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Unit II

Social structure

SOCIETY The term society is the most fundamental Concept in sociology. Sociology is
established as a separate science to study human society scientifically. Human life and society
are two faces of the same coin. Man cannot live alone. He lives everywhere in groups in
society. Society has became an essential condition for all-round development of personality.
Hence “Aristotle” recognized that “Man is a social animal” man has created his own
society because of his intellectual capacity. Sociology only deals with human society.

Meaning and definitions of society –

DERIVATION:

The term „society‟ is derived from the Latin word „socius‟. Which means “companionship
or friendship. It refers to the social nature of man. Companionship thus means sociability.

1] MacIver and page :- “Society is “the web of social relationships”

2] G .D.M. Cole: - “Society is a complex of organised associations and institutions within the
community.”

Characteristics of Society

A) Society - The Group of Groups:

People collect together to form groups. Such groups combine together to give rise to society.

H.M.Johnson - Has thus remarked that “society is the group of groups”. But it is not just like a
crowd. It is a system. It consists of innumerable groups which fulfil the various needs of the
people.

B) Society is a web of Social Relations:

Social relation means –”The reciprocal contact between two or more persons. Social
relationships have a wide range. For example - Teacher – student, parent-children, patient-
doctor, husband –wife and so on. One individual enters in to several social relationships at the
same time.

C) Similarity or Likeness:

The principle of „likeness‟ is essential for society. It exists among the people have similarities
with regards to their needs, works, aims, Ideals, values and so on. These similarities inspire
the people to interact and like each other and live together.

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D) Differences in Society:-

Likeness and differences are two faces of the same coin. Therefore we see natural differences
among people in their interest, ability, talent, attitude, intelligence and so on. Thus we find
farmers, labourers. Teachers, soldiers, businessmen, advocates, doctors, engineers and others
working in different capacities,

E) Co-Operation and Division of Labour: - Human Society is essentially based on „Co-

operation and division of labour. Due to the feeling of Co-operation people share their joys and
Sorrows.

The division of labour depends on people‟s interest, ability, sex, and age etc. Due to division of
labour in various fields task are performed more efficiently.

E) Interdependence:-

An individual seeks the satisfaction of his wants and the fulfilment of his goals with the co-
operation of others. Today not only individuals are interdependent but even communities are
also interdependent.

F) Social Control: - society has its own ways and means of controlling the behaviour of its
members. Society has formal and informal means of social control.

1. Formal social control.

In modern complex society we find law, legislation, police, Court and other formal
means of social control to regulate the behaviour of its members.
2. Informal social control.
Simple society has customs folkways more, traditions, and other informal means of
social control.
Hence it is very much essential for the stability and integrity of society.

G) Society is Dynamic: - Society keeps on changing forever. No society can ever remain
constant for a long period. Changes may take place slowly or suddenly at a rapid pace.

Types of Society

Societies can be divided into pre-modern and modern societies.

I. In the pre-modern societies:

(1) Hunting and Food gathering societies, characterized by small number of people
gaining their livelihood from hunting, fishing, and gathering of edible plants. There were few
differences based on age and gender.

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(2) Agrarians societies based on small rural communities without towns or cities. Lively
hood gained through agriculture, often supplemented by hunting and gathering . It was ruled
by a chief and inequalities existed among themselves.

(3) Pastoral societies - Size of this society ranges from few hundred people to many
thousands depends on the tending of domesticated animals for their subsistence. It is marked
by distinct inequalities and ruled by a chief or warrior kings.

(4) Traditional societies

Traditional societies were large in size some numbering millions of people though small
compared with industrialized societies. Some cities exists in which trade and manufacture are
concentrated. This society is based on agriculture. Major inequalities were existed among
different classes. Distinct apparatus of Government headed by a king or an emperor.

II. Societies in the modern world

Societies in the modern world are divided into

(1) The first world societies which existed since 18th century to the present. First world
societies are based on industrial production and generally free enterprise. There were major
class inequalities though less pronounced than in traditional societies.

(2) Second world Societies- These societies period of existence: In early 20th century
(following the Russian revolution) to the early 1990s. It is based on industry, but the economic
system is centrally planned. Small proportion of the population work in agriculture, most live
in towns and cities major class inequalities persists.

(3) Developing Societies (Third world societies) these societies existed from 18th century
to the present day. Majority of the population work in agriculture, using traditional methods of
production. Some agricultural produced sold in world market.

(4) Newly industrialised societies: These societies come into existence since 1970
onwards. Former developing societies now based on industrial production and generally free
enterprises. Majority of the people live in towns and cities, a few work in agricultural pursuits.

Community:

Community is also an important concept in sociology. Community is a geographic area having

common interests and activities. It is community is essentially an area of social living and
marked by some degree of social coherence. It includes a variety of associations and
institutions within the range of a their economic, religious, political, educational and other
activities.

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Meaning and Definitions :

Generally the term community is very loosely used Thus the expressions like a caste
community, a racial community, a religious community , a linguistic community are used in a
very limited sense. But its sociological meaning is different and specific.

The following definitions make its sociological meaning somewhat clear.

1. E. S. Bagardus :- “ Community is a Social Group with some degree of “we feeling” and
living in a given area”.

2. Kingsley Devis :- “ Community is the smallest territorial group that can embrace all aspects
of social life

Examples:- Tribe, Village, Urban, Taluk, District, State, Nation etc.

Elements of community

E.A. Bogardus identified the following elements by community. Geographical area or locality
and community sentiments are considered as the essential elements of community.

A) Locality or Geographical area:-

Locality Means - “A group of people became a community only when it starts to reside
permanently in a definite locality. Living together facilitates people to develop social contacts,
gives protection, safety and security. It helps the members to promote and fulfill their
common interests. In Community physical conditions may influence people‟s social life, family,
religion, belief, employment etc.

The physical factors such as fertile soil, minerals, forests, water resources, vegetation climate
etc are included in the locality. These factors influence the lives of community members in
several ways. They have a close bearing on their economic activities in particular.

B) Community Sentiment: - Community sentiment: “a feeling of belongingness towards. Or

“a kind of conscious identification with the local group.” Community sentiment makes the
people share their joys and sorrows and brings social integrity in them.

a) We feeling b) role-feeling, and c) dependency feeling”

„We – Feeling‟:- It refers of the “sense of communion” with the group or community. This
feeling leads men to identify themselves with others so that they are able to develop “we”-
sentiment”.

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„Role-Feeling‟:- Each person feels that he has a role to play, a function to fulfil in the
community affairs. This feeling involves the subordination of the individual to the community
as a whole.

Dependency - Feeling: - Every member of the community feels that he is dependent upon the
community. This involves both physical dependence and psychological dependence. Hence
these three elements are must in community sentiment..

Other Characteristics of community

In addition to the above elements there are also others characteristics which are essential to
community. They may be briefly examined here.

C) Stability or Relative Permanence;- A community is not temporary group like a crowd or

a mob. It includes a permanent life in a definite territory. As along as there is life on the earth,
People continue to reside permanently all through their life in the communities. Therefore it is
relatively stable. In exceptional case due to natural calamities like earthquake or floods or any
other reasons communities may be destroyed.

D) Naturalness: - Communities are normally established in a natural way. They are not
deliberately created. They are not made by planned efforts. The members of a community are
the individuals who are born in a community, As people live over a period of time in a
particular territory naturally the community feeling develops. Thus communities are
spontaneous in there origin and development. It has a natural growth of its own.

E) Size of the Community:- Community has no certain size. A community may be big or
small. A village is small community where as a city is a big one.

F) Social Control: - Every community has its own rules and regulations to control the
relationship of its members

For example - In the rural and tribal communities informal means of regulations such as
customs, folkways, mores, beliefs, rites, and rituals etc are enough to exercise social pressure
on the behaviour of the people,

where as in the urban communities formal means of control such as laws, legislations, police,
Courts play the role of controlling the behaviour.

G) A Specific Name :- Every community has some particular name. whether community is a
village or a city or a tribe it has its own name and identity.

Types of community

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Taking into consideration different criteria such as size and density of population, nature of
interaction , and stratification, degree of social mobility etc.

A) Tribal Community:-

Tribal community consists of mostly indigenous people living far away from the area of
influence of civilization.

It constitutes a group speaking a common dialect in habiting in a common area and

following a common culture. For examples:- Nagas, Garos Khasis, Gonds, Santals, Mundas,
Soliga of India constitute tribal communities.

B) Rural community:-

 Rural community consists of people living in village.

 Depending mainly on agriculture and allied occupations.
 Rural community is homogeneous in nature.
 Relatively smaller in size

C) Urban Community :-

 Urban community consists of people living in towns and cities.

 Depending mainly on non-agricultural occupations.
 Heterogeneous in nature,
 Relatively bigger in size
 Dominance of non-intimate or secondary relations.

SNo. SOCIETY COMMUNITY

1. A society is defined as a group of people On the other hand, a community is defined as

sharing the same culture, interests, the group of living in a social structure.
opinions, etc.
2. A society is a physical place. A community can be a physical or virtual place.
3. The concept of society prevails among The concept of society prevails only among
humans as well as animals. humans.
4. Society is a web of building social A community is only a group of individuals.
relationships.
5. Society does not have a specific The community has a specific geographical area.
geographical area.
6. Community sentiments are not present in There can be no community without
society. Community sentiments.

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7. Society is wider, i.e., it includes several The community is smaller as compared to society.
small communities.
8. Society is a web of social relationships Community is concrete, i.e., it includes a particular
that cannot be touched. It is abstract. or a area particular group of people.
9. Common interests, goals, perceptions, Common interests, goals, perceptions, opinions are
opinions are not necessary among people necessary among people living in a community.
living in a society.
10. Common and diverse interests are present Particular or specific interests prevail in a
in society. community.
11. Communication and interactions are People in a community communicate involuntarily.
important in a society. This helps in Therefore, it is not necessary to interact.
building social relationships.
12. Society is heterogeneous, i.e., there is Community is homogenous, i.e., less or no diversity
diversity among the members. is present among the members.

Association

Man is an associational animal. He cannot live alone. An individual from birth to death has
diverse needs and desires. But all these cannot be fulfilled by himself or herself alone. So
people having common needs and come together and form an association. when people
form various groups for achieving their common interests by collective efforts they are
called association.

Definition

William. P. Scott: “An association refers to “a formal group organised for a specialised and
specifically stated purpose”.

Examples:- political parties, Trade union, Student Union, Rotary club, Lions club,
professional associations etc.

Characteristics of Association

A) Association – A Human Group An association is formed by people. It is basically a

social group. Without people there can be no association. However all groups are not
associations. Because an association is basically an organised group. An unorganised group
like a crowd or a mob cannot be an association.

B) Specific Interest or Interests: An association is not only a collection of individuals.

But also consists of those individuals who have more or less the same interests.
Accordingly those who have political interests may join political parties and those who have
cultural interests may join cultural association, those who have sports interests may join
sports association and so on.

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C) Co-Operative Spirit:- An association is based on the co-operative spirit of its

members . people work together to achieve common purpose. For example: Workers to
work together on a co-operative basis in order to fulfill their objective of getting good
working conditions.

D) Organized Group : Association is not just a collection of individuals. It is an organised

collection for some specific ends . organisation gives stability and proper shape to an
association. Organization refers to the way in which the status and roles are distributed
among its members.

E) Regulation of Relations : Every association has its own rules and regulation
applicable to its members. These are called associational norms. Organisation depends on
this element of regulation. Association resorts to formal or informal means to regulate the
relations of its members. For Example : Family through the institution of marriage controls
the sexual behavior of its members, professional organization have formal norms to control
members

F) Element of Stability :- An association may be permanent or temporary. There are

some long standing association like the political parties, trade union etc. Some associations
may be purely temporary in nature, Example: Association that are established to felicitate
some great writers, scientists and religious leaders.

INSTITUTION

In general institution and association are used interchangeably, but in sociology these
words have specific meaning and differences. Generally association denote membership,
But Institution denote only a mode or mean of service.

Definition

MacIver and page : “Institutions may be defined as the “established forms or conditions of
procedure characteristics of group activity”.

Examples: Family marriage , education religion, kinship factory, school college, etc.

Characteristics of Institution A) Universal: Social institutions are universal in nature. They

are found every where and at all stages of social development. There can be no society in
the absence of institutions. The basic institutions such as marriage, family, property.
Religioin are observed even in the tribal or primitive societies.

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Characteristics of Institution

1.) Universal: Social institutions are universal in nature. They are found every where and
at all stages of social development. There can be no society in the absence of institutions.
The basic institutions such as marriage, family, property. Religioin are observed even in
the tribal or primitive societies

2.Institutions are Standardised Norms: Social institution must be understood as well

recognised or standardised procedures and norms. They prescribe the way of doing thing.
They also prescribe rules and regulations that are to be followed.

For examples –the school or college has its own established or standardised rules and
procedures.

3.Institutions are Controlling Mechanism: - Institutions like religion, education,

morality, state, government, legislation etc Control the behavior of man. These
mechanisms preserve the social order and give stability to it.

4.Institutions are Relatively Permanent: Institutions normally do not undergo sudden

or rapid changes. Changes take place gradually. Many institutions are rigid and enduring.
They in course of time became the conservative elements in society. Examples – caste,
religion etc. But under the pressure of circumstances they also undergo changes.

5) Abstract in Nature: Institutions are not external visible or tangible things. They are
abstract. EX. marriage cannot be kept in a museum. Religion cannot be rated or quantified.

6.Oral and Written Traditions: Institutions may persist in the form of oral or written
traditions. In simple and preliterate societies, institutions, were in the oral form,
Institutions are based on either customs and dogmas. But in modern societies, they are
found in written as well as oral forms. There may be institutional forms like law,
constitution, Sacred text, governmental orders, business contracts, political, educational
and economic institutions and so on.

7.Symbolic Traits:- Every social institutions may have their own symbols, material or
non-material. Examples: The Nation has flag, emblem and anthem as its symbols. Religion
may have its own symbols like Idol, holy cross, crescent, star, swastika, Marriage may
have own wedding ring or mangal-sutra and so on

8.Institutions are Interrelated:- Institutions are interrelated. Understanding of one

institution requires an understanding of other related institutions. Example : religious,
moral, Educational, political, economic, and other types of institutions are essentially
interlinked.

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Individual and Society

 The relation between individual and society is very close. Society maintains the

regularities through customs and check the antihuman behaviour.

 Society does not exist independently without individuals.

 The individual lives and acts within society and society is the combination of individuals

within their cooperative effort.

 On the other hand society exists to serve individuals. It is the society that an individual

is surrounded and encompassed by culture as a societal force.

 The relationship between the individual and society depends upon the fact that the

individual and society are mutually dependent and grows with the help of each other.

There are two major theories regarding relationship of man and society. - Social Contract
theory and Organismic theory.

Social Contract Theory

 Proposed by sociologist Locke. According to theory, in order to gain certainty and

security human made contract to enter in the civil society or the state and the theorist
calls it as Social Contract.
 The purpose of the social contract was to protect and preserve the rights of the
individual.
 Later the social contract contributed to the governmental control.
 The government contract was made by the society when it established a government.

The Organismic Theory

• It considers society like biological organism.

• As the union between the several parts of an animal body makes an organism, similarly the
union of individuals forms the society.
• The theorist said as the cell belongs to the body of the individual, individual belong to the
society.

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Personal Disorganization

• It represents a behaviour of the individual which deviates from the social norms. It results in
social disapproval which may express itself in a wide variety of degrees.

• The individual may also react in different ways. It may be mild reactions or violent
behaviour. Accordingly individual respond wither positively or negatively to social
disapprovals.

Causes of Personal Disorganization

1.Situational disorganization: Happens when a precipitating event causes life disruption.

 Being unhappy in job

 Having a heavy workload
 Working long hours
 Being insecure
 Facing discrimination or harassment at work
 Death of a loved one
 Divorce
 Moving to a new place

2.Habitual disorganization: One has created his own state of disorganization with his
collection of bad habits.
 Smoking
 Drinking too much alcohol
 Skipping meals
 Procastination
 Developing unhealthy sleeping habits
 Overusing social media.

3.Historical disorganization: when past of the person impacts the state of order.

 Traumatic event- natural disaster, violence, faulty parenting

 Social world- dowry system, caste system

Effects/consequences of Personal Disorganization

 Fear and uncertainty, headache, fatigue and difficulty in sleeping
 Difficulty concentrating, upset stomach, irritability and depression

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 High blood pressure and abnormal heartbeat

 Heart disease or heart attack
 Heartburn, ulcers, irritable bowel syndrome
 Upset stomach- cramps, constipation and diarrhoea.
 . Weight gain or loss
 Fertility problems and flare ups of asthma or arthritis.

Social isolation

 Having little or no contact with other people.

 It is different from loneliness. Loneliness is a state of emotion that is felt by the
individual who are not satisfied with their social connections.
 Social isolation is voluntary and last for extended period of time.
 It is the absence of social interactions, contacts and relationships with family and
friends, with neighbors on an individual level, and with society at large on a broader
level.

Causes of social isolation

 Eccentric people may choose to have little contact with other people.
 Physical disability or illnesses.
 Advanced age
 Developmental delays, intellectual disabilities or neurological disorders.
 Retirement
 Transportation and housing
 Immigrants

Effects of social isolation

1.On physical health

• Higher levels of stress hormones

• Heart disease including high B.P. and CAD.
• Risk of disabilities
.• Risk of developing chronic diseases
• Increase risk of premature deaths.

2.On mental health

 risk of mental health issues:
 depression, dementia, social anxiety and low self-esteem.
 hallucinations, insomnia, post-traumatic stress

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SOCIAL GROUPS
Meaning and Definition:
All human beings live in groups. Man‟s daily life is made uplargely of participating in groups
like family, peer group, friendship group, school, college factory, office, hospital, bank etc. So
the study of sociology means the study of social groups.
Maclver and Page define social group as – „any collection of human beings who are
brought into human relationships with one another.‟

Characteristics of social group:

A) Collection of Interacting Individuals: Social group‟s consists of people. Social
interaction is the very basis of group life, Hence, mere collection of individuals does not make
a group. The members must have interaction. A social group is, in fact, a system of social
interaction. Different interaction patterns exist in different groups such as family, friendship,
and recreational associations etc.
B) Sense of Group Unity and Solidarity:
Depending on the nature of the group, its members are tied together by a sense of unity. The
solidarity or unity of a group is largely dependent upon the frequency, the variety, and the
emotional quality of the interactions of its members.
C) Group Goals and Interests: The interests and goals of a group are said to be common.
Groups are mostly formed orestablished for the fulfillment of certain interests
D) Groups are Stronger than Their Individual Members: A group is more than the sum
of its parts. For example, the age and size of a group are not simply derived from the ages
and sizes of its members.
F) Group Norms: Every group has its own rules or norms which the members are supposed
to follow. These norms may be in the form of customs, folkways, mores, traditions,
conventions, laws, etc. They may be written or unwritten Norms or standards.
G) Size of the Group: Every group involves an idea of size. Social groups vary in size. A
group may be as small as that of a dyad (two members‟ group e.g. husband-and-wife-family)
as big as that of a political party having lakhs of members. Size will have its own impact on
the character of the group. Membership is limited or unlimited depending on its purpose.
F) Groups are Dynamic:
Social groups are but dynamic. They are subject to changes whether slow or rapid. Old
members die and new members are born. Some existing groups may disintegrate and new
groups may come to be formed. Small groups may develop into gigantic groups, and the
larger ones may shrink in size.
H) Degreeof Stability: Groups are found to be stable or unstable; permanent or temporary
in character. Some groups like, the crowd, mob, audience, spectators, group, etc., are purely
temporary and unstable. But many groups such as political parties, students‟ union
professional organizations and trade unions are relatively permanent and stable in character.

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CLASSIFICATION OF GROUPS
Sociologists have made a number of useful distinctions between types of groups.
1. „In-Groups‟ and „Out-Groups”:W.G.Sumner In his book „Folkways‟ differentiates
between„in-groups‟ and „out-groups‟. An „in-Group‟ is simply the We-group, and „Outgroup‟ the
„They-group‟.
In-group is one to which an individual belongs, or feels that he belongs; and the rest of the
groups are “out-groups”. Thus, an out-group is one to which an individual does not belong or
feels that he does not belong, in a particular context. Examples: One‟s own family, peer
group, friendship group, religious group, caste group, linguistic group, occupational group etc.,
are “in-groups”, and other groups, are “out-groups”.

2. Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft: German sociologist Ferdinand Tonnies

classified communities into “Gemeinschaft” and “Gesellschaft”. These two terms have been
translated into English as “Community” and “Association” respectively.
(i) Gemeinschaft: The„Gemeinschaft‟ is characterized by “Intimate, private, and
exclusive living together”. It represents asocial groups in which individuals are
involved in the process of interaction as „persons‟. They feel that they can satisfy all
or most of a wide range of purposes in the group. The family, kin group, the
neighborhood, the rural community, the friends group represent the Gemeinschaft.
(ii) Gesellschaft: The Gesellschaft represents relationships that are specific, partial,
and utilitarian.Business contract, legal pacts between individuals represent the
Gesellschaft relationships. Business companies, corporations, cities, towns, etc.,
represent „Gesellschaft‟ type groups.
3. Primary Groups and Secondary Groups: C. H. Cooley classified groups into primary
and secondary groups. Primary groups refer to “a social groups characterized by face – to face
relationship, mutual aid and companionship”, Ex-family, neighborhood friends club, peer
groups etc. The “Groups which provide experience lacking in intimacy” can be called secondary
groups, Ex: Schools and college the factory, the army, the labor union, political party etc.,

4. (i) Involuntary and Voluntary Groups, (ii) Institutional and Non-Institutional

Groups, (iii) Temporary and Permanent Groups: In his „Psychology of Human Society‟
Charles A. Ellwood mentioned three categories ofgroups.
(i) Involuntary Groups are those whose membership is beyond the control of the individuals
concerned. Membership is mostly compulsory for the individuals who are born into these
groups and thus they have the least or no control over them. Examples: Family, caste, racial
and religious groups, the state, community, etc.,

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Voluntary Groups are those whose membership is not compulsory. Individuals have the
freedom to join or not to join them. Examples: Political parties ,recreational clubs, cultural
associations, sports clubs, rotary club, etc.,
(ii) Institutional Groups arethose that have the nature, structure and the character of
institutions. They are more stable and permanent. Examples: Family, school, college, factory,
hospital etc., Non-Institutional Groups arethose that are either like organized or
unorganized and temporary groups. They do not have anyinstitutions base. Example: (i)
Political parties, cultural associations, recreational clubs, etc., whichare relatively organized
and more permanent in nature. (ii) Crowds, mobs, audience, spectators‟ group, which mostly
unorganized and highly temporary in nature.
(iii)Temporary Groups are like the unorganized groups and are short lived. Examples:
Crowd, mob, audience, etc., Permanent Groups are like the institutional and the organized
groups and arerelatively permanent. Examples: University, Bank, trade union, political party,
religious groups, etc.,

5.Horizontal and Vertical Groups: American sociologist P. A. Sorokin classified groups into
horizontal and vertical groups. Horizontal groups are large and inclusive groups in nature.
Examples: Nations, Organization, religious, racial groups and political parties etc., Vertical
groups are smaller divisions which give the individual his distinctive status and rank in
society. Example: Economic classes [upper, middle and lower classes] and caste groups. Since
the smaller vertical group is a part of large horizontal one, the individual belongs to both.

6. Territorial and Non-Territorial Groups: American sociologist Park and Burgess

distinguished between territorial groups which have a territorial basis
[e.g., communities, tribes and states] and non-territorial groups which do not have any
spatial aspect [e.g., classes, castes, crowds and public].

7. Genetic Groups and Congregate Groups: Sociologist F. H.Giddings introduced this

classification. (i) Genetic groups are involuntary a nature and the individualsare born in
them. Examples: Family groups, racial groups, ethnic groups are genetic groups. (ii)
Congregate groups are voluntary in nature and the individuals are at liberty to join them or
not. Examples: Political parties, trade unions, etc., are congregate groups.

8. Small Groups and Large Groups: German sociologist George Simmel introduced this
classification. Size is the basis of this Classification. Small groups include „dyad‟, [a group of
two members] „triad‟ [a group of threemembers] and other small groups. Large groups
represent racial groups, political groups, nation and other big collectivities.

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9. Organized and Unorganized Groups: On the basis of the degree of organization, groups
have been classified into “Organized groups” [Example: College, Bank, Hospital, etc.,] and
unorganized groups [Example: Crowd, mob, audience, etc.,].

Differences between primary and secondary group

Criteria Primary Group Secondary Group

Definition A small, intimate, and long-lasting A larger, formal, and impersonal social
social group characterized by close group characterized by limited personal
personal relationships relationships

Relationship Based on strong emotional ties, trust, Based on shared interests, goals, or
and mutual support activities, rather than deep emotional
connections

Interaction Involves face-to-face and frequent Interaction may be less frequent and
interaction among members primarily based on specific roles or
activities

Duration Long-lasting and enduring Relationships may be temporary,

relationships, often formed early in life formed for specific purposes or
situations

Size Typically consists of a small number of Can be larger in size, ranging from a
members, usually in single digits few individuals to larger collectives or
organizations

Intimacy Involves high levels of emotional Less intimate relationships, with a focus
closeness, knowing each other well, on specific roles or common interests
and sharing personal experiences

Purpose Serves personal and emotional needs, Serves instrumental needs, such as
such as providing support, love, and achieving specific goals, completing
belonging tasks, or pursuing shared interests

Examples Family, close friends, small social Co-workers, classmates, professional

circles organizations

Influence Exerts a significant influence on Exerts a relatively weaker influence on

individual beliefs, values, and personal beliefs and behaviours
behaviours

Identity Plays a crucial role in shaping Less central to individual identity, with

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individual identity and self-concept identity primarily tied to other aspects

of life

Communication Communication is more informal, Communication is often more formal

open, and personal and task-oriented

Socialization Primary socialization occurs primarily Secondary socialization occurs within

within the primary group the secondary group, reinforcing social
norms and roles

Group Cohesion Strong group cohesion, with members Group cohesion may be weaker, with a
feeling a sense of belonging and focus on accomplishing specific tasks or
loyalty goals

Social Roles Roles within the primary group are Roles within the secondary group are
often multifaceted and flexible often more defined and task-specific

Emotional Emphasis on providing emotional Emphasis on task-oriented support and

Support support, empathy, and understanding achieving common objectives

Group Norms Strong group norms and shared values Group norms may be less influential or
guide behavior within the primary pronounced within the secondary group
group

Sense of Strong sense of community and shared Sense of community may be weaker or
Community identity more limited

Social Processes:
Social processes refers to the kinds or types of social interaction, social Interaction assumes
different forms. Cooperation, competition, conflict, accommodating and assimilation are very
necessary social interactions.

These five types‟ social interaction or social processes are analyzed here.

I. Co-operation:-
Meaning and Definition:- Co-operation is one of the basic pervasive and continuous social
process. It is the very basic of men‟s social existence. Co-operation generally means “working
together for the pursuit of the common goal.”
Derivation

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The term Co-operation is derived from the two Latin words. „Co‟ Meaning „together‟ and
Operari‟ meaning to work. Literally, Cooperation means joint work or working together for
common rewards.
Merrill and Eldredge: “Co-operation is a form of Social interaction wherein two or
more persons work together to gain a common end”
In simple terms Co-operation is joint activity in the pursuit of common goals or shared
rewards”

Characteristics of Co-operation:-
A) Co-operation is universal and continuous :-
Co-operation as a form of social process is not only universal but also continuous. Co-
operation makes possible same understanding and adjustment between individuals and groups
without which social life is impossible.
B) Perception of common goals: - Individuals indulging in Co-operative interaction are
aware of some goals. The goal may be working together in a factory for a common reward, or
paying together and so on perception of a common goal often draws people together.
C) Collective work for common rewards:- Co-operation involves combined or collective
efforts, rewards are normally shared by them, for example the reward may be match victory
or profit shared in an Industry.
D) Co-operation is not necessarily unselfish: - Co-operation is generally believed to be
unselfish, but men may also find that their selfish goals are best served by working together
with their fellows.
E) Essential conditions of Co-operation:-
Firstly, Co-operation requires a motivation o seek a goal. Secondly, people must have some
knowledge of the benefits of Co-operative activity. Finally, they need to equip themselves with
the skills necessary to make the Co-operative plan worth.
F) Psychological qualities necessary for the developing Co-operative attitude.- Co-
operation requires sympathy and identification, Sympathy depends upon the capacity of the
individual to imagine himself in the place of another, particularly when the other person is in
difficulties.
.
Types of Co-operation:-
The types of co-operation can be discussed in the following ways:
1. Direct Co-operation:- In the direct co-operation action the individuals involved to do the
identical function. Ex: playing together worshiping together, tilling the field together, taking
out a cut from the mud, etc.
2. Indirect Co-operation:- In this case people work individually for the attainment of a
Common end. People do tasks towards a similar end. This is based on the principle of division
of labor and specialization.

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For Ex: Farmers, spinners, weavers, dyers, tailors, are different and engaged in different
activities.

II. Competition:
1. Meaning and Definition: Competition is the most fundamental form of social struggle. It
is natural result of the universal struggle for existence. It is based on the fact that all people
can never satisfy all their desires. Competition takes place whenever there is an insufficient
supply of things that human beings commonly desire. Whenever and wherever commodities
which people want are available in a limited supply, there is competition.

Hortun and Hunt: “Competition may also be defined as the process of seeking to
monopolies a reward by surpassing all rivals”.

Characteristics of Competition:-
A) Scarcity as a condition of Competition: - Wherever there are commonly desired Goods
and services, there is Competition. In fact, economics starts with its fundamental proposition
that while human wants are unlimited the resources that can satisfy these wants are strictly
limited Hence people compete for the possession of these limited resources.
B) Competition and affluence:-
Competition may be found even in circumstances of abundance or affluence. In a time of full
employment, Competition may take place for the status of the top class. There is Competition
not only for food, shelter and other basic needs but also for luxuries, power, name, fame,
social position, mates and so on.
C) Competition is Universal:-
Competition is covering almost all the areas of customers, lawyers for clients, doctors for
patients, students for ranks or distinctions, athletes and sportsmen for trophies, political
parties for power, no society can be said to be exclusively Competition or co-operative.
D) Competition is continuous: Competition is continuous. It is found virtually in every area
of social activity and social interaction. Particularly Competition for status, wealth and fame is
always present in almost all societies.
E) Competition is dynamic: - It stimulates the achievement and contributes to social
change to a higher level. A college student who competes with others to get selected to the
college cricket team. After becoming successful may later struggle to get selected to the
University cricket team, to the state team, to the national team and so on.
F) Competition is always governed by norms: - Competition is not limitless nor is it
unregulated. There is no such thing as „unrestricted competition‟ such a phrase is contradiction
in terms. Moral norms or legal rules always govern and control competition competitors.
G) Competition may be unconscious also :- Competition may take place on an
unconscious level. Many times individuals engaged in Competition are not always aware of the

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fact that they are in a Competitive race. Ex: Little children compete among themselves to
attract the attention of elders.
H) Competition may be constructive or destructive: - Competition may be healthy or
unhealthy. If one of the two or more competitor tries to win only at the expense of the others,
it is destructive.
I) Competition may be personal or impersonal: - Competition is normally directed
towards a goal and not against any individual. Sometimes, it takes place without a actual
knowledge of other‟s existence. Ex. It is impersonal as in the case of civil service examination
in which the contestants are not even aware of one another‟s identity. Competition may also
be personal as when two individuals contest for election to an office. As competition becomes
more personal, it leads to rivalry and shades into conflict. Competition in the social world is
largely impersonal. The individual may be vaguely aware of, but has no personal contact with
other competitors.

Types of Competition:-
A) Social Competition: People always compete to get into higher status and position,
Competition of this kind is mostly observed in „open‟ societies. Wherever individual ability,
merit, talents and capacities are recognized, Competition for status is acute. Democratic
nations encourage such Competition.
B) Economic Competition:-
. It is witnessed in the processes of production, distribution and consumption of goods. Men
compete for jobs, customers, money wealth, property etc., man always struggles for higher
standard of living. Economic Competition can be observed at the individuals as well as group
level.
C) Political Competition:-In the modern world Competition for political power is always
present. Political parties are always engaged in Competition to secure power. Such a
Competition becomes apparent especially during elections.
D) Cultural competition: - Some sociologists have also spoken of cultural competition. It
may take place between two or more cultural groups. Human history provides various
examples of such a Competition. For example, there has always been a keen competition
between the culture of the natives and migrates .At the same time Indian culture and western
culture are struggling to maintain their identity.
E) Racial Competition:- Competition may also take place between racial groups such as the
Blacks and the Whites, Aryans and Dravidians etc.

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III. Conflict:-
Meaning and Definition: Conflict is an ever-present process in human relations. It is one of
the forms of struggle between individuals or groups. Conflict takes place wherever a person or
group seeks to gain a reward not by surpassing other competitors but by preventing them
from effectively competing.
Horton and Hunt: “Conflict may be defined as a process of seeking to monopolize
rewards by eliminating or weakening the competitors”.

Characteristics of Conflict:-
A) Conflict is Universal: - Conflict or Clash of interests is Universal in Nature. It is present in
almost all the societies. In some societies conflict may be very acute and vigorous while in
some others. It may be very mild.
B) Conflict is a conscious action: - individuals and groups who are involved in Conflict are
aware of the fact that they are Conflicting, conflict is always conscious and evokes the deepest
emotions and stronger passions.
C) Conflict is personalized by competition:- When competition is personalized it leads to
conflict. In the struggle to overcome the other person or group, the goal is temporarily related
to a level of secondary importance.
D) Conflict is notcontinuous but intermittent:- Conflict never takes place continuously. It
takes place occasionally. No society can sustain itself in a state of continuous Conflict.
E) Conflict is conditioned by culture:-
Conflict is affected by the nature of the group and its particular culture. The objects of
Conflicts may be property, power and status, freedom of action and thought, or any other
highly desired value when the stability of a political order is threatened, political Conflict may
be the result.
F) Conflict and norms: - Not only culture modifies conflict and its forms but also controls
and governs it. When conflict is infrequent and when no adequate techniques have been
worked out, more violent and unpredictable sorts at Conflict such as race, riots arise
G) Frustration and insecurity promote Conflict:- Sometimes, factors like frustration and
insecurity promote Conflicts within the same society, individuals feel frustrated if they are
thoroughly disturbed in their attempts to reach their goals. These goals may be desire for
power, position, prestige, status, wealth, money etc.

Types of Conflict:-
George Simmel has distinguished four types of Conflict i) war ii) feud or rational strife iii)
litigation iv) conflict ofimpersonal ideas.
i) War: According to Simmel war represents a deep seated antagonistic impulse in men.
But to bring out this impulse into action some define objective is needed. The objective may
be the desire to gain material interests.

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ii) Feud and factional strife: - This is an intra-group conflict. It may arise because of
injustice alleged to have been done by one group to another.
iii) Litigation: Litigation is a judicial form of conflict. It is a judicial struggle by an individual
or group to protect right to possessions.
iv) Conflict of impersonal ideas:- This is a conflict carried on by the individuals not for
themselves but for an ideal. In such a conflict each party attempts to justify truthfulness of its
own ideas. For example, the communists and Capitalists carry on conflicts to prove that their
own system can bring in a better world order.

IV.Accommodation
Meaning and Definition:- Accommodation is one of the principal types of social processes. It
is through this process that social order arises. Since Conflict cannot continue indefinitely and
man does not cherish the prospects of conflict, adjustments are always made. Such
adjustments that man does continuously to pull on with other people and situations can be
called „accommodation‟ accommodation is the process of getting along in spite of differences.
It is way of inventing social arrangements which help people to work together whether they
like it or not.
Ogburn and Nimkoff : “Accommodation is a term used by the sociologists to describe the
adjustment of hostile individuals or groups”
Characteristics of Accommodation:-
A) Accommodation is the natural result of Conflict: Since conflicts cannot take place
continuously they involved in conflict do not relish the sense of conflict they sit down for it
settlement. Such settlements temporary or permanent may be called “Accommodation” in the
absence of conflicts the question of arriving at
Accommodation does not arise.
B) Accommodation may be a conscious or an unconscious: - Man‟s adjustment with the
social environment is mostly unconscious. From birth to death man has to be behave in
conformity with the normative order. The new born individual learns to accommodate himself
with the social order which is dictated by various norms such as customs, morals, traditions
etc. Accommodation becomes conscious when the conflicting individuals and groups make a
deliberate and an open attempt to stop fighting and start working together.
C.Accommodation is Universal: - Accommodation as a „condition‟ and as a process „process‟
is universal. Thus accommodation is found in all societies and in all fields of social life.
D) Accommodation is continuous: - The process of accommodation is not confined to any
particular stage in the life of an individual It is not limited to any fixed social situation also.
E) The effects of accommodation may vary with the circumstances: - It may act to
reduce the conflict between persons or groups as an initial step towards assimilation.
Methods of Accommodations: -
Accommodation arrangements between groups or individuals take variety of forms. Gillin and
Gillin have mentioned. They are:-

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1. Yielding to coercion: - Coercion involves the use of force or the threat of force for
making the weaker party to accept the conditions of agreement. This can take place when the
parties are of unequal strength in wars the victorious nation imposes its will on the
vanquished.
2. Compromise: - When the contending parties are almost equal in power they attain
accommodation by means of compromise. In compromise each party to the dispute makes
some concessions and yields to some demand of the other.
3. The role of third party in compromise:-
a) Arbitration:-. Arbitration is a device for bringing about compromise in which a third party
tries to bring about and end to the conflict. Here the decision of the third party is binding on
both the parties.
b) Mediation:- Mediation is more a kin to arbitration. This involves the introduction into the
conflict of a neutral agent whose efforts are directed towards bringing about a peaceful
settlement. But the mediator has no power to settle the conflict as such for his decisions are
not binding on the parties.
c) Conciliation: - Closely related to compromise is conciliation. This is an attempt to
persuade the disputants to develop friendship and come to an agreement.
4. Toleration: Toleration is an outgrowth of the „live and let-live” policy. It is a form of
accommodation without formal agreement. Here there is no settlement of difference but there
is only the avoidance of over conflict. Each group tries to bear with the others..
5. Conversion: This form of accommodation involves a sudden rejection of one‟s beliefs,
convictions and loyalties context to refer to one‟s conversion into some other religion. This
concept is now used in the literary, artistic, economic and political fields.
6. Sublimation: Adjustment by means of sublimation involves the substitution of
nonaggressive attitudes and activities for aggressive ones. It may take place at the individual
as well as at the group level.
7. Rationalization: - This involve excuses or explanations for one‟s behavior. One is not
prepared to acknowledge one‟s failures or defects for it may indicate guilt or the need for
change. Hence one blames others for one‟s own fault. By ascribing one‟s failures to others
instead of accepting one‟s own defects, one can retain self-respect.

V. ASSIMILATION:-
1. Meaning and Definition:
Assimilation is one of the types of interaction. Like accommodation it is also a form of social
adjustment. But it is more permanent than accommodation If person to person, person-to-
group, or group-to group relations were to remain at the level of accommodation only, there
would not have been any fusion of groups and their cultures, assimilation is concerned with
the absorption and incorporation of one culture by another. Hence assimilation requires more
fundamental changes. Then accommodation. When the process of assimilation takes place, the

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people in two distinct groups do not just compromise with each other, they do not just
compromise with each other, they become almost indistinguishable.
Young and Mack: “Assimilation is the fusion or blending of two previously distinct
groups into one”.

Characteristics of Assimilation:-
A) Assimilation is not confined to single field only:- The term assimilation is generally
applied to explain the fusion of two distinct cultural group. Thus, it is an universal process. The
process occurs in every walks of Human life ex: social, economic, political, art, music,
agriculture, food and dress, habits etc.
.
B) Assimilation is a slow and gradual process:- Assimilation cannot take place all of a
sudden it takes time. Fusion of personalities and groups usually takes time. It occurs only
when there is relatively continuous and direct contact. The speed of the process of assimilation
depends on the nature of contacts.
C) Assimilation is an unconscious process:- In the process of assimilation the individual or
group is usually unconscious of what is taking place. Mostly it occurs in an unconscious
manner individual s and groups discard their original cultural heritage and substitute it with
the new one.
D) Assimilation is a two-way process:- Assimilation involves the principle of give and take.
It is normally preceded by another process called „acculturation‟ Acculturation is a preliminary
and necessary step towards assimilation. It takes place when one cultural group which is in
contact with another borrows from it certain cultural elements and incorporate them into it
own culture.
.
Factors Favoring Assimilation:-
A) Toleration: - Assimilation is possible only when individuals and groups are tolerant
towards cultural differences of others. Tolerance helps people to come together, to develop
contacts and to participate in common social and cultural activities.
B) Intimate social relationships:- Assimilation is the final product of social contacts. The
relative speed primary groups such as family and friendship groups.
C) Intermarriage:- It is an effective factor favoring assimilation process. It does not combine
two opposite sexes but also two different families, castes, religious and regional groups
together. A factor which helps complete assimilation is amalgamation which refers to the
intermarriage of different groups without biological amalgamation complete assimilation is not
possible.
D) Cultural similarity:- If there are striking similarities between them an constituents of
cultures of groups assimilation is quick to take place. In America, for example English-
speaking Protestants are assimilated with greater speed than non-Christians who do not speak
English.

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E) Education:-Education is another conducive factor for assimilation. For immigrant people

public education has played a prominent role in providing culture contact.
F) Equal Social and economic opportunity:-
Public education alone is not enough. People of all groups must have equal access to socio-
economic opportunities. Only then, they can come closer and establish relations among
themselves with mutual trust.

Socialization

The concept of socialization is one of the central concepts in sociology. It is a learning

process by which an individual develops into a social being and is able to function in
society. Child rearing, formal education, acculturation (learning of cultural values &
meaning) and role learning are all socializing processes that help to mould individuals to
the ways of their society & culture.

Socialization begins almost at birth and continues throughout life. The socialization helps
to explain two aspects of social life – How the individual becomes capable to participate
in society and how the society teaches its members to function effectively.

Meaning and Definition:

The human infant comes into the world as a biological organism with animal needs. It is
gradually moulded into social being and he learns the social ways of acting and feeling.
Without this process of moulding, the society could not continue itself, nor could culture
exist, nor could the individual becomes a person. This process of moulding is called
“Socialization”.

Definitions

1. H.M.Johnson: “Socialization in the learning process that enables the learner to

perform social roles”.

2. Ogburn & Nimkoff: “Socialization is the process by which the individual learns to
conform to the norms of the group”.

Stages of Socialization

” H. M. Johnson has listed four stages of socialization. These stages are 1) The oral stage
2) The anal stage 3) The oedipal stage 4) Stage of Adolescence

1. The Oral Stage: - The oral stage commences at birth and continues till the
completion of first year. At birth the child faced the first crisis that is he must breath
exert himself to fed, exposed to conditions of wet and other discomforts. Here the child

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cries a lot for everything. By this the child establishes oral dependency and also learns to
signal his needs for care. In this stage the child is founding sub system consisting of two
persons himself and his mother. For others the child is little more than a possession. The
child cannot differentiate the roles of others from the mother. Thus in this stage in the
personality of the child, his role and that of the mother are not probably clearly
distinguished. Hence the infant and mother are merged. Sigmund Freud called this stage
as the stage of a “primary identification”.

2. The Anal Stage: According to Sigmund Freud the Anal Stage normally begins after
first year. Completed during the third year. The crisis of this period is called anal crisis
and in called caused by imposition of new demands. In this stage the child is asked to
take over some degree of care for himself. Anal disciplines are learned through what in
ordinarily termed “Toilet Training”. In this stage the child internalizes to clearly
separated roles - his own and that of his mother. The child now apart from receiving love
and care also starts giving love in return. In this stage the child becomes capable to
discriminate between correct and incorrect performances in two ways. Firstly by the
training from the socializing agent and secondly by being rewarded for correct actions
and punished for incorrect or wrong actions. In this stage the mother is the agent of
socialization. She plays a dual role. Firstly she participates in the sub system consisting
of herself and the child. Secondly she participates in the whole family. She is a mediator
between two systems.

3. The Oedipal stage:- The third stage begins from the fourth year of the child and
lasts up to puberty, that is the age of twelve or thirteen years. At this stage he starts
taking himself as the member of the family. He also becomes familiar with his or her
roles. Sigmund Freud has suggested that at this stage the boy develops “Oedipus
complex”, that is a feeling of Jealousy towards his father and love towards his mother.
Likewise a girl develops the “Electra complex” that is a feeling of jealousy towards her
another and love towards her father. These feelings in both the cases are believed to be
sexual. Moreover identifying different role models is an important thing to be observed in
this stage. In this stage the child joins the group of his playmates. Interest in the
opposite sex in this period in relatively content.

4. The Stage of Adolescence:- The fourth stage begins roughly at puberty. This is an
important stage of socialization because of changes like physiological and psychological
taking place within the individual. In this stage the young ones would like to free
themselves from parental control. This stage is said to be very sensitive for boys and
girls because they pass through various types of emotional crisis. Sex instinct which was
latent till now is aroused and an interest in the opposite sex is heightened. But the
sexual norms prevailing in the society will not allow them to satisfy it as and when they
wish. Therefore here he learns to know what is morally right and what is morally wrong.

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Parents also lake care to guide their children rightly. Generally during this stage one
completes schooling and also certain skills which might enables him to earn a good life.
Adult Socialization - Socialization is a continuous process from Birth to Death.

TYPES/LEVEL OF SOCIALISATION

1. Primary socialisation is the most important feature in the process of socialisation. It

happens during infancy and childhood. The primary stage basically takes shape during
infancy and childhood where basic knowledge and language or behaviour is taught. This
phase of socialisation usually takes place within the family. During this phase infants
learn language and certain basic Socialisation behaviour forms of the family and the
society in which she/he lives.
2. Secondary Socialisation occurs once the infant passes into the childhood phase and
continues into maturity. During this phase more than the family some other agents of
socialisation like the school and friends‟ group begin to play a role in socialising the child.
Different kinds of social interaction through these different agents of socialisation help
the child to learn the moral standards, customs and principles of their society and
culture.
3. Adult socialization occurs as we assume adult roles such as wife, husband, parent, or
employee. We adapt to new roles which meet our needs and wants throughout the adult
life course.

Agencies of Socialization:

Socialization is a process of learning which continues throughout life. There are two
sources of child‟s socialization. The first includes those who have authority over him. For
eg: Parents, Teachers, elderly persons and the state. The second are those who are
equal in authority over him. They include the playmates, the friends and the age mates.
These agents are discussed in the following way.

I. Informal agencies

1. The Family: Family is the first agency of socialization of the child. Physical nearness,
close relationship, passiveness of the child, authority of parents over the child etc., all
have greater influence in moulding the personality of the child. In family, parental
influence, particularly of the mother, is very great. From the parents the child learns
language. It is taught number of civic virtues. The child gets his first lessons in
cooperation, tolerance, self-sacrifice, love and affection, etc., in the family. The earliest
and the closest ties of an individual are with his parents and siblings. These have
authority over the child. Possessiveness of the child and its emotional attachment with

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parents and sibling make socialization an easy and smooth process. Cultural heritage is
passed from one generation to the other in family.

2. The Peer Group The next most important agency of socialization is the peer group.
The peer group consists of his age mates, playmates, status mates, those who form the
inner circle of friends, class mates, workmates, etc., who share almost the status with
the child. They serve an important function in defining appropriate behavior, acquiring
appropriate roles, setting standards of conduct, arriving at a level of personal
independence and inculcating goals. The child acquires something from his friends and
playmates which he cannot acquire from parents and teachers. The peer group usually
offers a more egalitarian experience.. For instance, most of the sex knowledge in early
stage, rightly or wrongly, comes from one‟s peer group.

Informal Agencies

1. The School is also another important agent of socialisation. Teachers in school play a
decisive role in molding child‟s personality. Since the family in itself is not fully equipped
to prepare the child for adult roles, school has an important role to play. In the school
the child gets his education which moulds his ideas and attitudes. School transmits not
only required skills and knowledge but also important values such as cooperation,
discipline, patriotism, friendship etc. It helps further development of intellectual,
emotional and social development already begun in the family. It is a formal agency
socializing the child authoritatively.

2. The Mass Media The print and audio – visual means of communication have a great
role to play in child‟s socialization. Newspaper, magazine, text books, television etc.,
play a lucid role in transmitting culture from generation to the other. The state may also
use them deliberately to educate the mass. They may be used purposively to change the
value system.

3. State: The state plays an important role in socialization. It is an authoritarian agency.

State makes laws for the people and lays down the modes of conduct expected of them.
The people have to compulsorily obey these laws. The state has immense power at its
command which helps the development of personality of an individual. This will help the
individual to adjust with social situations. State makes arrangement to socialize people
through the media and other means of communication. State teaches citizens to follow
the rules of law and values. State motivates its citizens by rewarding for their
achievements.

Process of socialization

Process of socialization operates with in the infant that is known as internalization of objects.

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• Socialization may also be viewed as the internalization of social norms. Social rules become
internal to the individual in the sense that they are self imposed.

• At second level, the process of socialization may be viewed as an essential element

of social interaction. Individual become socialized as they act in accordance with the
expectations of others.

Factors of the process of socialization

Imitation: The process of copying the actions of other individuals. The individual performs
exactly the same activity as the one being performed before him/her.

Suggestion: It is the process of communicating information that has no logical or self evident
basis. It may be conveyed through some language, pictures or some similar medium.

Identification: The process of associating the self closely with other individuals or objects
and their characteristics or views.

Language: It is a medium of cultural transmission. The language molds the personality of the
individual from infancy.

Social change

Variation or modification of any aspect of social pattern social interaction or social organization
is called social changes.

• Modification in ways of doing and thinking of people is called social change

• Some change in social behavior and in social structure

Definition –

Kingsley Davis: Social change is the alterations that occur in social organisation, that is
structure and functions of society.

Nature/features/characteristics of social change –

A) Social change is Universal: The change is true for all societies. Whether it is east or
west, Urban or Rural societies, for example in rural society change may be slow, in
urban society change may be rapid.. The extent of change may be different but every
part of society changes.
B) Complex Phenomenon Change may take place part by part or change may occure as
a whole. The direction of change, variations of change are different or mixed together.
Therefore we call change as a complex phenomenon. Similarly change may occur for
one reason or change may be for many reasons. Each of these issues makes social
change more complex.

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C) Social change is change in community. Social change is not change in individual or

the change in personality of individual. In sociology we study change as change in
community or change in social life entirely. Many aspects influences community. So
community as a whole changes itself. When we see effect of change in group or in
community we call it as social change.
D) Social change is continuous and temporal: Social change never stops. It continues
and is continuous. It is also called a process. Social change happens in time period and
it is called as temporal. We see in society that many innovations, alterations,
modifications take place from time to time regularly..
E) Social change varies from society to society: Speed and extent of social change
varies from society to society. One may change fast or other may change slowly or in
one factor we see fast change and another factor we see slow change. In one part of
society or in one section of society, there may be differences in change. Similarly the
directions of social changes are different. Upward changes in society for one or the
other reasons may go downward likewise speed and extent varies.
F) Social change is inevitable. Naturally change is inevitable because it is natural.
Natural phenomena are inevitable to society. Hence, social changes are inevitable.
Social change does not occur according to the interest of man. Social change does not
go according to our interest only. It is changing naturally. Man changes its direction
and speed. Man helps change with his knowledge and skill development processes once
carried out cannot be stopped.
G) Social change is a process of synchronization. We cannot say that change
destroys past and creates new. New emerges out of old only. Some new and some old
aspects are combined together in the process of change. In society also we see the
synchronization of old and new.
H) Social change shows chain-Relation sequence. Society is complex. Society is a
dynamic whole, consisting of mutually related parts. Change in one part usually reacts
on other part. This we call it as chain reaction. Social change shows chain relation or
chain link. Change in one aspect of life may lead to a series of changes in other aspects
I) Social change has no value judgment. The term social change is neutral. When
change occurs we try to look to change as good or bad. Moral or immoral but social
scientists look to the mater as amoral. Change may be beneficial or harmful. The
industrial revolution in world is both progressive and regressive. But we study the
changes caused by industrial revolution. Industrialization in India helped to promote
jobs also brought negative effect on traditional professions.
J) Social change may be planned and unplanned. Both man and nature are cause for
social change. When we find change by man according to his choice, we call it as
planned change. When nature by its process changes we call it as unplanned change.
Society is guided by both artificial and natural aspects. All man made aspects are

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artificial. Others are natural. All unplanned changes refer to change resulting from
natural calamities, such as famines, floods, earthquakes etc.,

Factors influencing social changes

In all societies there are several conditions or causes that make for social change. These
conditions are understood as Factors. The change may occur internally. All the factors which
bring change in society naturally or change comes from within society is known as intrinsic
change, Best example for intrinsic change is geographical change and biological change

A) Natural factor or Geographical factors.

Change brought by natural conditions or change brought by environment is called as
physical factor or geographical factor.
Man and society exist within the environment. Whenever change occurs in environment
it brings change in society too. Environment includes land, water and forests, valleys
and hills. All the natural resources come under geography. Birds, animals, plants are
also understood as part of environment. Man lives with all such organic and non-
organic facts, similarly human life is influenced by climatic conditions also. Rainfall,
summer, winter, help human social life. Hurricane, flood, earthquake draught bring
destruction in social life.
When society grows complex. It brings more loss on geographical factors. Civilization
brings convenience to man but develops controversies with environment.

B) Biological Factor.
Biological factor indicated two types. A) One is non-human biological factor and
B) second is human biological factor.
It is true that both constitute total life on earth. Both are interlinked and each brings
definite effect on themselves and on society. Here our main concern is human species.
In social change we find lot of influence by human beings, which constitute society as a
whole.

demographic or biological factors involves 1) size of population 2) structure of

population 3) Heredity 4) race 5) Birth rate 6) death rate 7) fertility 8) sex ratio etc.

1) Size of population: People are assets, without men and women this society is
useless. But the size of population is to be balanced. More population leads to poverty.
Similarly optimum size of population, theory explains that there should be balance
between population and production of food. It is fails we find change in society. To
maintain balanced society we want population. To perform good role and status we

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need men and women. If men are less and women are more in number, structure of
family and society fails to perform all the roles expected by society.
2) Birth rate and death rate: A high birth rate and low death rate leads to
population increase. This brings various problems, like poverty, unemployment,
housing problem etc. Similarly lower birth rate and higher death rate brings changes in
society like that of scarcity of human resources, decrease in efficiency. This may create
defence problem in nation. Birth control and social welfare brought new concept.
3) Migration: Migration is one of the most influential activities which brings change in
society. Migration means movement of population from one area to another.
There are two types of migration 1) Urban rural migration 2) Rural urban migration. In
urban rural migration people move from town to village area. In Rural urban migration
people move from village to cities. In India growth of industrialisation gave more scope
to Rural Urban Migration. This brought change in Indian society. Cities and towns
developed dense population causing housing problem and unemployment problems in
rural agricultural sector Beliefs, life style values also change through the migration. In
India rural urban migration brought lot of changes in traditional joint families.
4) Age and Sex ratio: Population constitutes three elements in its structure children,
youth and old. In every society the members of below fourteen years and more. But in
China due to strict „One child norm‟ there is decrease in 0-14 years age children ratio.
If youth population reduces “working ability” of country decreases. Which brings low
economic development. Any change in age factor it results in social change. Increase in
population of 65 years old bring problems like pension, health and stay home.
Therefore, we should know that biological or demographic change influences on social
organisations and on social functions.

C) Cultural Factor Man is a social human being. Also man is a cultural being. The term
society itself express that, it is a cultural phenomenon. Without culture it is difficult to
understand social life. Cultural changes and such change in culture also influences upon
society.

D) Science and Technological Factor. Use of machines and technological tools are
common in modern society. Scientific development and approach towards making life
more convenient, help the growth of society.
1) Transport and Communication: After 18th century we see big changes in society
due to industrialization, communication, and transportation. Such development took
place only because of growth in technology. As a result now modern technology has
changed the joint family system and its relationships. Growth of scientific methods, and
use of technology minimised the role of superstition in society. Communication skills,
transportation methods changed to such extent that to day human world is called as
“Global Village” concept of Globalization is because of technological progress.

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2) Growth of Classes: Industrialization leads to growth of Urbanisation.

Industrialization brought opportunities for new professions. Youths are provided new
jobs. Along with it new “class” system developed in society. Society is classified as
upper middle and lower class. Slums are the result of industries. Thus advancement of
technology has brought social change.
3) Agriculture: Changes in the agricultural technology directly influenced rural
community invention of new agricultural tools and techniques‟ chemical manures
brought increase in agricultural production which influenced standard of living in
village.

Stages/Process of Social change

Survival: The stage of survival is self-evident. A family that has moved into the upper middle
class may struggle to maintain its status at that level. Its progress from lower to middle class
is development, but its struggle to remain at the higher level is survival.

Growth: Growth is a horizontal extension of the existing structure non-stop. Internet is

passing through a period of growth. Universal education is growing and has not yet reached its
limit.

Development: Development is to seek new ways radically different from the old.

Evolution: Evolution is to grow into a new higher structure, which is radically different from
development.

Aspects of social change

1. Economic aspect: economic changes include changes in industry, trade, business,

commerce, agriculture and materialistic attitude.
Political aspect: Political changes include changes in political power and
administration of the state, such as adopting the values of democracy, secularism,
socialism, communism and fascism.
2. Religious aspect: In religious aspect we include those changes which affect changes
in various religious institutions like Gurudwara, Temple, Church, Mosque etc. Their
importance in the present age has been decreased because of modernization.
3. Moral aspect: Moral changes are the changes in moral values, ideas, beliefs, such as
co-education was not thought to be good in ancient times. It is not regarded as
immoral in the modern age

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4. Cultural aspect: Cultural changes are the change in the culture , values, traditions
and customs such as dancing was thought to be an immoral act in the past, where as it
is culturally accepted everywhere now. Similarly, actors and actresses has become a
role model for the present generation where as they were not socially accepted earlier
as the same.
5. Scientific and technological aspect: Scientific and technological changes are caused
by scientific and technological discoveries and inventions.

Theories of Social Change

Evolutionary Theory: According to this theory, societies are viewed as organism and they
evolve in the same manner as Darwin's notion of biological evolution. The societies go through
series of stages based on increasing complexity towards higher and more advanced and
developed state of existence. This theory favors a notion that each new stage of development
is more advanced then the previous one.

Cyclical Theory: It believes that societies have pre-determined life cycle of birth, growth,
maturity and decline. Likewise great cultures emerge, rise to the heights only to subside and
giving rise to another.
Theories of Social Change

Functional Theory: Societies change but they also tend to move towards equilibrium. Any
disturbance in the system is easily accommodated within the exiting structure. For instance,
the task of education that can easily be performed by family ids taken over by educational
institutions like schools, colleges and universities.

Conflict Theory: Accoring to this theory, every pattern of action, belief and interaction tends
to generate an opposing reaction. Thus this theory highlights the forces producing instability
using social disorganization. It sees unequal distribution of power and authority as
fundamental source of co

Resistance to Social Change

1) Inadequacy of invention : People may or may not show interest ininventions. Some time
the innovatory fails to convince the community. Inventions do not impress community life or
are needful by that period of time.

2) Fear : .People always feel that new disturbs or may bring new problems.Ex: When Thomas
Edison invented electric bulb, exhibition of illuminating electric bulb was arranged.
Immediately when electric bulb illuminated, people ran away with fear.

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3) Ignorance : Education and training make him intelligent. Even though man is ignorant
about new. Before he is given proper knowledge his ignorance make him to resist. Secondly
some men do not even learn to live. They are happy with their ignorance.

4) Habit : Man develops his personality thorough socialisation. once developed Personality
cannot be changed easily. Personality is a complex whole of many habits. Habits force man to
follow traditions. Habits influence our thoughts and daily life. Habit is very difficult to change
easily. New methods and skills which make men to learn new habits, is questioned by elderly
society. People hesitate to accept new rules and regulations in society.

5) Vested Interests : Most social changes carry a threat to some vested interests. Orthodox
society is always in fear of loosing its interests, it opposes inter caste marriage. When change
in social life man has to loose or gain. Beneficiaries support the change but losers oppose it.

6) Economic Inequality : In recent years cost of planning is raising. Some of the welfare
measures like education, health, housing are lagging behind. Such aspect which brings change
by financial assistance do not give positive result. Expensive change is opposed always.

7) Lack of an integrated approach : Change in one element brings change in another part
also. When we want to bring change in religion it is necessary to bring change in education
system also. To bring change in society as whole, it is required to change other related
elements.

8) Technical difficulties in implementation : Looking to new technical innovations, society

adopt its life style. Community many times accepts technical changes immediately, but does
not accept some time. Technical devices should be restructured or they are not suitable to the
conditions.

9) Intellectual laziness : Creativity drive the attention immediately. Lack of creativity in

man does not accept new. Active men agree to modern condition. Lazy do not. To understand
the importance of new one must show interest in it. When there is lack of interest and do not
pay attention, it is difficult to make men to change themselves

10) Desire for stability : Society and its functions go smooth with required stability.
Individuals are safe in stable society. Change disturbs the balance in present society. Often
change bring insecurity to people in society.

Common Features of Social Change:

1. Universality: Change is universal, an eternal and invariable law of nature. Social

changes take place in all the societies of the world.
Therefore, social change is universal in character.

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2. Continuity: Social change is a continuous process. It does not take place at one point
of time only. It takes place all the time at all the places. However, we can predict some
direction of change.
3. Variation: Social change is relative in time, and according to a specific period in time,
its rate may be high or low. The rate and quantum of change varies from one society to
another depending upon the prevailing conditions.
4. Criteria of larger population: Only those changes are considered as social change
that affects larger population. Social change is accepted as such only when the majority
of individuals in a society accept it in their life, behavior and beliefs.

Effect of social change on social institution –

1. On family – many of family activities are being mechanically perform. Family control is
on decline. The no. of children is becoming less the innovation of birth control devices
has the family size.
Disintegration of joint family system the employment of women in factories offices has
changed the form of husband wife relationship and affect the family structure.
2. On marriage – along with the families the bonds of marriage also becoming ineffective
since marriage is no longer religious ritual but a social contract which can be broken at
any time Love marriages inter cast marriage late marriage are common. The no. of
divorce has also increased.
3. on economic life – new type of economical organization like factories agencies stores
banks have come up parmotes the standard of living higher
4. On social life – social change has lead to the decline of community life and poor
having pattern and formation of slums Social changes has changed basis social
stratification and social values and narrowed the gap of caste system
5. on religion life – superstitions are reduced by higher tolerance highly rigidity to
religious activities is observed religious institutions are no longer put forced
6. on urban life – absence of communal feeling – impersonal social relation
• Increase of disease
• Absence of family control
• Increase prevalence of social disorganization
• Promote self confidence

Role of nurse in a social change –

Nurse play a vital role in social groups by interacting with them through all the effective
methods of communication

The nurse provide nursing care to the important social change bringing units like children
parents

Following are the main role of nurse in social changes –

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1. she control and observe the mild changes that are occurring in the society
2. the provide a complete basic knowledge regarding social changes upbringing unit and
the effects of social changes
3. The nurse provide a complete histological data regarding a social changes and research
on the further aspect of it.
4. She provide all aspect of nursing care so that negative social changes can be stop
5. She provide research data's and study pathway of social changes
- She provide resistance against social evils that are dangerous to any positive
social changes
For ego- social problems like dowry alcoholism etc.
- She providing guidance and counselling regarding the effect of social
- problems and suggest the ways to control them

Rural Community

• It is a natural phenomenon. It is present in every society of the world having distinct

cultures and patterns of social life.
Agriculture is the amin identity and element.

• Definition: A group of people, who mainly depend upon agriculture and allied occupation are
permanently residing in a particular geographical area and participating in common socio-
economic and cultural activities.

Characteristics of rural community

1.Small size:
Village communities are small in size. The census in India designates a place with 5000
inhabitants as a village community. 80% of the Indian villages have less than 1000 population
each.

2. Importance of neighborhood:
Neighbourhood relationship is another important feature of village life. Two factors namely
living in small proximity on the part of the ruralites and an atmosphere of fellow-feeling,
friendship, sympathy and love available in the rural setting, promote neighbourhood
relationship in the village.

3. Joint family system:

The joint family system still forms the basic structural unit in the village community. All the
members live together under the same roof, take food cooked in the common hearth, hold

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property together, participate in common worship and are related to each other as some
particular type of kindred.

4.Caste System:
Caste system is a unique feature of the Indian village community. It determines the role,
status, occupation and marital relationships of the ruralises

5.Faith in religion:
Religion plays a paramount role in the life of the village. Religious influence is discernible in
every important activity of village life like sowing, harvesting of crops, birth, marriage, illness,
death etc.

6.Homogeneity:
Homogeneity of population is another important feature of village communities. The members
of a village exhibit similarities in their dress, speech, beliefs, values, attitudes and behaviour.

7.Informal social control:

In village communities, social control is informal and direct. The primary groups like the
family, neighbourhood act as powerful agencies of social control in villages. The traditional
village Panchayat and the caste Panchayat also exercise much control on the deviant members
of the community.

8.Status of women:
Generally the women in villages are not much educated and their social status is lower than
that of their counterparts in the towns.

9.Stability and continuity:

The village communities in India are relatively more stable. The reason is possibly attributed
to the relative static character of ruralism as a way of life – the norms of behaviour, customs
of family relations, traditions of community life etc.

10.Definite locality:
Locality is the physical basis of village community. A group of people forms village community
only when it begins to reside in a definite locality.

11.Poverty and Illiteracy:

Probably the most glaring and also depressing features of Indian villages are the poverty and
illiteracy of the village people. They are generally poor with a very low income. They take
coarse food and put on rough clothes.

Besides poverty the village people are steeped in ignorance and illiteracy. The opportunities
for education are meagre in the villages. The village school is generally in a dilapidated

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condition. Facilities for higher education are practically nil. Due to poverty the villagers cannot
send their sons to city for education. Due to illiteracy they cannot improve upon their
agriculture or supplement their income by other means. Poverty is thus the cause and effect of
illiteracy and the backwardness of the villagers.

12.Community sentiment:
Community sentiment is the very essence of village community. The ruralises exhibit a strong
sense of belongingness and we-feeling

13.Marriage:
The villagers, for the most part, practice endogamy. There is either no or very little freedom
on the part of both boys and girls in matters of mate selection.

14.Panchayat:
The functioning of the village as a political and social entity brought together members from
different castes. The traditional village Panchayat in the shape of village council performed a
variety of tasks, including the maintenance of law and order, settling of disputes, celebration
of festivals and construction of roads, bridges and tanks

15.Standard of living:
On account of gross poverty and lack of adequate employment opportunities, the standard of
living of the ruralites is very low. Hence most of them do not have home conveniences and
recreational facilities.

Features of Urban community

1. Size:
As a rule, in the same country and at the same period, the size of an urban community is
much larger than that of a rural community. In other words, urbanity and size of a community
are positively correlated.

2. Density of population:
Density of population in urban areas is greater than in rural communities. Urbanity and
density are positively correlated.

3. Family:
So far as urban community is concerned, greater importance is attached to the individual than
to the family. Nuclear families are more popular in urban areas.

4. Marriage:
In case of urban community there is a preponderance of love marriages and inter-caste
marriages. One also comes across a greater number of divorces. Sons and daughters enjoy
considerable freedom in choosing their life partners.

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5. Occupation:
In the urban areas, the major occupations are industrial, administrative and professional in
nature. Divisions of labour and occupational specialization are very much common in
towns/cities/metropolises.

6. Class extremes:
In the words of Bogardus, “Class extremes characterize the city.” A town and a city house the
richest as well as the poorest of people. In a city, the slums of the poor exist alongside the
palatial bungalows of the rich, amidst the apartments of the middle class members. The most
civilized modes of behaviour as well as the worst racketeering are found in the cities.

7. Social heterogeneity:
If villages are the symbol of cultural homogeneity, the cities symbolize cultural heterogeneity.
The cities are characterized by diverse peoples, races and cultures. There is great variety in
regard to the food habits, dress habits, living conditions, religious beliefs, cultural outlook,
customs and traditions of the urbanites.

8. Social distance:
Social distance is the result of anonymity and heterogeneity. Most of one‟s routine social
contacts in a town or city are impersonal and segmentary in character. In the urban
community social responses are incomplete and half hearted. There is utter lack of personal
involvement in the affairs of others.

9. System of interaction:
. The city life is characterized by the predominance of secondary contacts, impersonal, casual
and short-lived relations. Man, at any rate, the man in the street, virtually loses his identity
being treated as a “number” having a certain “address”.

10. Mobility:
The most important feature of urban community is its social mobility. In urban areas the social
status of an individual is determined not by heredity or birth but by his merit, intelligence and
perseverance. Urbanity and mobility are positively correlated.

11. Individualism:
The urbanites attach supreme importance to their own welfare and happiness. They hesitate
to think or act for the good of others.

12. Anonymity:
As Bogardus observes, the “Urban groups have a reputation for namelessness.” By virtue of its
size and population, the urban community cannot be a primary group. Here nobody knows
anybody and nobody cares for anybody. The urbanites do not care for their neighbours and
have nothing to do with their miseries or pleasures.

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13. Rapid social and cultural change:

Rapid social and cultural change characterize urban life. The importance attached to traditional
or sacred elements has been relegated to the background. The benefits of urban life have
effected changes in respect of norms, ideologies and behaviour patterns.

14. Voluntary associations:

The urban community is characterized by impersonal, mechanical and formal social contacts
occurring among the people. Naturally they have a strong desire for developing genuine social
relationships to satisfy their hunger for emotional warmth and sense of security. They form
associations, clubs, societies and other secondary groups.

15. Formal social control:

Social control in urban community is essentially formal in nature. Individual‟s behaviour is
regulated by such agencies as police, jails, law courts etc.

Tribe

• It is a social group having many clans, nomadic bands and other sub-groups living on a
definite geographical area having separate language, separate and singular culture.

• Definition: It is a group of bands occupying a contiguous territory or territories and having a

feeling of unity deriving from numerous similarities in a culture, frequent contacts and a
certain community of interest.

Characteristics of tribe

Common topography: They live within a definite topography and it is a common place for all
the members.

Common dialect: members exchange their views in a common dialect.

Practice of endogamy: The community uses endogamy to resist integrating and completely
merging with the surrounding populations.

Sense of unity: It is an invariable necessity for a true tribal life.

Common culture: It produces a life of homogeneity among the members of tribe.

Kinship: It forms the basis of tribal social organization. It includes people related by both
descents of them like social relations happen with the development and also by marriage

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Ties of blood relationship: Blood relation is the greatest bond and most powerful force
inculcating sense of unity among the tribal.

Awareness of protection: Tribal people always need protection from intrusion and
infiltration.

Distinct political organization: every tribe has its own distinct political organization that
looks after the interests of the people. The whole political authority lies in the hands of tribal
chief.

Rudimentary type of religion: Tribes believes in certain myths and rudimentary type of
religion.

Economic structure and occupation: they are heavily concentrated in the forest areas
within nature and this determines their economic activity, which consists of hunting and
agriculture

Major health problems of Urban Areas

• Air pollution: rapid urbanization created huge challenges like congestion, pollution an
traffic safety.

• Non-communicable diseases: urban lifestyle has led to reduced physical activity and
promoted unhealthy nutrition.

• Global warming and change of climate: There is lot of traffic and industrial pollution. It
leads to increase in pollutants.

Development of slum areas: The rural immigrants migrant to cities leading to development
of slum areas.

Overcrowding: Huge number of people live in a small space that leads to congestion in urban
areas and is responsible for many diseases.

Unemployment: although income in the urban areas is high but cost of living is very high
making income horribly low, leading to stress and other social problems.

Water and sanitation problems: Scarcity of natural resources.

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Poor health: Social, economic and living conditions in congested urban areas affect access
and utilization of public health care services.

• Traffic congestion: Increased number of vehicles leads to congestion leading to

frustrations and stress and other mental health problems.

• Increased proportions of crime: Overcrowding, poverty, unemployment, lack of basic

facilities, resources and social services, lead to many social problems like drug abuse, violence
and other crimes.

High risk for infectious diseases: Urban slums have high incidences of infectious diseases.
Factors contributing are: overcrowding, high density of population, poor sanitation facilities
etc.

Higher incidences of epidemic diseases: Urban slums are epicenter of epidemic diseases,
as due to close proximity, diseases spread at a very high speed leading to epidemics.

Higher proportions of malnutrition among children: 50% of the children in urban slums
areas are malnourished due to lack of education, faulty food practices, employment of
mothers and child labour etc.

Changes in ecosystem: Urban lifestyle requires the consumption of great natural resources
that affect the global ecosystem and make earth more prone to calamities.
.
Major health problems of Rural areas

Infectious disease: Gastrointestinal diseases, airborne infections and other communicable

diseases.

Malnutrition: one of the dominant health problem in rural areas.

Poor maternal Health: Lack of health facilities for antenatal care, natal and post partum
care.

High Infant and child mortality rate: Higher prevalence of morbidity and mortality rates of
infants and children.

Animal bites: Snakes, dog, and insect bites resulting into death and disability.

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Agriculture related injuries and diseases: Mechanical accidents, pesticide poisoning, skin
and respiratory diseases.

Socio-psychological problems of females: Verbal abuse, physical abuse, sexual

harassment etc. leads to psychological health issues.

Major Health problems of Tribal area

Low life expectancy: Data according to census 2011 shows life expectancy among tribal
population is lower than the general population.

Poor maternal health: maternal mortality rate is higher among tribal community due to
various factors like early marriage, carly childbirth and high incidence of anemia among
women of tribal community.

High child mortality rate: High incidence of child mortality is present among tribal
community and there is high incidence of low birth weight babies and poor rate of
immunization among the children of tribal communities.

Poor use of family welfare services: According to NFHS-4 data, it was found that total fertility
rate of tribal community was higher than the general population

Communicable diseases: Tribal population bears a disproportionate burden of the

communicable diseases. These include malaria, tuberculosis, skin infections, STDs etc.

Genetic disorders: The prevalence of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia is higher among tribal
population.

Malnutrition: The prevalence of stunted growth and lower BMI among tribal population is more
than the general population.

• Animal attacks: As tribal communities are often surrounded with forests, animal bites are
very common.
• Violence: Maoists insurgent or Naxalite activity has expanded markedly especially in the
central tribal belt of India.

• Addiction: Tribal people consume locally made alcohol that contributes in deteriorating their
health.

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• Poor access to health services: Due to lack of transportation and roads and poor
connectivity, they have lack of access to health services.

Importance of social structure in nursing profession

 It helps nurses to understand the behaviour, conflicts, and interpersonal relationships

of their clients.
 It facilitates reflective practice thus help nurses to more confidently challenge
ineffective practices.
 Nurses will be able to provide genuine care and perform appropriate diagnosis if they
have an understanding of social structure.
 It enables nurses to understand their social responsibilities as agents of change.
 It will not only help in treating the diseases but also help a nurse to improve quality of
life of patients.
 It helps to understand the hierarchy, groups and adaptation of different people working
in their team.
 Nurses gets information regarding the socio-cultural life of their clients.
 It helps nurse to know the social context of their patients that provides the significant
insight about their experiences of health and care.

 Nurses will be able to understand the relation of their duties with the social structure of
their patients to provide effective care to their clients.
 It helps in understanding the characteristics of social relationship, its complexities and
its impact on health care.

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