Institute Universitaire de la Cote (IUC)

CIVICS AND ETHICS EDUCATION

LECTURE NOTES

LECTURER:
nah henry m. (PH.D)
EMAIL: nahhenry79@gmail.com
General Objectives:
At the end of the course, students should understand their civic duties. Differentiates between
citizen‘s rights, privileges and duties. Have a general knowledge on the Cameroon government
and regime. Have Knowledge on current happenings of the world

Course Outline

 The citizen;
 The Nation;
 The State;
 Terrorism
 Ethics;
 Ethics, Law and reason;
 Ethical Problem ;
 Ethics and management.
 Civics
 Deontology
 Moral consciousness
 The universal declaration of Human Rights
 Good governance in public services (characteristics of good governance)
 The importance of civics to the life of the nation
 Functions of the state and its citizens
 Deontology, Professional ethics and professionalism
 Relationship between morality, law and ethics
 Codes of ethics
 Terrorism
 Corruption
 Tribalism
 Chapter One: Citizenship Education
1. Definition of Concepts
1.1 Civics
The word civics derives from the Latin word ‘civics’ meaning relating to a citizen and the Latin
‘civica’ a garland of oak leaves worn on the head like a crown. This is analogous to modern day military
medals. The English usage of civics relates to behavior affecting other citizens, particularly in the context
of development.
1.2 The citizen;
A citizen is a native or naturalized member of a state or nation, who owes allegiance to its
government and is entitled to its protection.
In other words, a citizen is a person who is a member of a particular country and who has rights
because of being born there or because of being given rights.
A member of a political community or state with certain rights and duties
1.3 Education
The word education etymologically has been derived from two Latin words Educare (Educere) and
Educatum. “Educare” means to train or mould. It also means to bring up or to lead out or to draw out from
inward to outward. The term “Educatum” denotes the act of teaching. It throws light on the principles and
practice of teaching. The term Educare or Educere mainly indicates development of the latent faculties of
the child. But a child does not know these possibilities. It is the educator or the teacher who can know these
and take appropriate methods to develop those powers.
In Short, education is the development of an individual according to his needs and demands of
society, of which he is an integral part. The special features of education include:
• Education is both unilateral as well as bi-polar in nature.
• It is a continuous process.
• It is knowledge or experience.
• It is the development of a particular aspects of human personality.
• It is conducive for the good of the individual or the welfare of the society.
• It is a liberal discipline or a vocational course.
• It is a stabilizer of social order, conservator of culture, an instrument of change and social
reconstruction.
1.4 Citizenship/Civics education
Civics education is the study of the theoretical, political and practical aspects of citizenship as well
as its rights and duties. It includes the study of civil law, civil code and the study of government with the
role of citizens. Although there is no substantial and generally accepted definition about civic education
there are some ideas that cut across this concept.
The concept of civic education is linked to political socialization. According to Buhl, citizenship
education means educating young people to become members of the society, who actively participate in the
shaping of the political environment in the context of political socialization.
Furthermore, Citizenship education is the study of the population, legal and economic functions of
society, as well as the social and moral values needed to succeed in it. It provides students with knowledge,
skills and understanding to become informed citizens, know their rights, duties and responsibilities.
Citizenship education enables people to make their own decisions and to take responsibility for their own
lives and their communities.
The issues that have raised awareness in young people about political processes are family,
neighbors, peer groups, the media, the military, the workplace and school as an institution that imparts
knowledge, skills and values. This is seen in political decision-making processes in schools, such as student
newspapers or elections of student council representatives, teenagers gain insight into the basic principles
of liberal democracies, which can lead to more motivation and willingness on their part to become engaged
in politics in and outside of schools.
1.1 The Main Goals of Civic Education
Civic education is an independent cross-section of education which differs from conceptual and
institutional tasks.
 The vital goal of civic education is to encourage the ability and willingness of political
participation by providing information and the basis to make conscientious judgments.
 Political participation is the main objective of civic education in modern democracies.

Chapter Two
Relevance of civic education
2.1 Imparting knowledge:
Civic education helps to impart knowledge: civic education helps to educate students to become
mature and capable citizens. It deals not only with the transfer of factual knowledge, but also with the
understanding of pragmatic coherences
2.2 Promotes freedom of expression for political participation
Should support the development of political attitudes, opinions, and values. Political culture is a
basic consensus for the existence and quality of democracy, which includes interest in social and political
issues.
2.3 Social competence
Civic education as social competence: Is only effective with the interaction of theoretical
knowledge; it includes the readiness to accept responsibility, to develop a judgment and to select predefined
or developed policy options.
2.4 Political maturity and consciousness
Civic education helps in the political maturity and independence of the citizen in a democratic
system.
2.5 Democratization of society and the emancipation of citizens
Civic education is a prerequisite of rational and humane action and contributes to the
democratization of society and the emancipation of an individual.
2.6 Summary of the importance of citizenship Education in the life of a nation
Citizenship education like all other subjects in the school curriculum is important in many ways:
 It helps young people to develop self-confidence and successfully deal with significant life
challenges such as bullying and discrimination;
 It gives them a voice in the life of their families, schools, and in society at large;
 It enables them to developing the skills and experience needed to exercise their rights and
understand their responsibilities.
 It prepares them for the challenges and opportunities of adulthood and working life.
 It teaches students the skills and aspirations for volunteering and engaging in local issues.
 It links local learning and action to global learning and action
 It teaches students to reflect on diverse ideas, opinions and beliefs.
 It helps students to acquire the skills to explore and understand contemporary controversial issues.
 It equips students to undertake enquiries about issues and problems of local, national and
international relevance.
 It helps students to explore creative approaches towards taking actions on problems and issues that
matter to them.
2.7 Civics education in schools
When it comes to civics education in schools, four groups of citizens need to be considered.
2.7.1 Apathetic group
First, the apathetic group is made up of people who rarely deal with politics or very rarely cast their
ballots in elections. They may be seen as a challenge for civic education and training.
 2.7.2 Well informed
Second, the well-informed and judicious people who are very interested in politics. They are
wellinformed about political life and are not easily manipulated. Outside of elections and voting, they
show no active involvement in politics.
2.7.3 Enabled citizens
Third, enabled citizens have knowledge of opportunities for political participation and are capable
of rational political judgment.

2.7.4 Actively involved Citizens

The last group consists of citizens who are actively involved in politics. They hold party
membership accountable and participate in political parties.

Chapter three: The Citizen

A citizen is a native or naturalized member of a state or nation, who owes allegiance to its
government and is entitled to its protection. In order words, a citizen is a person who is a member of a
particular country and who has rights because of being born there or because of being given.
As a member of a community, a citizen has privileges and duties. Some schools of thought hold the
view that the state exists for the good of the citizens while others say that the citizens exist for the good of
the state both views are correct and must be combined. This is because the state has a duty to the citizens
that is to satisfy their rights and privileges. On the other hand, the citizen has an obligation to the state that
is to perform their duties.
3.1 Types of citizens
3.1.1 Active Citizens
Active citizens are those who work towards the development of their community through economic
and political participation, volunteer work and other efforts to improve the live of all citizens. For example,
an individual can take upon him or herself to educate members of neighborhood against poor disposal or
garbage or help a police officer to tract down a criminal. All citizens must have civic virtue. That is, they
must put the common good above the individual need.
3.1.2 Passive citizens
Passive citizens are those who let others make decisions for them. They do not participate actively
in building the community. Passive citizens always want to share in the growth and development of their
community, but usually not wanting to contribute to its development. For example, a citizen who refuses to
vote in elections or a citizen who refuses to volunteer in community work. Such a citizen helps to slow
down the growth of their community.

3.1.3 Bad citizens

Bad citizens are those who are engaged in activities that destroy rather than build the community. They are
selfish individuals and the good of the community means little or nothing to them. They are more concerned
about their personal interest, than the general good. Examples include individuals engaged in corruption
practices, armed rubbery, nepotism or tribalism. No society will like to accommodate such individuals.
A nation whose citizenry is mostly active enjoys economic growth, prosperity and development
that provide opportunity for all. In such countries, the citizenry makes change from bottom up. They take
pride in building their nation, make efforts to resist corruption, participate in the political process and hold
their governments accountable. On the contrary, a nation dominated by passive and bad citizens witnesses
a slow rate of economic growth and its citizenry remains predominantly poor though they may be endowed
with resources.
3.2 Cameroonian Citizenship
3.2.1 How to qualify for or acquire a Cameroonian citizenship
Every nation or state has laid-down criteria for any individual to qualify as a citizen of that state. In
Cameroon, qualifying someone as a Cameroonian citizen or acquiring citizenship a number of methods and
processes are laid down in the 1959 and 1968 ordinance on nationality. The following are some of the
method laid down by law.
3.2.1.1 By birth:
 A child born in Cameroon by Cameroonian parents.
 A new born child found in Cameroon is presumed to have been born in Cameroon, thus a
Cameroonian.
 A child born in Cameroon by foreign parents one of whom was born in Cameroon acquires
Cameroonian nationality.
3.2.1.2 By marriage
 A foreign woman who marries a citizen of Cameroon may express request acquire a Cameroonian
citizenship.
3.2.1.3 By declaration:
 Any person born in Cameroon of foreign parent may claim Cameroonian citizenship by a
declaration.
 An adopted child of a Cameroonian may also acquire the Cameroonian nationality by declaration.
3.2.1.4 By naturalization:
Cameroonian citizenship may be conferred by decree on a foreign citizen requesting it if he/she
meets the following conditions:
 Must be at least 21 years of age
 Must show habitual residence in Cameroon for five years consecutively
 His or her main interest must be based in Cameroon at the time of signature of the naturalization
decree
 Must be of good character and morals and must not have suffered conviction of an offence  Must
have been found to be mentally and physically sound.
How can someone lost the Cameroonian nationality? Assignment
3.3 The notion of dual citizenship
This is a situation in which a person is officially recognized as a citizen by two different nations.
This often occurs when a child is born in one country and the parents hold citizenship in another. Sometime
it occurs when a person takes up the nationality of another country. For example an Iranian-American is
one who originally is an Iranian but later takes up an American nationality and is still recognized as an
Iranian citizen. The idea of dual nationality is not recognized in Cameroon. According to article31 of the
1968 nationality or citizenship of foreign country shall upon that acquisition, cease to be a citizen of
Cameroon. There are exceptions to this rule. For example, a child born abroad of Cameroonian parents,
who obtains the citizenship of the country to birth, keeps his Cameroonian nationality. However, upon
reaching the age of 21, one of the citizenship must be chosen, failing which the Cameroonian citizenship
will be last.
3.3.1 Arguments against dual citizenship:
 Most countries oppose dual nationality because they see individuals who take up foreign nationality
as not being loyal to their country of origin.
 Opponent of dual citizenship argue that to be considered a citizen, one needs to be totally committed
in a legal and emotional sense to his country. According to them, having more than one citizenship
conflicts with the notion of national identity and cohesion.
 The rejection of dual nationality by most African states came as a result of the years immediately
after gaining independence, when the idea of national identity and national belonging was strongly
held by most Africans who obtained foreign citizenship were seen as unpatriotic individuals who
longer deserve to be seen as nationals of their countries of origin. In the same light, granting
citizenship to individual who still maintained their original nationalities was seen as weakening the
“unifying power” of the nation state, threatening “National Unity” and slowing down the
construction of the “nation”.
 Some countries reject dual citizenship, simply to avoid complications that may arise from custody
disputes or extradition cases involving dual citizens.
3.3.2 Arguments in favor of Dual Citizenship:
 Despite the arguments against dual citizenship, proponents of dual citizenship argue against the
view that by obtaining a foreign citizenship, one is no longer loyal to his country origin.
 In the specific case of Cameroon, millions of dollars get into the country every year from
Cameroonians abroad. (Commonly known as the Cameroonian Diaspora). Some of them own
business in Cameroon through which thousands of Cameroonians are employed.
  Cameroonian ex-students, professionals, and other Diaspora – based organizations carry out
thousands of charitable ventures (from scholarships to communal development projects) in
Cameroon each year.
 From the above evidence, proponents of dual citizenship argue that taking up a foreign citizenship,
has little or nothing to do with an individual’s level of commitment and attachment to his home and
country.

3.4 What are the rights, privileges and responsibilities of Cameroonian citizens?
By privileges, we are referring to those benefits enjoyed by Cameroonian citizens that are beyond
the advantages available to foreigners in Cameroon. Rights are entitlements to certain kinds of treatment
based on one’s status. Cameroonian citizens enjoy certain rights and privileges that the nation has to offer
these rights come with some important responsibilities. As a citizen, it is your country by fulfilling these
responsibilities.
3.4.1 Rights of Citizens
3.4.1.1 Right to Vote:
Cameroonian citizens have the privilege e to vote in local and national elections as well as
participate in all other political activities. Through the right to vote is acquired only after reaching the age
of 20, every Cameroonian irrespective of sex has the right to engage and participate in political activities.
3.4.1.2 Right to Run for Public Offices in Cameroon:
Every Cameroonian citizen has the right to run in local and national elections. For example a
Cameroonian citizen can be elected as a municipal councilor, mayor, Member of Parliament (MP) or as
president of the republic of Cameroon. Foreigners are not allowed to enjoy this right.
3.4.1.3 Right to serve in the Cameroon public service:
Cameroonian citizens have a right to serve in the public service of Cameroon, provided they meet
the criteria to do so. Every qualified Cameroonian has right to be appointed into public offices irrespective
of their cultural background, ethnic origin or politics learning.
3.4.1.4 Right to education and healthcare:
Cameroonian citizens have the right to quality and affordable education as well as affordable
healthcare. It is the government’s responsibility to provide such facilities as schools, universities and
hospitals top all its citizens, their ethnic or political learning’s notwithstanding.
3.4.1.5 Rights to Basic Utilities:
Every Cameroonian has a right to clean water and electricity. The government owes its citizens and
responsibility of providing withstanding these facilities.
Right to government scholarship: Every qualified Cameroonian has the right to become eligible for
government scholarship or grants.

3.4.2 Responsibilities of Citizens

In as much as citizens enjoy rights, they also owe their states some responsibilities. Responsibilities
are actions that individual citizens are obliged to take for moral and legal reasons. Cameroonians citizens
owe the state a number of responsibilities or duties. Some of these responsibilities are:
3.4.2.1 Every citizen has the duty to obey and respect the laws of the state.
Citizens are expected in this case not only to avoid actions which are not in compliance with the
law, but also to speak out against those who violate the law.
Every citizen also has a duty to serve the country where and whenever he or she is called to do so. This can-
either is in the military or in the civil service.
3.4.2.2 Every citizen also has the duty to pay taxes to the state.
This is a very important duty of a citizen because it is from these taxes that the government raises
revenue to be able to meet her own engagement to its citizens, vis the provision of pipe borne water, the
construction of schools, hospitals and roads.
3.4.2.3 Every citizen must respect state and local authorities.
Every citizen has the duty to respect the rights of other citizens. Individual citizens must enjoy their
rights in such a way as not to infringe on the rights of others. For example while you enjoy your right to
peaceful demonstration, you should be careful not to infringe on someone else’s right to movement.
3.4.2.4 Citizens have the duty to respect the beliefs and opinions of others.
As citizens you must recognize that everyone must not think the way you do. Individuals have
their beliefs and opinions different from those of others. As responsible citizens you are obliged to respect
these differences and must not impose your opinions on others or should you manipulate bothers to yield
to your ideas.
4.4.2.5 Every citizen has the duty to participate in their local community.
You can do this by taking part in clean-up campaigns or in vigilantism, helping law enforcement
officers, or doing voluntary services in your community.
It is the duty of every citizen to participate in the political process.

Chapter Four: The Nation

4.1 Definition of the nation
A nation is a community of people formed on the basis of a common language, history, ethnicity,
or a common culture, and, in many cases, a shared territory.
Or
A nation may refer to a community of people who share a common language, culture, ethnicity,
descent, or history.
 Or
A large group of people having a common origin, language and tradition inhabiting a defined territory and
organized under an independent government.

4.2 Origin and development of the concept of the nation

The concept of the nation developed in Western Europe during the post-Reformation struggles of
the sixteen and seventeenth centuries, and was further shaped by the industrial and political revolutions of
the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
During the nineteenth century, the development of the political power of the middle classes within
capitalist states also refined the concept of the nation.
The creation of mass democracies and notions of popular sovereignty during the twentieth century
created the notion of nationality being related to citizenship.
But the concepts of nation in the eyes of some commentators are artificial formulations. According
to Benedict Anderson, in Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism
(1983), nations are ‘imagined communities’, artificially constructed and sustained, and are not deeply rooted
in history or some natural cultural identity.
Eric Hobsbawm, in Nations and Nationalism since 1780 (1990), argues that nations as constructed
around myths of age-old identity and linked to capitalist economic development with the intention of
constructing an identity capable of countering the emerging class identity of the proletariat.
Also, the development of the concept of nation from the early middle Ages. Adrian Hastings,
proposes some three elements in The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion and Nationalism
(1997), as being responsible for the creation of a nation. They include:
 War stimulated a sense of national identity and nationalism.
 The awareness of a wider linguistic sense of identity, rather than dialect, developed as the
consequence of writing and the spread of printing.
 Finally, religion was especially important. The idea of a ‘chosen’ nation comes from the Old
Testament, and kings and national priesthoods used religion to shape national identity.
4.3 Types of nations
According to Friedrich Meinecke, there are two types of nations; cultural nations and political
nations.
4.3.1 Cultural nations
Cultural nations are shaped by deep historical, linguistic and ethnic ties that pre-date modern states
and may or may not generate demands for political independence. All nations have some elements of
‘culture’ in their national identity. Examples include the Welsh, the Germans and the Bretons.
4.3.2 Political nations
Political nations, on the other hand, such as the UK and the USA, are bound together by political
principles such as ‘liberty’, ‘constitutionalism’ and ‘the rule of law’. Such principles can come into conflict
with other loyalties engendered by ‘cultural’ national identity. Citizens often find cultural national identity
more attractive than political national identity.
4.4 Features of a nation
Below are lists of some features associated with the nation that bring out both cultural and political
aspects of nationhood:
 Race
 language
 Religion and national identity;
 Common historical and cultural ties;
 A sense of ‘nationhood’.

Chapter Five: The State

5.1 Definition of the state
The state is a legal entity that is directed by a government. In this line of thought, it is seen as
ongoing administrative apparatus that develops and administers laws and generates and implements public
policies in a specific territory.
Or
A government which controls a specific territory, which may or may not be associated with any
particular ethnic group.
Or
A state is a group of people who inhabit a certain area of land. They normally have an organized
government, which is free from any external control. The government normally has a certain force that
insures obedience of the citizens, and a number of other forces that defend its sovereignty. Read more:
 5.2 The elements of state
5.2.1 Physical elements
5.2.1.1 Territory:
An area with clearly defined borders to which a state lays claim. The territory of the state include:
land, water, sea, air and space.
5.2.1.2 Population:
It is the people who make the state. It is essential for the state. According to some greek thinkers,
the population should be neither too big or too small.
5.2.2 Political basis of the state
5.2.2.1 Government:
The government is the third element of the state. There can be no state without a government. It is the
political organization of the state. It is the agency through which the force of the state is formulated,
expressed and realized.
5.2.2.2 Sovereignty:
The fourth essential element of the state is sovereignty. This means that it is the supreme and final
legal authority above and beyond which no legal power exists. Quality of a state in which it is legally
recognized by the family of states as the sole legitimate governing authority within its territory and as the
legal equal of other states. Sovereignty is of two types.
5.2.2.1 Types of sovereignty
 External sovereignty:
Sovereignty relative to outside powers that is legally recognized in international law 
Internal sovereignty:
The sole authority within a territory capable of making and enforcing laws and policies
Other characteristics of a state
There are eight essential characteristics of a state:
 Population
 Territory
 Government
 Permanence
 Recognition
 Sovereignty
 Taxation
 System of laws
Below, we will give separate attention to each of these characteristic features.
1) Population
There’s no state without a population. Population is a key element of any state, it refers to the
number of people within a state. Simply put, it is impossible to have a state without population.
2) Territory
There cannot be a state that has no territory, which is separated from other states. The boundaries
between states should be guarded well to prevent international interference and keep the states sovereign.
Territories of states have precise boundaries on the map.

3) Government and its forms

The government is a body or a system that’s called to establish and maintain the peace and safety of
the population, and also to rule the stately affairs. This body is required to regulate the normal life of the
population in order to make everybody obey the existing laws, protect the people's rights, prevent crimes,
ensure the people's safety, provide basic amenities and infrastructure, manage the state's economy and
defend its territory. From time to time, governments of democratic states change through elections. The
population participates in the voting process according to existing election laws and make their choice
regarding the government they want to have. in totalitarian states, there’s no election or the process is formal
just to show the world that the population supports the existing rule. In fact, depriving the nation of their
choice is a bad policy and very characteristic of cruel totalitarian governments. The government is always
responsible to the population for the actions and decisions it makes and the nation usually has a right to
dismiss the current government and elect a new one (states usually have a special law or regulation for such
situations).
4) Permanence
The state is always permanent, no matter what the government is and how it changes with time.
Permanence is the factor that helps the state develop in its own independent way.
5) Recognition
The territory that’s called a state should be recognized by other states and all the existing
international organizations. The international recognition prevents the breaking out of wars, violation of
boundaries, and other interference in the life of the state.
6) Sovereignty Is one of the essential factors that make a state a real legal state. This is the ability of a state
to keep all the territories it possesses under full control, without any external influence.
Without sovereignty, a state is only a colony and nothing more.
7) Taxation
Historically, taxes were collected by the more powerful from the less powerful within a society. The
ones who possess the power used to take whatever they wanted from their subdued ones whenever they
wished. As a rule, this was done in return for some formal services like protection and so on. In the modern
society, taxation in a state is a system of funding of governmental organs with funds from the people. In
return for the taxation, the state protects the citizens and provides them with the things they need.
8) System of laws
The system of laws that’s attached to a state has several specific features: determining behavior
norms; it's obligatory for all; it's sanctioned by the state; it's maintained by law enforcement agents

5.3 Strong, weak, and failed states

5.3.1 Strong state:
A state that is generally capable of providing political goods to its citizens
5.3.2 Weak state:
A state that only partially provides political goods to its citizens: “limited statehood”: they provide
some political goods widely but others only in certain areas of the country.
5.3.3 Failed state:
A state that is so weak that it loses effective sovereignty over part or all of its territory

Theories of a State
There are several most popular theories about a state:
 The theological theory says that all states are created by a certain divine force and that any power
that exists in the world is sentenced by this divine force
 The theory of agreements says that states emerged out of agreements concluded between tribes,
nations, or separate people
 The theory of violence says that states are created as an act of violence of some tribes over the
others and that the chief power should belong to the strongest
 The patriarchic theory says that states are a natural continuation of the power of a father in family
or dynasty
 The class theory says that states emerge from the prehistoric social model, in which the rich took
over the poor and developed their private property
5.4 Functions of the state
 Administration of justice:
One of the functions of the State is the administration of justice. Many historians argue that justice
begins with the rise of the state. According to ancient societies, all individual disputes were settled
 by the common council of the clan, and justice was carried out in accordance with old customs
handed down from the past.
 Ensure Governance
 Support the public health of the citizens.
 Provide Security
 Ensures Infrastructural development  Ensures the Rule of Law is respected  Sign
treaties with foreign nations.
 Regulate interstate and international commerce
 Make currency
 Make laws to support the Constitution.
 Organise and Conduct elections
 Creating courts
 Starting and collecting taxes
 Building highways

5.5 Distinction between the state and a nation

No State Nation
1 Existed not only at present but in the Modern phenomenon
Ancient period
2 It is legal political It is ethnic cultural
3 People organized for law within a People psychologically joined together with common
definite territory will to live together

4 A state must be sovereign People continue as a nation even if they do not

remain sovereign

5 Inhabited by heterogeneous groups of Inhabited by homogenous groups of people

people
A State can exist without a nation A nation cannot exist without a state

1. The elements of State and Nation are different:

The State has four elements—population, territory, government, and sovereignty. In the absence of even
one element, a State cannot be really a State. A state is always characterised by all these four elements. On
the contrary, a nation is a group of people who have a strong sense of unity and common consciousness.
Common territory, common race, common religion, common language, common history, common culture
and common political aspirations are the elements which help the formation of a nation, and yet none of
these is an absolutely essential element. The elements which go to build a nation keep on changing.
2. State is a Political Organisation while Nation is a social, cultural, psychological, emotional and
political unity:
The State is a political organisation which fulfills the security and welfare needs of its people. It is
concerned with external human actions. It is a legal entity. On the other hand, a Nation is a united unit of
population which is full of emotional, spiritual and psychological bonds. A nation has little to do with the
physical needs of the people.
3. Possession of a Definite Territory is essential for the State but not for a Nation:
It is essential for each State to possess a fixed territory. It is the physical element of the State. State is a
territorial entity. But for a nation territory is not an essential requirement. A nation can survive even without
a fixed territory. Love of a common motherland acts as a source of unity. For example, before 1948 the
Jews were a nation even though they had no fixed territory of their own. When, in 1948, they secured a
definite and defined territory, they established the State of Israel.
4. Sovereignty is essential for State but not for Nation:
Sovereignty is an essential element of the State. It is the soul of the State. In the absence of sovereignty,
the State loses its existence. It is the element of sovereignty which makes the state different from all other
associations of the people. It is not essential for a nation to possess sovereignty.
The basic requirement of a nation is the strong bonds of emotional unity among its people which develop
due to several common social cultural elements. Before 1947, India was a nation but not a State because it
did not have sovereignty. (State = Nation + Sovereignty).
After her independence in 1947, India became a State because after the end of British imperial rule it
became a sovereign entity. However, each nation always aspires to be sovereign and independent of the
control of every other nation.
5. Nation can be wider than the State:
The State is limited to a fixed territory. Its boundaries can increase or decrease but the process of change
is always very complex. However a nation may or may not remain within the bounds of a fixed territory.
Nation is a community based on common ethnicity, history and traditions and aspirations. Obviously its
boundaries can easily extend beyond the boundaries of the State. For example in a way the French nation
extends even to Belgium, Switzerland and Italy because people in these countries belong to the same race
to which the French claim to belong.
6. There can be two or more Nationalities living in one State:
There can be two or more than two nations within a single State. Before the First World War, Austria and
Hungary were one State, but two different nations. Most of the modern states are multinational states.
7. Nation is more stable than State:
A nation is more stable than the State. When sovereignty ends, the State dies, but not the nation. A nation
can survive even without sovereignty. For example, after their defeat in the World War II, both Germany
and Japan lost their sovereign statuses and outside powers began to control them. They ceased to exist as
States. But as nations they continued to live as nations, which after some months regained their sovereign
statuses and became sovereign independent states.
8. A State can be created while a Nation is always the result of evolution:
A State can be created with the conscious endeavors of the people. A nation is a unity of the people which
emerges slowly and steadily. No special efforts go into the making of a nation.
9. The State uses police power (force) for preserving its unity and integrity, the Nation is bound by
strong cultural and historical links:
State has police power. Those who dare to disobey it are punished by the state. A nation does not have
police power or force or coercive power. It is backed by moral, emotional and spiritual power. A nation
survives on the power of sense of unity of the people. A nation appeals, the State orders; a nation persuades,
a States coerces; and a nation boycotts, the State punishes. State is a political organisation, while the nation
is a unity.
State and nation do not have the same boundaries, and yet there is a tendency for a nation and state
to be one. Most of the nations today stand organised into different states. Most of the modern States are
multinational States. The modern state is called a nation-state because all the (nationalities) living in one
state stand integrated into one nation.
A state continuously pursues the objective of national- integration. The State tries to secure this
objective by securing a willing blending of the majority nationality and all the minority nationalities,
through collective living, sharing of all the ups and the downs in common and development of strong
emotional, spiritual and psychological bonds. Unity in diversity or more really, unity in plurality stands
accepted as the guiding principle by all the modern civilised multinational states like India, USA, Russia,
China, Britain and others.

Chapter Six: Multiculturalism

Multiculturalism is a term which is used to describe the social condition of diversity among a specific
population evident through various spatial formations, but particularly seen through the spatial lens of
nation states and cities. In particular, it refers to the existence of differences among a population in terms of
racial, ethnic, religious, and other cultural characteristics. Based upon this recognition of social and cultural
diversity, multiculturalism is also a version of political integration which acknowledges the rights and
needs of minority groups within the political mainstream, the practical adoption of which varies
considerably between places and nations. While multiculturalism emerged as a popular way of dealing with
the challenges of social and cultural diversity including inequality and racism, many nations who originally
adopted this stance are currently beginning to shift back toward an assimilationist agenda. This has called
into question the manner in which diversity should be managed, how issues of multicultural inclusion
should be approached, but also how notions of personal and collective identity may be conceptualized and
defined in a context of globalisation and postcolonialism.

6.1 Challenges to multiculturalism

There are two primary objections to multiculturalism. One is that multiculturalism privileges the good of
certain groups over the common good, thereby potentially eroding the common good in favour of a
minority interest. National unity could become impossible if people see themselves as members of ethnic or
racial groups rather than as citizens of a common country. The second is that multiculturalism undermines
the notion of equal individual rights, thereby weakening the political value of equal treatment. Equal
individual rights could be set aside or deprecated in favour of rights that are possessed by the group.
Multiculturalism raises other questions. There is the question of which cultures will be recognized. Some
theorists have worried that multiculturalism can lead to a competition between cultural groups all vying for
recognition and that this will further reinforce the dominance of the dominant culture. Such competition
could even lead to a reaction in which the dominant culture sees itself as a beleaguered group in need of
recognition and protection. Further, the focus on cultural group identity may reduce the capacity for
coalitional political movements that might develop across differences. Some Marxist and feminist theorists
have expressed worry about the dilution of other important differences shared by members of a society that
do not necessarily entail a shared culture, such as class and sex, and the resulting neglect of policies that
would minimize economic and gender inequalities. A related concern is that actions that celebrate cultural
pluralism would be taken because of their popularity but that actions that redress past discrimination would
not be taken because of their threat to the dominant group’s status.

6.2 Benefit of multiculturalism

6.2.1 Diverse cultural perspectives can inspire creativity and drive innovation
Our culture influences the way in which we see the world. A variety of viewpoints along with the wide-
ranging personal and professional experience of an international team can offer new perspectives that
inspire colleagues to see the workplace—and the world—differently.
Diversity of thought has been shown to breed creativity and drive innovation, helping to solve problems
and meet customer needs in new and exciting ways. For example, cosmetic giant L’Oréal attributes much if
its impressive success in emerging markets to its multicultural product development teams.

6.2.2 Local market knowledge and insight makes a business more competitive and profitable
A multicultural workforce can give an organization an important edge when expanding into new markets.
Often, a product or service needs to be adapted to succeed overseas. Understanding local laws, regulations,
and customs, as well as the competitive landscape, can help a business to thrive. Moreover, local
connections, native language skills, and cultural understanding can boost international business
development exponentially.
And being more competitive ultimately means being more profitable. Diversity Inc annually recognizes the
top 50 most diverse companies and measures their success against the broader market. Recent research
from McKinsey also underscores the fact that diversity is good for a business’s bottom line. In fact,
ethnically diverse companies were shown to be 35% more likely to have financial returns above the
national industry median.

6.2.3 Cultural sensitivity, insight, and local knowledge means higher quality, targeted marketing
Cross-cultural understanding, along with local market knowledge, lends itself the production of more
effective marketing strategy and materials. For example, high quality and culturally sensitive translations of
websites, brochures, and other assets are essential. But these can be overlooked without the input of a
native speaker.
Even brand taglines can get badly lost in translation. A frequently cited example is from KFC in China,
whose chicken was marketed as so tasty, you’ll “eat your fingers off!” (A poor translation of their brand
tagline, “Finger lickin’ good.”)

6.2.4 Drawing from a culturally diverse talent pool allows an organization to attract and retain the
best talent
According to a Glassdoor survey, two thirds of job hunters indicated that diversity was important to them
when evaluating companies and job offers. In a competitive global job market, demonstrating that your
business is invested in fostering a multicultural and inclusive environment can make you stand out to the
right candidates. Making diversity an important part of the recruiting process will broaden your talent pool
of prospective employees.
Not only does hiring from a more diverse talent pool makes your business attractive to ambitious, globally
minded candidates, it also helps you to keep them on board. Diversity, including diversity of gender,
religion, and ethnicity, has been shown to improve retention and reduce the costs associated with employee
turnover.

6.2.5 A diverse skills base allows an organization to offer a broader and more adaptable range of
products and services
By drawing from a culturally diverse talent pool, companies benefit from hiring professionals with a broad
range of skills that are often not accessible when hiring locally. Globally oriented companies can add to
their service range by leveraging the skills and experience their international employees bring to the table.
A broader skills base and a more potentially diverse offering of products and services can help your
business to have the competitive advantage of adaptability. In today’s volatile and uncertain global business
environment, nimble and adaptable organizations are the ones that thrive.
 6.2.6 Diverse teams are more productive and perform better
The range of experience, expertise, and working methods that a diverse workplace offers can boost
problem-solving capacity and lead to greater productivity. In fact, studies have shown organizations with a
culture of diversity and inclusion are both happier and more productive. Where working in homogeneous
teams can seem easier, it can cause a business to settle for the status quo. Diversity, on the other hand, can
breed healthy competition, stretching a team in a positive way to achieve their best. This atmosphere of
healthy competition can lead to the optimization of company processes for greater efficiency.

6.2.7 Greater opportunity for personal and professional growth

Fundamentally, an inclusive and culturally diverse business will attract talented, ambitious, and globally
minded professionals who will appreciate the opportunity for personal and professional growth.
Working across cultures can be a truly enriching experiencing, allowing others to learn about perspectives
and traditions from around the world. Bonding over similarities and differences can help you to become a
global citizen, abandoning prejudices or an ethnocentric world view—something that is increasingly
valuable.

6.3 Challenges to multiculturalism

6.3.1 Colleagues from some cultures may be less likely to let their voices be heard
However, the presence of diverse brain power alone is not enough. It’s also critical to create an open and
inclusive workplace environment, so all team members feel empowered to contribute. This can be particularly
challenging for colleagues from polite or deferential cultures. For instance, professionals from Asian
countries such as Vietnam or Japan may feel less comfortable speaking up or sharing ideas, particularly if
they are new to the team or in a more junior role.

6.3.2 Integration across multicultural teams can be difficult in the face of prejudice or negative cultural
stereotypes

While local expertise is an invaluable asset, it’s also important to foster integration among teams to avoid
colleagues from different countries working in isolation and limiting knowledge transfer.
This can be a challenge to overcome, particularly if there are underlying prejudices between cultures, making
them less inclined to work together. Negative cultural stereotypes can be seriously detrimental to company
morale and affect productivity. For instance, the centuries-long antipathy between the British and French, or
the Polish and Germans can sometimes creep into the workplace.
6.3.3 Professional communication can be misinterpreted or difficult to understand across languages
and cultures
While quality translations are key for effective marketing, there can also be a real risk of communication
getting lost in translation among multicultural colleagues. Language barriers are just one challenge. Even in
an office where everyone speaks English, comprehending a range of accents, or understanding a native-
speaker’s use of idioms, can be difficult.
Moreover, effective cross-cultural communication comes down to much more than just words spoken. Non-
verbal communication is a delicate and nuanced part of cultural interaction that can lead to misunderstandings
or even offense between team members from different countries. Things like comfortable levels of physical
space, making or maintaining eye contact, and gesturing can all be vastly different across cultures.

6.3.4 Navigating visa requirements, employment laws, and the cost of accommodating workplace
requirements can be difficult
Despite the clear benefits, hiring talent from overseas can present an HR challenge. Not least among this is
the complicated process of navigating employment laws and visa requirements for international workers.
Requirements and regulations are different in each country and between countries, and can change frequently.
Different understandings of professional etiquette
Colleagues from different cultures can also bring with them different workplace attitudes, values, behaviors,
and etiquette. While these can be enriching and even beneficial in a diverse professional environment, they
can also cause misunderstandings or ill feelings between team members.
For instance, the expectation of formality (or relative informality), organizational hierarchy, and even
working hours can conflict across cultures. Where a Japanese colleague may not feel it appropriate to leave
work before their manager (or, indeed, anyone else), a Swedish professional may be used to a 6-hour working
day.
6.3.5 Conflicting working styles across teams
However, working styles and attitudes towards work can be very different, reflecting cultural values and
compounding differences. If not recognized and accounted, conflicting approaches to work can put the brakes
on productivity.
For instance, approaches to teamwork and collaboration can vary notably. Some cultures, including many in
Asia and Central America, value collective consensus when working towards a goal. Whereas others, such as
Germany and America, put emphasis on the independence of the individual. Likewise, emphasis on order,
rigor, and organization in the workplace versus flexibility and spontaneity can also reflect underlying cultural
values.

Chapter Seven: Ethics (definition, types, concepts);

7.1 Ethics
Ethics is the most important and functioning branch of philosophy today. In general, ethics is moral
philosophy. The term ethics is derived from Greek term Ethos which means custom or character. It is related
to our values and virtues. Therefore, our actions and our experiences in everyday life are the subjects of
ethics. We have the capacity to think about our choices, so we are responsible for all our decisions and
actions. In addition to this, it can be said that ethics is the study of what is wrong and what is right. Goodevil,
right-wrong, virtue- vice, justice and injustice.
 Or
Ethics refers to a set of rules that describes acceptable conduct in society. Ethics serve as a guide
to moral daily living and helps us judge whether our behavior can be justified.
Ethics refers to society’s sense of the right way of living our daily lives. It does this by establishing
rules, principles, and values on which we can base our conduct. The concepts most directly associated with
ethics are truth, honesty, fairness, and equity.
While ethics is a societal concern, it is of critical importance to the professions that serve society.
Because professionals such as physicians, attorneys, engineers, and property and facility managers provide
services that affect our welfare, they develop professional codes of ethics that establish professional
standards for behavior.
Examples of the types of standards found in professional codes of ethics include:
An attorney or physician maintaining client-patient confidentiality
An accountant not using client information for personal gain

7.2 Parts/types of Ethics

7.2.1.1 Normative ethics:
Normative ethics is the study of what makes actions right and wrong. It is concerned with
arriving at set of moral conduct rules against which behaviour are judged.
7.2.1.2 Descriptive ethics (moral beliefs):

Descriptive ethics is about facts. It refers to the study of moral beliefs of the people. It is a field of
empirical research into what people or societies consider right or wrong.
7.2.1.1 Meta ethics (origin of ethical principle):
It deals with origin of ethical principles that govern the specification of right and wrong
behaviour.
7.2.4 Applied ethics
Another name for applied ethics is professional ethics. Professional ethics is one of the important
branches of applied ethics. In general, professional ethics can be defined as standards or codes to provide
people to guidance in their professional lives. It discusses approvable and disapprovals conduct within any
given profession. That is rules or standards governing the moral conduct of members of a particular
profession.
Rules of professional ethics are usually formulated in a code known as “Code of Ethics” or
“professional code of conduct”. A good moral code is a set of rules which assures justice and happiness to
those who follow it. One who applies the teaching of the code honestly will develop self-control, learning
to respect for rights of others. Such a person is tolerant towards others and is morally mature.
Examples of applied ethics:
 Medical ethics: The ethical principles or codes designed for a medical profession.
 Computer ethics: The ethical principles or codes designed for a medical profession.
  Engineering ethics: The ethical principles or codes designed for an engineering profession.
 Business ethics: The ethical principles or codes designed for a business operation
 Legal ethics: The ethical principles or codes designed for maintaining a legal system.

7.3 Relevance of ethics;

 Ethics play a very important role in education. This is because it impacts behavior and permits an
individual to make the right options. To manage life and act responsibly is very hard without ethics.
The significance of ethics cannot be disregard in any level of life, it is thus important that they are
practiced in the area of education.
 A professional code of ethics sets a standard for which each member of the profession can be
expected to meet. It is a promise to act in a manner that protects the public’s well-being. A
professional code of ethics informs the public what to expect of one’s doctor, lawyer, accountant,
or property manager
 Ethics set the standards of what is acceptable and what is not acceptable, thereby helping to protect
the interest of all the members of the society.

 Also, ethics helps develop critical thinking skills, particularly the ability to reflect and the
theoretical and practical effect of personal and collective human action.
 Ethics helps an individual to become a better citizen, since it is the fundamental method of human
life.
 Ethics impacts behavior and permits an individual to make the right options.
 Ethics in Education are important because they assist to run the system smoothly. The Ethics sets
the standards of what’s acceptable and what’s not, therefore, protecting the Interest of both teachers
and students.
 Ethics allows you to live an authentic life. An authentic and meaningful life requires you to live
with a sense of integrity. Integrity is making commitments and sticking to them through thick and
thin — no matter how much violating them may benefit you. Having a firm character or set of
principles to guide your life and the choices you make is what ethics is all about.
 Ethics makes you more successful. You may think that ethics can hold you back in all kinds of
ways, but the truth is the opposite. Ethical people embody traits that unethical people have to work
at to fake — they’re honest, trustworthy, loyal, and caring. As a result, ethical people are perfectly
suited not only for interpersonal relationships generally, but also more specifically for the kinds of
interactions that make for thriving business. Unethical people generally don’t do so well at these
things.
 Ethics allows you to cultivate inner peace. Lives that are lived ethically tend to be calmer, more
focused, and more productive than those that are lived unethically. Most people can’t turn off their
sympathy for other human beings. Hurting people leaves scars on both the giver and the receiver.
As a result, unethical people have stormier internal lives because they have to work to suppress
 their consciences and sympathies to deal with the ways they treat others. When they fail to properly
suppress their sympathies, the guilt and shame that comes with harming or disrespecting one’s
fellow human beings takes deep root within them.
 Ethics provides for a stable society. When people live ethical lives, they tell the truth, avoid
harming others, and are generous. Working with such people is easy. On the other hand, callous
and insensitive people are distrusted, so it’s difficult for them to be integrated well into social
arrangements. A stable society requires a lot of ethical people working together in highly
coordinated ways. If society were mostly composed of unethical people, it would quickly crumble.

Theories of ethics

1. Utilitarianism

Jeremy Bentham is often considered the founder of utilitarianism, though John Stuart Mill (who wrote On
Liberty and Utilitarianism) and others promoted it as a guide to what is good. This theory is often equated
with the concept of “the greatest good for the greatest number.”

The Utilitarian ethical theory is based on one’s ability to predict the consequences of an action. To
a utilitarian, the choice that yields the greatest benefit to the most people is the one that is ethically correct.
There are two types of utilitarianism, act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism. In Act utilitarianism a
person performs the acts that benefit the most people, regardless of personal feelings or the societal
constraints such as laws. Rule utilitarianism takes into account the law and is concerned with fairness. A
rule utilitarian seeks to benefit the most people but through the fairest and most just means or rule
available. Therefore, added benefits of rule utilitarianism are that it values justice and includes beneficence
at the same time. Both act and rule utilitarianism have disadvantages.

Although people can use their life experiences to attempt to predict outcomes, no one can be certain that
his/her predictions will be accurate. Uncertainty can lead to unexpected results making the utilitarian
decision maker appear unethical as time passes, as the choice made did not benefit the most people as
predicted.

2. Deontological Ethics

The second prominent concept, deontological ethics, is associated with the father of modern deontology,
Immanuel Kant. A deontologist like Kant is likely to believe that ethical action arises from doing one’s duty
and that duties are defined by rational thought. Therefore, the deontological class of ethical theories states
that people should adhere to their obligations and duties when engaged in decision making when ethics
are in play. This means that a person will follow his or her obligations to another individual or society
because upholding one’s duty is what is considered ethically correct. For instance, a deontologist will
always keep his promises to a client and will follow the law. A person who adheres to deontological theory
will produce very consistent decisions since they will be based on the individual’s duties. The core concept
behind this theory is that people have objective obligations, or duties. Thus, when faced with an ethical
situation, then, the process is simply one of identifying one’s duty in order to make the appropriate decision.

Deontology contains many positive attributes, but it also contains flaws. One flaw is that there is no
rationale or logical basis for deciding an individual’s duties. For instance, if the nurse who must be on time
to meetings is running late, how is he/she supposed to drive? Given that it’s her duty to the society to avoid
breaking speed limits according to the law, is the nurse supposed to arrive at the meeting late, thus not
fulfilling the duty to be on time?

3. Rights theory

This ethical theory warrants or demands that the rights established by a society are protected and given the
highest priority. Rights are considered to be ethically correct and valid since a large population endorses
them. Individuals may also bestow rights upon others if they have the ability and resources to do so. For
example, a person may say that her friend may borrow her laptop for the afternoon. The friend who was
given the ability to borrow the laptop now has a right to the laptop in the afternoon.

A major complication of this theory on a larger scale is that one must decipher what the characteristics of
a right are in a society. The society has to determine what rights it wants to uphold and give to its citizens.
In order for a society to determine what rights it wants to enact, it must decide what the
society’s goals and ethical priorities are. Therefore, in order for the rights theory to be useful, it must be
used in conjunction with another ethical theory that will consistently explain the goals of the society.

4; Virtue theory

This philosophy stems from Aristotle and is based on the virtues of the person making a decision.

The virtue ethical theory judges a person by his/her character rather than by an action that may deviate
from his/her normal behavior. It takes the person’s morals, reputation, and motivation into account when
rating an unusual and irregular behavior that is considered unethical. For instance, if a person plagiarized a
passage that was later detected by a peer, the peer who knows the person well will understand the person’s
character and will judge the friend accordingly. If the plagiarizer normally follows the rules and has good
standing amongst his colleagues, the peer who encounters the plagiarized passage may be able to judge his
friend more leniently. Perhaps the researcher had a late night and simply forgot to credit his or her source
appropriately. Conversely, a person who has a reputation for academic misconduct is more likely to be
judged harshly for plagiarizing because of his/her consistent past of unethical behavior.

One weakness of virtue ethical theory is that it does not take into consideration a person’s change in moral
character. For example, a scientist who may have made mistakes in the past may honestly have the same
late night story as the scientist in good standing. Neither of these scientists intentionally plagiarized, but the
act was still committed. On the other hand, a researcher may have a sudden change from moral to immoral
character may go unnoticed until a significant amount of evidence mounts up against him/her.
 Chapter Eight: Traditional African values;
8.1 Conceptual clarification
8.1.1 What is culture?
Culture is a concept that is universal but varies from society to society. This is because what is
acceptable in one society may not be accepted in the other society. Generally, culture encompasses every
bit of man’s life and experience. This is perhaps why the concept has attracted various definitions from
different scholars, but these definitions revolve round a similar meaning.
For our purpose here, we tend towards Tylor (1958) and Malinowski (1931) definitions. Tylor
(1958) explicates culture as a complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, moral, law, custom any
other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society (Tylor,1958). According to
Malinowski, culture is a functioning, active, efficient, well organized unity, which must be analyzed into
component institutions in relations to one another, in relation to the needs of human organism, and in relation
to the environment, man-made as well as natural (Malinowski,1931citedby Adegoke et.al.,).
Drawing an inference from the above, culture is an all embracing concept having a broad
interpretation. Culture embraces religious beliefs, languages, dresses, style of living, political organization
and all other aspects of life.
8.1.2 Value System
According to Longman Dictionary the word value is defined, ‘as the degree of usefulness of
something, quality in something which makes it helpful, useful or desirable, a standard or idea which most
people have about the worth of good qualities’. This notwithstanding, the meaning is not explanatory enough.
The word values refer to the attitude, beliefs, behaviours and actions that are cherished and acceptable
standards of behaviours which each society expects that the members should abide by.
Although, values differ from person to person and from one society to another. This is because social
groups or human societies have various beliefs, attitudes and standards that form their value system. In this
light, the term value is defined as a coherent set of attitude, behaviour and action adopted and or evolved by
a person, organization, or society as a standard to guide its behaviour and preferences in all situations.
8.2 The Place of African Traditional Cultural Values
The interpretive exposition and presentation of values generated by traditional African societies
covers many aspects of the African cultural life. Although, it is important to note that talking about African
cultural values does not imply that by any means there are no cultural disvalues or negative features of the
African cultures. This is because some cultural beliefs, practices and institutions that are regarded as cultural
values may be regarded as cultural disvalues by others. Or even some aspects of what one regards as cultural
values may require some refinement.
 The main reason for focusing on cultural values here is that some of these cultural values require
appropriate and necessary amendment and refinement in order to be relevant to African modernity . There
is no community or nation in existence to which religion has not formed the basis of her life. There has
always been a sense of belonging to God in Africa, as well as the basic belief that this world is God’s world.
In Africa, the belief is that God created the world and the whole affairs of the world are under his unitary
control. African belief is that society is thus an ordinance of God, and every institution within society is
therefore basically religious.
African people have various moral and societal values meant to regulate interpersonal relationship
and to perpetuate the entire community. Africans have certain standards or norms to be observed. These
standards or norms are meant for social cohesion and smooth running of the community. They are to prevent
members of the community from becoming rebellious and thereby endanger the welfare of the society.
In African society, there are a set of values that guide the behavior of every member. Specific
mention could be made of values such as hospitality, chastity before marriage, truth, and respect for old age,
covenant keeping, hard work and good character. In African community there are proverbs, maxims used to
inculcate social and moral values in order to regulate their interpersonal relationships. The following are
illuminating examples from the Yoruba of Nigeria and Akan people of Ghana.
8.2.1 Values Fostered
1 Respect and honour for elders
2 Regard and appreciation for one’s family and benefactors
3 Self-control and courtesy
4 Virtues of forgiveness, harmony and peaceful co-existence
5 Diligence and industry
6 Truth and honesty
7 Unity and cooperation

8.3 Traditional African Cultural Values in Modern Africa

Many of the cultural values and practices of traditional Africa discussed, however, can be considered
positive features of the culture and can be accommodated in the scheme of African modernity, even if they
must undergo some refinement and pruning in order to become fully harmonious with the spirit of modern
culture and to function most satisfactorily within that culture. These are some of the traditional African
values that are fully harmonious with the spirit of modern cultures and as well function most satisfactorily
and bring about sustainable development in modern Africa.
8.3.1 Humanity and Brotherhood:
Traditional African cultures recognize the dignity and integrity of the human being as a creature of
God. Our common brotherhood is intrinsically linked with our common humanity. There is only one
universal family, to which all human beings belong. This family is fragmented, however, into a multiplicity
of peoples and cultures. The recognition of all human beings as brothers in the light of our common
membership in one human species is a lofty ideal, that is, of great importance to the African people.
8.3.2 Communalism and Individualism:
The value that traditional African societies place on communalism is expressed in the sharing of a
common social life, commitment to the social or common good of the community, appreciation of mutual
obligations, caring for others, interdependence, and solidarity. At the same time, the claims of individuality
are recognized. African ethic, however, urges the avoidance of extreme individualism, which is seen as
potentially destructive of human values and of the whole meaning and essence of a human society. Attempts
are therefore made to balance communalism and individualism so that they can co-exist.
8.3.3 Morality:
The morality espoused in both traditional and modern cultures, and societies of Africa is a social,
non-individualistic morality. This kind of morality is held as enjoined by social life itself. There is a
preoccupation with human well-being in the African moral thought and practice. The African moral system
puts the ethic of responsibility above the ethic of individual right, even though the latter are also given due
recognition. The importance of character as the engine of moral life in practice is stressed.
8.3.4 The Family:
Marriage is considered as a valuable institution, for without it there would be no family, that is, the
basic unit of social life. Without the family there would be none of the kinship ties that are essential to a
comprehension social life, with an intricate network of social relationships. Values associated with the family
include recognizing the responsibility to share life with a wife or husband and children in the nuclear family
and with members from an entire lineage in the extended family, recognizing the need to have and to care
for children, respecting parents, taking care of our parents in their old age and so on.
8.3.5 Economic Ethic:
Africans seek and put a high values on wealth, both private and family (clan). The right to, and the
importance of private property are recognized in the traditional African economic system, where private
ownership exist side by side with public (command, state) ownership. Families (i.e. lineage, clans) operate
independently of the chiefs, who, thus, do not control all the dynamics of the traditional economy. The
traditional African society is a welfare state, functioning on the ethic of fair distribution. Everyone has access
to the resources and goods of the community or state, but this system is not socialist in any Marxist sense.
8.3.6 Chiefship and Politics:
In the political thoughts and practice of the traditional African society consultation and consensus
are highly valued, for they are outstanding features of political decision-making. This practice allows for the
involvement of all the people in the political process. The chief who is the highest political authority, rules
with the consent of and in accordance with the will of the people. In the actual exercise of power, the people
in effect, are the sources of authority, directly or indirectly through their representatives on the chief’s
council. The political authority of the Chief is based on a trusteeship principle that ensures his accountability
of the people. Freedom of expression, of political opinion is appreciated and practiced. Misrule by a chief is
not tolerated and can lead to his being disposed.
8.3.7 Human Rights:
The most important values in which human rights are rooted are put into practices in the traditional
African cultures. These include individuality, personal responsibility, the dignity and integrity of every
person, the intrinsic values of every person, consideration of every persons as an end in himself or herself
and worthy of respect and equity of the moral worth of all people. Other rights that are acknowledged and
protected include: the right to the use of lineage land, right to food and protection from hunger, the right to
a fair trial and the right to own private property. These rights are fundamental to the social structure, customs
and ethic of the traditional African society and do not need to be vociferously demanded and belligerently
fought for.
8.3.8 Knowledge and Wisdom:
In the traditional African culture, knowledge is highly valued especially practical or empirical
knowledge. This type of knowledge is based on observation and experience. Practical wisdom is most
relevant in the reconstruction of the African society and the promotion of human well-being.
8.3.9 Aesthetics:
Art in traditional African cultures has both functional and aesthetical dimension. Beauty is seen not
only in works of art and in the human figure but also in human conduct, in humanity itself and in a person’s
character. Among the criteria of aesthetic value and judgment are appropriateness and fittingness. For
instance, music, dancing and even clothing must be appropriate to the occasion.
8.4 Challenges of promoting African cultural values
Activities of Western explorers, missionaries, traders and colonial administrators have resulted in
the loss of respect for our traditional objects, symbols and rituals relevant to cultural identification.
Our collective and or inaction have further dampened any hope of an immediate revival of the lost
glory.
 Haunted by her history of colonial and neo-colonial exploitation, economic pillage as well as
destruction of her tangible and intangible heritage material resources, Africa is still at the verge of matching
her cultural resource endowment with her development potential.
The cultural and artistic achievements of the African people in various fields of human endeavour,
including science and technology, are attested to by the widespread cultural sites which are increasingly
becoming object of systematic plunder, destruction, and illicit trade, aided by greed, ignorance and prolonged
neglect.
8.5 Prospects of African cultural values
In order to reclaim the humanity of African communities and assume the rightful heirs of our
founding fathers, there must be a conscious effort to assert African historical traditions and consciousness.
We must explore African oral traditions and its prospects for economic liberty, natural integration, and
stability.
Africans need a psychological and physiological liberation. In doing this, they must draw lessons
from Asia to where nature and environment are valued and celebrated. The challenge before Africans as
individuals, institutions, government at local, state, national and trans-national is to rededicate to the
appreciation, development and patronage of African cultural resources and values.
Africans need to be identified with one another with good knowledge of relics of the endowment
and versed in the history of various cultural sites.
Africans can only make gains by investing resources in individuals with powers of management of
the cultural resources. African pride as continent lies in the values placed on her cultural endowment, the
inherent system of ideas as well as those values that define peculiar personal and group perceptions and ways
of life.
Placing premium on African cultural endowment would earn the people respect, global recognition,
international co-operation, development, and aid effective dissemination of African culture by projecting the
best of her history. It would naturally encourage the preservation of African heritage for future generations
and for the development of knowledge and cultural understanding as being experience in other areas.

Chapter Nine: Deontology, Professional ethics and professionalism

9.1 Deontology is an ethical theory that uses rules to distinguish right from wrong. Deontology is often
associated with philosopher Immanuel Kant. Kant believed that ethical actions follow universal moral
laws, such as “Don’t lie. Don’t steal. Don’t cheat.”
 9.2 Definition of Professional ethics
Professional ethics are principles that govern the behaviour of a person or group in a business environment.
Like values, professional ethics provide rules on how a person should act towards other people and
institutions in such an environment.
9.2.1 Professional Codes of Ethics:
A code of ethics prescribes how professionals are to pursure their common ideal so that each may
do best she can at a minimal cost to herself and those she cares about (including the public …).
Professional codes of conduct provide benefits to:
• the public, as they build confidence in the profession’s trustworthiness
• clients, as they provide greater transparency and certainty about how their affairs will be handled
• members of the profession, as they provide a supporting framework for resisting pressure to act
inappropriately, and for making acceptable decisions in what may be ‘grey areas’
• the profession as a whole, as they provide a common understanding of acceptable practice which
builds collegiality and allows for fairer disciplinary procedures
• others dealing with the profession, as the profession will be seen as more reliable and easier to deal
with.
9.2.3 Ethical principles
Ethical principles underpin all professional codes of conduct. Ethical principles may differ
depending on the profession; for example, professional ethics that relate to medical practitioners will differ
from those that relate to lawyers or real estate agents.
However, there are some universal ethical principles that apply across all professions, including:
• honesty
• trustworthiness
• loyalty
• respect for others
• adherence to the law
• doing good and avoiding harm to others
• accountability
9.2.4 Work Ethics:
Work ethics ‘is aimed at ensuring the following:
 Productivity (wealth, profit),
 Safety (in workplace),
 Health and hygiene (working conditions),
 Privacy (raise family),
 Security (permanence against contractual, pension, and retirement benefits),
  Cultural and social development (leisure, hobby, and happiness),
 Welfare (social work),
 Environment (anti-pollution activities),
9.3 Professionalism
This refers to the competence or skill expected of a professional.
9.3.1 Components of Professionalism
a) Honesty/integrity
Honesty/integrity is the consistent regard for the highest standards of behavior and the refusal to
violate one's personal and professional codes. Honesty and integrity imply being fair, being truthful, keeping
one's word, meeting commitments, and being forthright in interactions with patients, peers, and in all
professional work, whether through documentation, personal communication, presentations, research, or
other aspects of interaction. They require awareness of situations that may result in conflict of interest or
that result in personal gain at the expense of the best interest of the student.
b) Reliability/responsibility
Reliability/responsibility means being responsible for and accountable to others, and this must
occur at a number of levels. Inherent in responsibility is reliability in completing assigned duties or fulfilling
commitments. There must also be a willingness to accept responsibility for errors.
c) Respect for others
Respect for others is the essence of humanism, and humanism is central to professionalism. This
respect extends to all spheres of contact, including but not limited to students, families, employers, and
professional colleagues. One must treat all persons with respect and regard for their individual worth and
dignity. One must be fair and nondiscriminatory and be aware of emotional, personal, family, and cultural
influences on student. It is also a professional obligation to respect appropriate student confidentiality.
d) Compassion/empathy
Compassion/empathy is a crucial component of the practice of helping. One must listen attentively
and respond humanely to the concerns of students. Appropriate empathy for and assisting with relief of
stress and anxiety should be part of the daily practice of helping students.
e) Self-improvement
Self-improvement is the pursuit of and commitment to providing the highest quality of assistance
through continued learning. One must seek to learn from errors and aspire to excellence through self-
evaluation and acceptance of the critiques of others.
 f) Self-awareness/knowledge of limits
Self-awareness/knowledge of limits includes recognition of the need for guidance and supervision
when faced with new or complex responsibilities. One must also be insightful regarding the impact of one's
behavior on others and cognizant of appropriate professional boundaries.
g) Communication/collaboration
Communication/collaboration is critical to providing the best assistance to students. One must work
cooperatively and communicate effectively with students and with all student affairs or faculty involved.
h) Altruism/advocacy
Altruism/advocacy refers to unselfish regard for and devotion to the welfare of others and is a key
element of professionalism. Self-interest or the interests of other parties should not interfere with work.

9.3.2 How to be a professional on the Job

Learn unwritten rules
Get to know your co-workers
Adapt, observe & learn
Ask questions
Pay attention to how people interact
Meet Deadlines
 Ask when an assignment is due
 Update supervisor on progress
 Ask for additional time (if needed)
Communicate Respectfully:
 Observe the proper way to address individuals
 Maintain a pleasant & respectful demeanor, regardless of rank
 Present your ideas
Be Flexible:
 Accept a wide variety of tasks; even grunt work
 Helps you carve the way to more responsibility
 Become indispensable
Be a Team Player:
 Success often defined by ability to relate and get along with others
 You win when your team wins
 Learn how your tasks fit into the grand scheme
9.3.3 How to Develop Professionally
 Obtain training not taught in college
 Keep up with knowledge in your field
 Practice skills in “safe” environment
 College orgs, volunteer
 Get Work Experience
 Internship, volunteer,
 Talk to people doing the job
 Mentor, job shadow, informational interview
 Practice being a professional
 Join professional organizations
9.4 Skills Employers Look For
 Communication Skills – One-on-One & Groups
 Written Communication Skills – Reports, Letters, Emails
 Honesty – Being Truthful; Integrity
 Work Ethic/Dependability
 Analytical Skills
 Interpersonal Skills – Relate to others
 Critical Thinking – Challenging when appropriate; proposing alternatives
 Leadership – Guiding & supporting others
 Creativity – Imagination; new ideas
 Time Management Skills
9.5 The importance of professionalism
Professional workplace behavior is necessary for the long-term success of a business, whether it's
a big corporation or small business. Employee interactions and relationships with customers are of vital
importance to ensure that company goals and objectives are met. A professional work place attitude and
appearance allow employees to take pride in their work and improve worker performance. Managers who
behave professionally set an appropriate example by encouraging their people to conduct themselves in a
manner that supports company-wide success.
9.5.1 Establishes Appropriate Boundaries
Professionalism in the work place establishes boundaries between what is considered appropriate
office behavior and what is not. While most managers support an enjoyable and vibrant work environment,
limits must be put in place to avoid conflicts and misunderstandings. Workers who conduct themselves
 professionally steer clear of crossing the line with their conversations and other interactions with coworkers,
superiors and clients.

9.5.2 Encourages Personal Improvement

A business environment in which employees dress and operate professionally is more conducive
for success. For example, professional dress codes are understood to support career development and
personal growth in the work place. That's because workers who dress and act professionally feel better about
themselves and are encouraged to perform better for their clients.
9.5.3 Promote and Maintain Accountability
Companies that interact directly with clients are obligated to provide the best services possible and
present their company in the best possible light. Professionalism counts when providing written information
to clients. Professionally written company reports, business plans or other correspondence help businesses
remain accountable with their level of service. The impression given in the paperwork submitted is
important in enforcing the right impression about your business.
9.5.4 Establishes Respect for Authority, and Yourself
Professionalism in business establishes respect for authority figures, clients and co-workers.
Maintaining a professional demeanor limits gossip and inappropriate personal conversations that could be
considered disrespectful. Keeping a professional attitude with clients who behave inappropriately
demonstrates the level of respect an employee has for the customer and the business partnership.
9.5.5 Boosts Respect and Minimizes Conflict
Conflicts are less likely to arise in a professional business environment. Workers who respect each
other’s' boundaries and conduct themselves professionally rarely have disagreements that cannot be
resolved efficiently. Professionalism in business also benefits diverse environments in which business
people and their clients have several different perspectives and opinions. Professional behavior helps
business people avoid offending members of different cultures or backgrounds.

Chapter Ten: Relationship between morality, law, ethics and reason

10.1 Conceptual Clarification

10.1.1 Ethics
Ethics deals with the behavioral rules or the traditions that the people must obey in society. In this
case, it corresponds to the value judgment that a society or person attribute to good or bad. As we said
earlier, ethics is derived from the Greek term ethos, which means custom or character.
10.1.2 Morality
Morality refers to the set of standards that enable people to live cooperatively. It’s what societies
 determine to be “right” and “acceptable.” Morality is a set of beliefs and practices about how to live a good
life. Morality comes from the Latin Mores which means custom and manner.
Morality isn’t fixed. What’s considered acceptable in your culture might not be acceptable in
another culture. Geographical regions, religion, family, and life experiences all influence morals. Scholars
don’t agree on exactly how morals are developed.
Some scholars don’t distinguish between morals and ethics. Both have to do with “right and wrong.”
But some people believe morality is personal while ethics refer to the standards of a community. For
example, your community may not view premarital sex as a problem. But on a personal level, you might
consider it immoral. By this definition, your morality would contradict the ethics of your community.
Both laws and morals are meant to regulate behavior in a community to allow people to live in
harmony. Both have firm foundations in the concept that everyone should have autonomy and show respect
to one another.
10.1.3 Law
Simply stated, ‘Law’ can be defined as a set of rules which we are bound to obey (i.e. those rules
which are enforced by the State). Failure to obey laws would result in us having to face certain
repercussions.
Or
Laws could be defined as rules and regulations set forth by competent authorities to regulate the
conduct of individuals in the society, a breach of which attracts sanctions. This competent authority is the
legislator (which is the parliament in Cameroon)

Some essential characteristics of law

10.1.3.1It is a set of rules.
10.1.3.2 It regulates the human conduct
10.1.3.3 It should be promulgated (passed) by legitimate authority that is, made known to those
who are expected to follow it. In a Republican State like Cameroon, we have three branches of
government: legislative body (the parliament) is the law-making body; the executive body is the
implementing body and the judiciary as the enforcing body.
10.1.3.4 General in applicability or abstractness: the Treatment accoof Law should be equal,
regardless of sex, age and status in life and to follow the law there should be equivalent
punishment or penalties to enforce them. The law applies to everyone, poor or rich, big or small,
powerful or weak.
10.1.3.5 It is backed by coercive force or authority: all law passed are meant to be enforced and
must be enforced. Force has been said to be the essence of any law. There are various ways in
which
 obedience to the law can be assured such as by a threat of a prescribed penalty against anyone who
violates it, thus its violation leads to punishment.
It is the expression of the will of the people and is generally written down to give it definiteness.
Broadly speaking there are two main kinds of Law:
(i) National Law i.e. the body of rules which regulates the actions of the people in society and it is
backed by the coercive power of the State.
(ii) International Law i.e. the body of rules which guides and directs the behaviour of the states in
international relations. It is backed by their willingness and consent that the states obey rules of International
Law. It is a law among nations and is not backed by any coercive power.

Chapter Eleven: Tenets of Morality, law and Ethics

11.1.4.1 Morality
 Morality is first order set of beliefs and practices about how to live a good life
 Morality refers to what we call moral conduct,
 Morality is related to praxis
 In case of conflict between the two, morality is given top priority, because the damage is more 
It is more common and basic.
11.1.4.2 Ethics
 Ethics is a second order conscious reflection on the adequacy of our moral beliefs.
 Ethics is the formal study of moral conduct.
 Ethics is related to theory
 Ethics set the standards of what is acceptable and what is not acceptable,
11.1.4.3 Law
 It is a set of rules
 Laws are laid down based on morality
 The law applies equally to everyone
 Law regulates human conduct
 It is created and maintained by the state
 It has a certain amount of stability, fixity and uniformity
 Its violation leads to punishment
 It is backed by coercive authority
 It expresses the will of the people and it is generally written down to give it definiteness
 The relationship between law and morality (differences and similarities)
Behaviour which is commonly regarded as immoral is often also illegal. However, legal and moral
principles can be distinguished from each other. For instance, parking on a double yellow line is illegal but
not commonly regarded as immoral.
This difference between law and morality may be put in a tabular form as follows:

Law Morality
1. Concerned with external acts of 1. Concerned with both the external acts

man and not motives and internal motives

2. Is the concern of the state. 2. Is the concern of conscience.

3. Is concerned with a part of man’s life. 3. Is concerned with the whole of man’s life.

4. Violation of law is punishable by the state 4. Its violation is not punishable by the state

5. Force is the sanction behind laws. 5. Moral conscience is its sanction.

6. 6. Law is definite and precise. 6. Morality is vague and indefinite.
7. Law is objective. 7. Morality is subjective.
8. Law acts within the territory of the State 8. Morality is universal.

9. Law is based on expediency. 9. Morality has absolute standards.

10. A legal wrong may be morally right. 10. A moral wrong may be legally right.
11. There is a definite agency to enforce law 11. There is no definite agency to enforce morality.

Similarities between law and morality (assignment)

Chapter Twelve
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)

Human Rights are rights that all human beings are naturally entitled to, irrespective of our
nationality, place of residence, sex, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, language, or any other status.
We are all equally entitled to our human rights without discrimination. International human rights law, lays
down obligations of governments to act in certain ways or to refrain from certain acts, in order to promote
and protect human rights and fundamental freedoms of individuals or groups.
12.1 Essential elements or characteristics of human rights
1) Universality; they apply to everyone without discrimination. The 1993 Vienna World Conference on
Human Rights, for example, noted that it is the duty of States to promote and protect all human rights
and fundamental freedoms, regardless of their political, economic and cultural systems.
2) Inherent: everyone is born with them
3) Inalienable; cannot be taken away from you because you are born with them
4) Interdependent and indivisible. All human rights are indivisible, whether they are civil and political
rights, such as the right to life, equality before the law and freedom of expression; economic, social
and cultural rights, such as the rights to work, social security and education, or collective rights, such
as the rights to development and self-determination, are indivisible, interrelated and interdependent.
The improvement of one right facilitates advancement of the others. Likewise, the deprivation of one
right adversely affects the others.

12.2 The Importance of Human Rights

The benefits of human rights to society as a whole are tremendous. A citizenry educated in human rights
is perhaps the most fundamental criteria for a peaceful society. The following are the importance of human
rights to society.
Human Rights enable citizens to behave ethically and morally in their community, be it a class, a
school, a village, a city, a nation state, a continent or the global village itself.
It provides citizens with a sense of respect for others and tolerance for divergent views.
Through human rights a just society is created in which the respect for human dignity is supreme.
It promotes democratic principles and the rule of law.
It provides a non-violent society, a society of peaceful and open interaction and association, in
which citizens have the certainty that their fundamental rights are protected.
It asserts the responsibility to respect, protect, and promote the rights of all people.
It helps in the protection and preservation of our environment
It provides multicultural and historical perspectives on the universal struggle for justice and dignity.
It promotes understanding of the causes of abuses, as well as the ways in which abuses can be
abolished and avoided.
It helps people to defend their rights and to advocate for them.
It empowers young people to tackle some of the real problems plaguing society.
12.3 Human Rights Issues (types of human rights):
There are a number of human rights issues. The following are some of the major human rights
issues:
12.3.1 The Right to Life:
This means that no- body, including the government can try to end you life. It also means that you
have the right to be protected if your life is at risk. A person's right to life is not breached if he dies when a
public authority (such as the police) uses necessary force to stop him from taking the life of another person.
12.3.2 Freedom from Slavery:
This right protects you from being held in slavery. That is, nobody should own you like a piece of
property. You can live with and work for somebody but the person does not own you. It also protects you
from forced labour. You should not be forced to work against your will. This right does not apply to normal
civic obligations, like community work or to work that you have to do as part of a prison sentence.
12.3.3 Freedom of Expression:
You have the right to hold your own opinions and views, however unpopular they might be and to
express them freely without government interference. This includes the right to express your views aloud
or through: published articles, books or leaflet, television or radio broadcasting, works of art,
communication or on the internet. Although you have the freedom to express your views and beliefs, you
have a duty to behave responsibly and to respect other people's rights. That is you should not make false or
malicious statements that damages somebody's reputation under the guise of freedom of expression.
12.3.4 Rights to Peaceful Assembly and Association:
You have the right to protest peacefully and without violence or threat of violence. You also have
the right to form and be part of a trade union, a political party or another association or voluntary group.
Nobody has the right to force you to join a political party, trade union, or another association or a protest.
Sometimes, it can be acceptable for a public authority to restrict your rights to freedom of assembly and
association. This should only be where the authority can show that its action has a proper basis in law, and
is necessary and 'proportionate' in order to protect national security or public safety.

12.3.5 Freedom of thought, conscience and religion:

You have a right to your own thoughts, beliefs and religion. This includes the right to change your
religion or beliefs at any time. You also have the right to practice your religion. Neither government
authorities nor any other person can stop you from practicing your religion, publicly or privately,
without very good reason. However, government authorities may, sometimes interfere with your right to
your thoughts, belief and religion if it can show that its action has a proper basis in law, and is
necessary and 'proportionate' for instance to protect.

12.3.6 Protection from torture and maltreatment:

Torture refers to the act of deliberately inflicting mental or physical pain or suffering on someone.
Nobody has the right to inflict such treatment on you. You have a right to be protected from this treatment.
Your right to be free from torture is absolute and must never be restricted. For example, under no
circumstance, should a police officer, treat you or anyone else in an inhuman or degrading way, with the
excuse of wanting to obtain information.

12.4 Human Rights Violations:

Human rights violations also known as human rights abuse are actions either by the state or by
individuals which inflict physical and psychological pains on individuals or by ignoring and depriving
people of their basic human rights (including civil, political, cultural, social, and economic rights).
12.4.1 Torture:
This occurs when severe mental or physical pain is intentionally inflicted on an individual by or
with the consent of the state authorities for a specific purpose. This often takes the form of beating, electric
shocks, submersion, suffocation, burns, rape and sexual assault. The reasons for this are usually to obtain
information, force suspects to confess, take revenge on a person or persons or create terror and fear within
a population.
12.4.2 Female Genital Mutilation (FGM):
This is the practice of removing the clitoris and labia to insure fidelity to the husband. It is
performed on little girls, and is considered to be a coming of age ceremony. In 1995, the UN Beijing
Declaration and Platform for Action condemns FGM as a form of violent dis crimination against women.
12.4.3 Arbitrary arrest and arbitrary detention:
This is the arrest of an individual, without proper due process or without any evidence that the
individual committed the crime. Most people who are arbitrarily arrested are not given any explanation as
to why they are being arrested, and they are not shown any arrest warrant. Arbitrarily arresting and/or
detaining persons contradicts article 9 of the Universal declaration of human rights which protects the
freedom of individuals from arbitrary arrest.

12.4.4 Discrimination:
Discrimination is the systematic denial of certain peoples or groups full privileges or rights
because of their membership in a socially distinct group or category, such as language, race, ethnicity,
sex, religion, age, or disability. The drafters of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights stated
explicitly that they considered non-discrimination to be the basis of the Declaration.
12.4.5 Sexual harassments:
Unwanted conduct of a sexual nature which violates your dignity or creates an intimidating, hostile,
degrading, humiliating or offensive environment for you.
12.4.6 Child labour:
This is a situation where children are forced to work and provide for their family instead of going
to school. It also includes the practice of selling children into slavery to pay off a family debt. However,
helping out on the family farm, or doing small chores around the house, does not constitute child labour.
Child abour is a human rights abuse because it violates the work that puts the childs health at risk
constitutes a form of child labour rights to freedom from slavery and forced labour.
12.3.6 Summary execution:
This refers to on the spot killing of persons without trial or after a show trial. Summary execution
is illegal; it violates the right of the accused to a fair trial before a punishment of death. A typical example
is Mob Justice.
12.3.7 Religious intolerance:
 This occurs when a group specifically refuses to tolerate practices, persons or beliefs on religious
grounds. For example if a group of people prevent members of Jehovah witnesses from constructing a
Kingdom Hall in their community simply because they do not believe in their teachings, that will be
religious intolerance. Religious intolerance violates article 18 of the Universal declaration of human
rights which emphasizes the freedom of thought, conscience and religion.
12.3.8 Genocide:
Genocide involves violent crimes committed against a particular group with the intention to destroy
the existence of the group genocides violates an individual's right to life.
12.5 Human Rights Protection and Promotion
International Human Rights instruments are protected by a variety of international treaties as well
as through specific national laws.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR): The basis of most international human rights
laws is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) which was passed unanimously by the
United Nations in December 1948. This document was reaffirmed, again unanimously at the Vienna World
Conference on Human Rights in 1993.
12.5.1 International Treaties:
In addition to the UDHR, the United Nations also works a treaty system on human rights which
includes seven other treaties:
 The Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination (1969).
 The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966),
 The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966).
 The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (1979).
 The Convention against Torture, and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or
Punishment (1987).
 The Convention on the Rights of the Child (1990).
 And the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and
Members of Their Families (2003).
12.5.2 African Charter on Human and People's Rights:
This document was adopted at the eighteenth assembly of heads of states and governments in
Nairobi-Kenya in June 1981. It allows individuals to bring petitions to the African Union for protection
against acts by their governments that violate their rights.
12.5.3 National Instruments for the Protection of Human Rights
12.5.3.1The Cameroon's Constitution
Since 1960, Cameroon has been committed to upholding human rights and through the phases of
its development as a State, it has endowed itself with a constitution whose cornerstone is human rights. The
199 6 constitutional amendment, vested human rights with genuine constitutional status by incorporating
into its preamble a specific reference to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the United
Nations General Assembly , and to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, adopted by the
Assembly of Heads of State and Government of the then Organisation of African Unity.
12.5.3.2Cameroon's Penal Code
This code provides for and punishes offences against the fundamental rights enshrined both in the
Convention and in the Constitution, such as the various property rights, and the rights to individual physical
and moral integrity, as well as all forms of violations of the right of persons to freedom and tranquility.
12.5.3.3The Criminal Procedure Code
This code provides a legal system for determining the guilt or innocence of a person accused of a
crime. The heart of the code is the presumption of innocence, whereby a defendant is innocent until proven
guilty. In any criminal case it is up to the prosecution to prove the elements of the offence that make up
guilt. The code protects the citizen's rights in the investigative process.
12.5.3.4 The Judiciary
The Judiciary is the competent institution responsible for enforcing the various protective
instruments referred to above. It has as duty to ensure respect for the rights of all citizens and residents, to
protect their person, property and honour, and to settle any litigation between them. It is made up of the
Supreme Court, the Courts of Appeal and the ordinary courts.
12.6 Human Rights Protection Methods
12.6.1 Human Rights Education:
Human rights can be protected and promoted by increasing public awareness about human rights.
This can be done by introducing human rights in the school curriculum.
The training of members of the police and security forces to ensure the observation of human rights
standards for law enforcement is an effective method to promote human rights.
12.6.2 The passing of laws:
Human rights can also be protected by drafting and enacting press freedom laws, minority
legislation and laws securing gender equality. It can as well be done by drawing up constitutions, which
guarantees fundamental political and economic rights.
12.6.3 Citizen Participation:
Citizens can actively participate to protect and promote human rights. They can do this by bringing
violations of human rights to public notice and hence discourage further violence.
12.6.4 Dialogue:
In states and communities with people from different ethnicities, culture and historical background,
human rights can be protected through dialogue. This can help overcome mistrust, fear and grief in society.
Dialogue also helps parties at the grassroots level to discover the truth about what has happened, and may
provide opportunities for apology and forgiveness.
12.6.5 Democratisation Measures:
These can help to enhance political and social rights. To sustain human rights standards, strong
local institutions need to be put in place. An independent judiciary that provides impartial means and
protects individuals against politically influenced persecution must be restored. A reliable and truly
independent electoral body which helps to guarantee free and fair voting procedures can help to ensure
stable and peaceful elections.
Increased political participation and the strengthening of civil society can help to ensure that people’s basic
needs are met.

12.6.6 Humanitarian aids and Assistance:

In times of war or armed conflict humanitarian aids can help prevent human casualties and ensure
access to basic survival needs. These basics include water, sanitation, food, shelter and health care.
 Chapter Thirteeen: Moral Consciousness
Before examining the concept of moral consciousness, we need to make clear some basic questions:
 Is moral consciousness identical to moral knowledge?
 When talking about moral consciousness are we just talking about morality?
 Is moral consciousness something else altogether?

However, before examining these questions, it is important to examine what morality and consciousness
are all about.
13.1 Clarification of concepts
13.1.1 Morality
Morality deals with the welfare principles articulated by the wise people, based on their experience
and wisdom. They were edited, changed or modified or evolved to suit the geography of the region, rulers
(dynasty), and in accordance with development of knowledge in science and technology and with time.
Morality is concerned with principles and practices of morals such as:
(a) What ought or ought not to be done in a given situation?
(b) What is right or wrong about the handling of a situation? And
(c) What is good or bad about the people, policies, and ideals involved?
13.1.2 Consciousness
Consciousness on its part is the having of experience or being aware of something. It has been
widely investigated in modern philosophy but there is no consensus on its status.
13.1.3 Moral consciousness
Moral consciousness reflects a deep-rooted and pervasive conception of everyday life as opposed
to moral reasoning or judgment that arises in response to isolated moral dilemmas. Also, moral
consciousness is the emergent ability of individuals that develops in dialectic between the individual and
their context, the social institutions of their society.
13.2 How to Measure moral consciousness
When measuring moral consciousness, one does not need to use particular moral dilemmas. Such
a type of measurement of moral consciousness that corresponds to the different stages of moral development
is not found in disciplines literature. The type of moral belief that is found in literature is more concerned
with the rightfulness of performing criminal acts. The beliefs measured here are concerned with lower end
of moral development. The moral development theory advocates for a harmonious link between moral
consciousness and moral behavior. Accordingly, moral behavior should show the same hierarchy of
development as moral consciousness.

Chapter Fourteen: Good governance in public services

Governance’ is the process of decision-making and the process by which decisions are implemented (or
not implemented). Governance can be used in several contexts such as corporate governance, international
governance, national governance and local governance.

14.1 There are 3 branches or arms of government:

A. The Legislative Branch to make the laws. In Cameroon this branch of government is called the
parliament which is made up of the national assembly (lower house of parliament ) and the senate
(upper house of parliament) The National Assembly (French: Assemblée Nationale) is the lower
house of the Parliament of Cameroon. It has 180 members, elected for five-year terms in 49 single
and multi-seat constituencies. Together with the senate, it constitutes the legislative arm of
government
B. The Executive Branch to implement the laws.
C. The Judicial Branch to interpret and enforce the laws.
Assignment- The functions of the national Assembly, the senate and the constitutional council in
Cameroon

14.2 Characteristics and principles of good governance

Good governance has 8 major characteristics. It is participatory, consensus oriented, accountable,
transparent, responsive, effective and efficient, equitable and inclusive and follows the rule of law. It assures
that corruption is minimized, the views of minorities are taken into account and that the voices of the most
vulnerable in society are heard in decision-making. It is also responsive to the present and future needs of
society.

1. Participation
Participation by both men and women is a key cornerstone of good governance. Participation could be either
direct or through legitimate intermediate institutions or representatives. It is important to point out that
representative democracy does not necessarily mean that the concerns of the most vulnerable in society
would be taken into consideration in decision making. Participation needs to be informed and organized.
This means freedom of association and expression on the one hand and an organized civil society on the
other hand.
2. Rule of law
Good governance requires fair legal frameworks that are enforced impartially. It also requires full protection
of human rights, particularly those of minorities. Impartial enforcement of laws requires an independent
judiciary and an impartial and incorruptible police force.
3. Transparency
Transparency means that decisions taken and their enforcement are done in a manner that follows rules and
regulations. It also means that information is freely available and directly accessible to those who will be
affected by such decisions and their enforcement. It also means that enough information is provided and
that it is provided in easily understandable forms and media.
4. Responsiveness
Good governance requires that institutions and processes try to serve all stakeholders within a reasonable
timeframe.
5. Consensus oriented
There are several actors and as many viewpoints in a given society. Good governance requires mediation
of the different interests in society to reach a broad consensus in society on what is in the best interest of
the whole community and how this can be achieved. It also requires a broad and long-term perspective on
what is needed for sustainable human development and how to achieve the goals of such development. This
can only result from an understanding of the historical, cultural and social contexts of a given society or
community.
6. Equity and inclusiveness
A society’s well-being depends on ensuring that all its members feel that they have a stake in it and do not
feel excluded from the mainstream of society. This requires all groups, but particularly the most vulnerable,
have opportunities to improve or maintain their well-being.
7. Effectiveness and efficiency
Good governance means that processes and institutions produce results that meet the needs of society while
making the best use of resources at their disposal. The concept of efficiency in the context of good
governance also covers the sustainable use of natural resources and the protection of the environment.

8. Accountability
Accountability is a key requirement of good governance. Not only governmental institutions but also the
private sector and civil society organizations must be accountable to the public and to their institutional
stakeholders. Who is accountable to whom varies depending on whether decisions or actions taken are
internal or external to an organization or institution. In general an organization or an institution is
accountable to those who will be affected by its decisions or actions. Accountability cannot be enforced
without transparency and the rule of law.

14.3 Importance of Good Governance

The importance of good governance in a state is immense. Sustainable development is not possible
without good governance.
Economic Development
Without good governance in a state, the economic development of that state is not stable. All elements of
economic development, such as production, distribution, investment, and even consumption, face various
obstacles. If good governance is established, such obstacles will be removed and the fair distribution of
state resources will be possible.
Social Development
Good governance is essential for social development. The role of it does not end only with economic
development. The result of development ensures that every class of people in society enjoys the basis of
fairness. People of different religions, castes, and classes live in a society. Now, if there is no fair
distribution of wealth among all these people, social discontent will increase.
Again, the proper distribution of wealth is not enough. We have to make arrangements so that the minority
people can walk without fear. In the same way, various reform laws have to be enacted to reduce the gap
between men and women in society.
Political Development
Its relationship with political development is quite important. If the political leaders of a country are not
active in establishing good governance, then its establishment in that country is not possible.Its success
depends largely on the sincerity of the political leadership and adherence to the rules and regulations of the
political establishment.
Public Property and collective property
Those property which are dedicated towards the utilization and benefits of public and has exclusive
ownership of the government. These properties includes- Railways, Roads and Parks etc. This is in contrast
to private property, owned by an individual person or artificial entities that represent the financial interests
of persons, such as corporations.

Chapter Fifteen: Terrorism

Terrorism, the calculated use of violence to create a general climate of fear in a population and thereby to
bring about a particular political objective. Terrorism has been practiced by political organizations with
both rightist and leftist objectives, by nationalistic and religious groups, by revolutionaries, and even by
state institutions such as armies, intelligence services, and police.

15.1 Effects of terrorism

 Loss of Life & Property Damage

This is the main impact of a terrorist event. But as we know, casualties are not the only way terrorists can
achieve their goals.

 Long Term Psychological Damage

This can be accomplished with just threats and no real action on the part of terrorists. Although harder to
quantify, the psychological aspect can be a huge impact to a nation.

 Loss of Business, Either Due to Real or Perceived Threats

When people stop leaving their homes and carrying out their lives as normal due to real or perceived
terrorist threats, businesses see the impact on their bottom line.

Chapter Sixteen: Corruption

Corruption is a form of dishonesty or a criminal offense which is undertaken by a person or an

organization which is entrusted in a position of authority, in order to acquire illicit benefits or abuse
power for one's personal gain. Corruption may involve many activities which include bribery, influence
peddling and embezzlement and it may also involve practices which are legal in many countries. Political
corruption occurs when an office-holder or other governmental employee acts with an official capacity for
personal gain. Corruption and crime are endemic sociological occurrences which appear with regular
frequency in virtually all countries on a global scale in varying degrees and proportions. Recent data
suggests corruption is on the rise. Each individual nation allocates domestic resources for the control and
regulation of corruption and the deterrence of crime. Strategies which are undertaken in order to counter
corruption are often summarized under the umbrella term anti-corruption. Additionally, global initiatives
like the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 16 also have a targeted goal which is supposed to
substantially reduce corruption in all of its forms.

16.1 Types of corruption

 Petty corruption

Petty corruption occurs at a smaller scale and takes place at the implementation end of public services
when public officials meet the public. For example, in many small places such as registration offices,
police stations, state licensing boards, and many other private and government sectors.

 Grand corruption

Grand corruption is defined as corruption occurring at the highest levels of government in a way that
requires significant subversion of the political, legal and economic systems. Such corruption is commonly
found in countries with authoritarian or dictatorial governments but also in those without adequate
policing of corruption.

The government system in many countries is divided into the legislative, executive and judicial branches
in an attempt to provide independent services that are less subject to grand corruption due to their
independence from one another.

 Systemic corruption

Systemic corruption (or endemic corruption) is corruption which is primarily due to the weaknesses of an
organization or process. It can be contrasted with individual officials or agents who act corruptly within
the system.

16.2 Impacts of corruption

a) Corruption in an organisation can result in:

Financial loss
Damage to employee morale
Damage to its reputation
focus and resources being diverted away from delivering core business and services to the community
Increased scrutiny, oversight and regulation.

b) Corrupt individuals may face:

Disciplinary action
Losing their job
Criminal charges
Damage to relationships.

c) Community impacts include:

Wasted taxpayer funds
Loss of goods and services
Lower community confidence in public authorities
Disadvantage to honest businesses seeking to win government contracts.

Chapter Seventeen: Tribalism

Tribalism implies the possession of a strong cultural or ethnic identity that separates one member of a
group from the members of another group. Based on strong relations of proximity and kinship, as well as
relations based on the mutual survival of both the individual members of the tribe and for the tribe itself,
members of a tribe tend to possess a strong feeling of identity. Objectively, for a customary tribal society
to form there needs to be ongoing customary organization, inquiry, and exchange. However, intense
feelings of common identity can lead people to feel tribally connected.

The distinction between these two definitions of tribalism, objective and subjective, is an important one
because while tribal societies have been pushed to the edges of the Western world, tribalism, by the
second definition, is arguably undiminished. A few writers have postulated that the human brain is hard-
wired towards tribalism, but that claim is usually linked to equating original questions of sociality with
tribalism.

17.1 Effect of tribalism

Tribalism in Cameroon is not inborn; it cannot be traced to ancient hatreds or warfare from cultures
clashing over the ages. The major opposing groups like the Bamilekes, the Beti, the Ewondo, the Bulu,
had little contact with one another before the coming of the colonialists. Cameroon`s tribalism is therefore
a relatively new phenomenon. It is a product of modern times arising from colonialism, urbanization and
the political culture that sprung up in independent Cameroon.

Tribalism in has been a major stumbling block to democracy as well as socio-economic development. It
affects every sphere of development, from social economic, political to educational spheres. In political
spheres, tribalism persists since it provides an avenue via which state goodies and favours trickle down
from those in power to their tribesmen. Therefore, loyalty to tribe is given ever greater relevance than
loyalty to the country.

In every sector of development, tribalism has also been rampant. Employment has been skewed, with
members of certain community given certain positions. Public institutions present a case where the
members of staff are rendered tribal. Effective performance of duty therefore becomes a big issue since
tribalism affects work ethics. Ethical practice of the members of staff is called for in order to save the
situation. The government has mandate to apply the provisions of public officers’ ethical provisions
owing to the very ills of tribalism.

Tribalism is responsible for a lot of ills in Cameroon including underdevelopment, corruption, rigging of
elections and violence/civil war. In terms of employment, people are given jobs based on tribe regardless
of having low qualifications. Hence the inefficient use of available skills. Thus, the very rationale of being
educated lacks meaning. Bad governance and lack of accountability has also been linked to tribalism as
people do not question a government run by their tribesmen. Delivery of services is also hindered as the
culture of impunity is also inculcated. Delivery of services in both public and private institution where
tribalism is rampant is also highly affected by tribal affiliations and politics.

Given this state of affairs about the negative effects of tribalism in Cameroon, there is a need to make a
deliberate effort towards gaining national consciousness rather that tribal one. Human beings will ever be
stratified along certain social stratification domains. However, development into national consciousness
calls for retaining self-consciousness and at the same time working towards the attainment of universal-
consciousness which is not limited to ones tribe. Being ‘a Cameroonian or ‘a Global Citizen’ should be
the people’s tribe or race.