Math281-Linear Algebra

Chapter 1: Partial Fractions

Dr. Mohamad El Dandachy
[email protected]

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 Why it is important to understand Partial fractions?

• The algebraic technique of resolving a complicated fraction into partial

fractions is often needed by engineers for simplifying complex calculus
problems. For example in:
• determining certain complex integrals in calculus
• analyzing linear differential equations with resonant circuits and feedback control
systems (in electrical and mechanical engineering).
• Etc.

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Content
1. Rational Fractions

2. Decomposing a fraction with non-repeated linear factors

3. Decomposing a fraction with repeated linear factors

4. Decomposing a fraction with quadratic factors

5. The Heaviside “cover-up” method for linear factors

6. Decomposing a fraction using well-known forms

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Recall: Polynomial
 A polynomial function of degree n is a function of the form
𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1𝑥𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑎0
 Where:
 𝑎 𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1, … , 𝑎1𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎0 are real numbers which are called the coefficients of the polynomial
 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0
 𝑛 is a non-negative integer: 𝑛 ≥ 0

 Examples:
Function Name Degree Example
none
𝑃 𝑥 =0 zero polynomial

𝑃 𝑥 =𝑐 constant 𝑛= 0 P 𝑥 =2
1st degree polynomial
𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑛= 1 𝑃 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 1
(linear)
2nd degree polynomial
𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 (quadratic) 𝑛= 2 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 6 4
Recall: Polynomial Factorization
 𝑨 𝒙 = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝐚𝟐 = 𝐱 − 𝐚 𝐱 + 𝐚

 𝑩 𝒙 = 𝐚𝒙𝟐 + 𝐛𝐱 + 𝐜 = 𝐚 𝐱 − 𝒙𝟏 𝐱 − 𝐱𝟐
 With: 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 are the roots of the equation: 𝐵 𝑥 = a𝑥2 + bx + c = 0
−𝒃+ 𝒃𝟐−𝟒𝒂𝒄
 𝒙𝟏 =
𝟐𝒂
−𝒃− 𝒃𝟐−𝟒𝒂𝒄
 𝒙𝟐 =
𝟐𝒂
 Discriminator: ∆= 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
 If ∆> 0, there is two real roots
 If ∆= 0, there is one real roots
 If ∆< 0, there is no real roots

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Examples
Factorize the following functions:

1. 𝐴 𝑥 = 𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 6
2. 𝐵 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2
3. 𝐶 𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 5
4. 𝐷 𝑥 = 4𝑥2 − 12𝑥 + 8

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Rational Fractions
 A Rational Fraction is the quotient of two polynomials
𝑓 𝑥
𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑔 𝑥 ≠ 0
𝑔 𝑥
 With:
 𝑓 𝑥 is the Numerator
 𝑔 𝑥 is the Denominator
 A rational fraction is of two types:
 Proper Fraction: A rational fraction is called a proper fraction if the degree of
3𝑥
numerator 𝑓 𝑥 is less than the degree of Denominator g 𝑥 . Ex: A 𝑥 =
𝑥 2 +1
 Improper Fraction: A rational fraction is called a proper fraction if the degree of
numerator 𝑓 𝑥 is greater than or equal to the degree of Denominator g 𝑥 . Ex:
𝑥 2 +1
B𝑥 =
𝑥 −3

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The partial fraction decomposition
 A method to express a single rational fraction into the sum of two or
more single rational fractions

 It is the reverse method for clearing fractions using common

denominator
clearing fractions using common denominator

Partial fraction
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 𝑓 𝑥
Steps of finding the partial fractions of 𝑃 𝑥 =𝑔 𝑥
 Step 1: The degree of 𝒇 𝒙 must be less than the degree of 𝒈 𝒙 .
 If it is the case move to Step 2
 If it is not the case:
 First divide ƒ(x) by g(x) using long division
 Then move to step 2 to find the Partial fractions of the remainder term
 Example: Long Division:
3 2
𝑓 𝑥
𝑃 𝑥 = = 2𝑥 −4𝑥 −𝑥−3
𝑔 𝑥 𝑥 2 −2𝑥−3

Degree of remainder is less than

the degree of divisor so STOP here
𝟓𝒙 − 𝟑 Move to Step 2 and find the
𝑃 𝑥 = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟐 ALL 2018/2019 9
𝒙 − 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑 partial fractions of this term
 𝑓 𝑥
Steps of finding the partial fractions of 𝑃 𝑥 =𝑔 𝑥
 Step 2: Factorize the denominator into:
 1st degree polynomial (a𝑥 + 𝑏)
 2nd degree polynomial which has no real roots (a𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ ∆< 0)
 Example:
= 2𝑥 + 5𝑥 − 3 = 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟓𝒙 − 𝟑
𝑃 𝑥 𝑥 2 −2𝑥−3 (𝒙 − 𝟑)(𝒙 + 𝟏)

∆= 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = −2 2 − 4 × 1 × −3 = 16 > 0

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 Steps of finding the partial fractions of 𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥
𝑔 𝑥
 Step 3: Determine the general form of partial fractions as following:
Factor of the denominator Corresponding partial fractions
1st degree polynomial: 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝐴
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
Repeated 1st degree polynomial 𝐴 𝐵 𝑀
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑚 + …+
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 2 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑚
2nd degree polynomial with no real 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
roots (∆< 𝟎): 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
2nd degree polynomial with no real 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷 𝑀𝑥 + 𝑁
roots (∆< 𝟎): 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑚 + …+
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 2 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑚

5𝑥 −3 𝐴 B
 Example: 𝑃 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + = 2𝑥
MATH281 - BAU - FALL 2018/2019 + + 11
(𝑥−3)(𝑥+1) 𝑥 −3 𝑥 +1
Examples: Determine the general form of
partial fractions as following:
𝑥 2 +4𝑥+1
1. (𝑥 2 −1)(𝑥 +3)
6𝑥+7
2. 𝑥+2 2
2𝑥−1
3. 𝑥 2 +𝑥+1 3 𝑥−1 2

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 𝑓 𝑥
Steps of finding the partial fractions of 𝑃 𝑥 =
𝑔 𝑥
Step4: Find the unknown constants A, B, … using one of the following methods:
 Method of equating coefficients
 Clearing the fractions by multiplying both sides by the common denominator (CD)
 Equate the coefficients having the same power of x.
5𝑥 −3 𝐴 B
 Example: (𝑥 −3)(𝑥 +1)
=
𝑥 −3
+
𝑥 +1

CD 5𝑥 − 3 = 𝐴 𝑥 + 1 + 𝐵(𝑥 − 3)

𝐴 + 𝐵 = 5  𝐴 = 3 and 𝐵 = 2
 Equating coefficients of like terms 5𝑥 − 3 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑥 + 𝐴 − 3𝐵
𝐴 − 3𝐵 = −3
 Method of Direct substitution
 Clearing the fractions by multiplying both sides by the common denominator (CD)
 Calculate coefficients by substituting different values for x in the cleared fraction
5𝑥 −3 𝐴 B
 Example: = +
(𝑥 −3)(𝑥 +1) 𝑥 −3 𝑥 +1
CD 5𝑥 − 3 = 𝐴 𝑥 + 1 + 𝐵(𝑥 − 3)
To calculate 𝐴 eliminate 𝐵Consider thus 𝑥 = 3  5 × 3 − 3 = 𝐴 3 + 1 + 𝐵(3 − 3) 𝐴 = 3
To calculate 𝐵 eliminate 𝐴Consider thus 𝑥 = −1  5 × (−1) − 3 = 𝐴 −1 + 1 + 𝐵(−1 − 3) 𝐵 = 2
 Heaviside method (or cover-up) (to see later)
 Other well known forms (to see later) 13
Heaviside method (or cover-up)
 Heaviside method is better used whenever the denominator can be factorized into non-repeated linear (1st
degree) factors. (It gives partial results in other cases)
𝑓 𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑛
= = + + ⋯+
𝑔 𝑥 𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑥 − 𝑥2 … 𝑥 − 𝑥𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑥 − 𝑥2 𝑥 − 𝑥𝑛
 Cover the factors (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑖)of 𝑔 𝑥 one at a time, each time replacing all the uncovered 𝑥 ‘s by the number 𝑥𝑖
. This gives a number 𝐴𝑖 for each root 𝑥𝑖
𝑓 𝒙𝟏
𝑨𝟏 = ,
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝒙𝟏 − 𝑥2 … 𝒙𝟏 − 𝑥𝑛
…
𝑓 𝒙𝒏
𝑨𝐧 = ,
𝒙𝒏 − 𝑥1 𝒙𝒏 − 𝑥2 … 𝑥 − 𝑥𝑛
 Example:
5𝑥 − 3 𝐴 B
= +
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 − 3 𝑥 + 1
 To get A, we cover-up (𝑥 − 3) and consider 𝑥 = 3  𝐴 = 5𝑥−3 = 5×3−3 = 3
(𝑥+1) 𝑥=3 3+1
5𝑥−3 5×(−1)−3
 To get B, we cover-up (𝑥 + 1) and consider 𝑥 = −1 B = = =2
(𝑥−3) 𝑥=−1 −1−3
5𝑥 −3 3 2
 Thus: = +
(𝑥 −3)(𝑥 +1) 𝑥 −3 𝑥 +1
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Examples
𝑥 2 +4𝑥+1
𝑃 𝑥 = 2
(𝑥 −1)(𝑥+3)
1
𝑄 𝑥 = 3
𝑥 −𝑥

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Other well known forms
Decomposing using Well known Forms:
 Form 1:
1 1 1 1
= −
𝑥+𝑎 𝑥+𝑏 𝑏−𝑎 𝑥+𝑎 𝑥+𝑏

 Form 2:
1 1 1 1
= −
𝑥2 + 𝑎 𝑥2 + 𝑏 𝑏 − 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎 𝑥2 + 𝑏
2

MATH281 - BAU - FALL 2018/2019 22

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 4 4 1 1
= −
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 5) 3 − (−5) 𝑥 − 5 𝑥 + 3
1 1 1
= −
2 𝑥−5 𝑥+3

1 1 1
= 2𝑥 − 3 + −
2 𝑥−5 𝑥+3

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 Other well known forms
 Successive Differentiations is an easy way to use if the denominator of fraction is formed
𝑓 𝑥
by repeated linear (1st degree) factors: P x = 𝑚
𝑥−𝑎

𝑥 −1
1. Write the general partial fractions  Example: 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥+1 3
form: 1.
𝑥 −1
=
𝐴
+
𝐵
+
𝐶
𝑓 𝑥 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴𝑚 𝑥+1 3 𝑥+1 𝑥+1 2 𝑥+1 3
= + + ⋯+ 2. Clear the fractions
𝑥−𝑎 𝑚 𝑥−𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 2 𝑥−𝑎 𝑚 𝑥−1=𝐴 𝑥+1 2 +𝐵 𝑥 +1 +𝐶
3. To get C: Let 𝑥 = −1  𝐶 = −2
2. Clear the fractions (Common  To get B:
denominator)  1st derivation:
eq.(1): 1 = 2𝐴 𝑥 + 1 + 𝐵
 Let 𝑥 = −1 in eq. (1) 𝐵 = 1
 To get A:
3. Successive Differentiations with  2nd derivation:
regards to x to get one coefficient eq.(2): 0 = 2𝐴  A = 0
at a time, after replacing x by a, Thus :
𝑥 −1
=
1
−
2
𝑥+1 3 𝑥+1 2 𝑥+1 3 25