/arimaa/papers/030801ICGA/) from the original on 6
November 2020. Retrieved 18 August 2021 – via arimaa.com.
Warwick, Kevin (2004). I, Cyborg (https://books.google.com/books?id=6Ya1yGJOapMC).
University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-07215-4. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20210818060020/https://books.google.com/books?id=6Ya1yGJOapMC) from the original on
18 August 2021. Retrieved 17 May 2020.
 Wu, David J. (2015). "Designing a Winning Arimaa Program" (http://arimaa.com/arimaa/pap
ers/150301ICGA/ICGA38-1.pdf) (PDF). International Computer Games Association Journal.
38 (1). Leiden University: 19–40. doi:10.3233/ICG-2015-38104 (https://doi.org/10.3233%2FI
CG-2015-38104). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20171113224554/http://arimaa.co
m/arimaa/papers/150301ICGA/ICGA38-1.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 13 November
2017. Retrieved 18 August 2021 – via arimaa.com.
Zuckerman, Gregory (2019). The Man Who Solved the Market: How Jim Simons Launched
the Quant Revolution (https://books.google.com/books?id=2vm0DwAAQBAJ) (1st
(hbk) ed.). Penguin/Portfolio. ISBN 978-0-7352-1798-0. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20210818173210/https://books.google.com/books?id=2vm0DwAAQBAJ) from the original
on 18 August 2021. Retrieved 18 August 2021.

External links
Deep Blue (https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=29912) player profile and
games at Chessgames.com
IBM.com (https://web.archive.org/web/20070407074301/http://www.research.ibm.com/deep
blue/), IBM Research pages on Deep Blue
IBM.com (https://web.archive.org/web/20080701232743/http://www.research.ibm.com/deep
blue/watch/html/c.shtml), IBM page with the computer logs from the games
Chesscenter.com (https://web.archive.org/web/20040406094751/http://www.chesscenter.co
m/twic/feng.html), Open letter from Feng-hsiung Hsu on the aborted rematch with Kasparov,
The Week in Chess Magazine, issue 270, 10 January 2000
Chesscenter.com (https://web.archive.org/web/20090531080948/http://www.chesscenter.co
m/twic/owenfeng.html), Open Letter from Owen Williams (Garry Kasparov's manager),
responding to Feng-hsiung Hsu, 13 January 2000
Sjeng.org (https://web.archive.org/web/20050520043104/http://sjeng.org:80/ftp/deepblue.pd
f), Deep Blue system described by Feng-hsiung Hsu, Murray Campbell and A. Joseph
Hoane Jr. (PDF)
Chessclub.com (https://web.archive.org/web/20070701141111/http://www.chessclub.com/re
sources/articles/interview_crazybird1.html), ICC Interview with Feng-Hsiung Hsu, an online
interview with Hsu in 2002 (annotated)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deep_Blue_(chess_computer)&oldid=1271663265"