FAO

ISSN 2070-6103
FISHERIES AND
AQUACULTURE
PROCEEDINGS

73

Status, technological innovations, and

industry development needs of mud crab
(Scylla spp.) aquaculture
FAO Expert Workshop
27–30 November 2023
Singapore
Cover photo:
Dorsal view of an adult mud crab Scylla paramamosain specimen from southern Thailand. ©N. Chema.

Copies of FAO publications can be requested from:

 FAO
FISHERIES AND
AQUACULTURE
PROCEEDINGS

73
Status, technological innovations, and
industry development needs of mud
crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture
FAO Expert Workshop
27–30 November 2023
Singapore

Edited by

Alessandro Lovatelli
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Rome

Collin Shelley
Scylla Mud Crab Consultancy
Brisbane, Australia

Emilia Tobias-Quinitio
Integrated Services for the Development of Aquaculture and Fisheries
Iloilo, Philippines

Khor Waiho
Univerisiti Malaysia Terrengganu
Kuala Terrengganu, Malaysia

Diana Chan
Aquaculture Innovation Centre, Temasek Polytechnic
Singapore

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Rome, 2025
Required citation:
Lovatelli, A., Shelley, C., Tobias-Quinitio, E., Waiho, K. & Chan, D., eds. 2025. Status, technological innovations, and industry
development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture – FAO Expert Workshop, 27–30 November 2023, Singapore. FAO
Fisheries and Aquaculture Proceedings, No. 73. Rome, FAO. https://doi.org/10.4060/cd3976en

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 iii

Preparation of this document

This document contains the proceedings of the technical workshop entitled “Status,
technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.)
aquaculture” held from 27 to 30 November 2023, in Singapore, and organized by the
Fisheries and Aquaculture Division of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations (FAO) in collaboration with the Aquaculture Innovation Centre (AIC),
Temasek Polytechnic.
The workshop was a direct result of the growing interest by FAO Members engaged
at different levels in mud crab aquaculture and the desire to exchange innovative
hatchery production and farming solutions that would improve the overall production
outputs. The sustainable expansion and technically advanced production of this valuable
crustacean would support existing farming activities, contribute to the production of
aquatic food, secure revenues for rural coastal communities, as well as generate new
employment opportunities.
This document provides a summary of the workshop, highlighting key opportunities
and challenges in the development of mud crab aquaculture, along with a series of
follow-up actions and recommendations to support growth in the sector. It also includes
a brief global overview of the status of mud crab aquaculture development as well as
reviews detailing the development status in major producing countries. Additionally, the
document features technical reports on advancements in hatchery-produced seedstock,
farming systems for both soft-shell and hard-shell crabs, value chains, marketing, and
topics related to management, conservation, transportation, and the future quality and
handling standards of the industry. These reviews offer valuable insights into recent
experiences and ongoing activities within the field of mud crab aquaculture.
The exchange of information and innovative farming and handling practices during
the workshop will be captured in the second edition of the FAO Mud Crab Aquaculture
Manual, due out in early 2026, reflecting the spirit of collaboration and information
sharing.
The proceeding of the workshop is intended for national authorities, including
government bodies and research institutions, as well as academia and private sector
stakeholders, aiming to foster engagement and collaboration in promoting and
supporting the further expansion of this aquaculture subsector through a comprehensive
review of its key challenges and opportunities.
This document was prepared under the supervision of Alessandro Lovatelli,
Aquaculture Officer, Technology and Production Team (NFIAT), FAO Fisheries and
Aquaculture Division.
iv

Abstract

The FAO Expert Workshop on Mud Crab Aquaculture, held in Singapore, brought
together leading experts to address critical challenges and emerging opportunities in
the sustainable farming of Scylla spp. mud crabs. Driven by escalating demand for both
hard-shell and soft-shell mud crabs, the sector faces constraints such as overfishing,
habitat degradation, reliance on wild seedstock, and unsustainable farming practices. The
workshop provided a collaborative platform to evaluate the current state of the industry,
identify technological innovations, and set a course for advancing sustainability and
resilience in mud crab aquaculture.
Central to the discussions was the transition from capture-based to hatchery-based
production systems to secure consistent and high-quality seedstock. Experts highlighted
the importance of domestication and selective breeding to enhance aquaculture yields.
The development of formulated feeds, reducing reliance on wild-sourced feed, and the
integration of advanced technologies such as probiotics and recirculating aquaculture
systems (RAS) were identified as critical pathways to address water quality, biosecurity,
and production efficiency challenges.
Innovative farming system approaches were presented, including sustainable
polyculture systems and the adoption of cellular farming techniques to mitigate
cannibalism and improve survival rates. The potential of the soft-shell crab sector for
value addition through enhanced post-harvest practices, packaging, and processing was
also discussed, though key bottlenecks such as limited seedstock availability, forced
moulting practices, and inconsistent farming standards need to be adequately addressed.
Broader ecological concerns, such as the overexploitation of wild populations and
the degradation of mangrove habitats were highlighted. Experts advocated strengthened
fishery management, habitat restoration, and policy interventions to mitigate these
issues. Additionally, the role of advanced technologies such as IoT-enabled systems,
digital training tools, and automation was underscored as transformative for achieving
scalability and operational efficiency in mud crab farming.
Aligned with FAO’s Blue Transformation initiative, the workshop outlined a
comprehensive strategy to promote sustainable development in the mud crab aquaculture
sector. Key recommendations included establishing broodstock banks, deploying
cost-effective disease screening, enhancing international collaboration, and scaling
capacity-building programmes to share knowledge and technologies across diverse
aquaculture contexts. By fostering innovation, improving productivity, and addressing
environmental challenges, the outcomes of the workshop aim to strengthen global food
security, enhance aquaculture value chains, and sustain the livelihoods of communities
dependent on mud crab production.
 v

Contents

Preparation of this document iii

Abstract iv
Acknowledgements vi
Abbreviations vii

WORKSHOP SUMMARY AND KEY RECOMMENDATIONS 1

COUNTRY STATUS AND TECHNICAL PAPERS

Global overview of the mud crab production sector 11
Mud crab production in Viet Nam 21
Potential and challenges of mud crab (Scylla spp.) cultivation in Indonesia 35
Status of mud crab aquaculture in India 49
Status of mud crab industry in Bangladesh 63
Mud crab aquaculture situation in China 81
Mud crab industry status in the Philippines 93
Status of mud crab industry in Myanmar 109
Mud crab aquaculture industry in Thailand 125
Status of mud crab aquaculture in Singapore 141
Status of mud crab industry in Malaysia 145
Mud crab aquaculture situation in Japan 157
Domestication and selective breeding of mud crabs 165
Domestication and the future of genetically improved mud crabs 175
Broodstock management for mud crab 183
Mud crab hatchery and nursery systems in Viet Nam 195
Hatchery and nursery systems: Philippines, India and Bangladesh 205
Review of mud crab seed production 217
Studies on tissue growth in juvenile mud crabs and optimal cholesterol
inclusion levels in formulated mud crab feeds 233
Mud crab feeds and feeding management 243
Prophylactic treatment for mud crabs 253
Value chain, processing and international trade in soft-shell mud crab 261
Quality standard of mangrove crabs 269
Hard-shell mangrove crab farming 279
Towards sustainability in soft-shell crab production 289
Advancing mud crab farming: precision aquaculture and future tech needs 299
Technological innovations in mud crab aquaculture 307
Enhancing post-harvest survival of crabs within the Australian mud crab
fishery supply chain 313
Overview of management and monitoring of mud crab fisheries in Australia 333
vi

ANNEXES
1. Workshop prospectus 351
2. Workshop agenda 353
3. List of participants 356
4. Expert profiles 358
5. Workshop opening and closing remarks 368
6. Group photograph 370
7. Certificate of participation 371
 vii

Acknowledgements

Numerous individuals contributed to the successful organization and implementation

of the mud crab aquaculture workshop in Singapore, which resulted in the present
publication. All of them are gratefully acknowledged for their efforts and contributions
during the preparatory phase and at the workshop itself.
Special thanks are due to the Aquaculture Innovation Centre (AIC) and its staff
for the logistical support; in particular, Lee Chee Wee, AIC Director, for his opening
and closing speeches at the workshop and for his hospitality, Diana Chan for her kind
and competent assistance in the preparation of the workshop, and Susila Krishnasamy
for her support with administrative matters. They all played a key role in ensuring the
professional organization of the event while also contributing to the pleasant atmosphere
during the breaks.
A special thank you is extended to the members of the Organizing Committee –
Emilia Tobias-Quinitio, Diana Chan, Colin Shelley, and Khor Waiho – for their
committed support throughout the planning and implementation phases of the
workshop. Their technical expertise and editorial guidance have been invaluable to the
experts who submitted country status reports and technical papers.
Thanks are also due to Xiaowei Zhou, Ng Bak Kuang, Ang Phuay Fern, Kevin
Fitzsimmons, Michael Akester, U Khin Maung Soe, Shri Dodda Venkata Swamy, Fe
Dolores P. Estepa, Juliette Virgula, Sue Poole, and many others, for their valuable
contributions and expert insights on the mud crab industry.
Finally, FAO would like to express sincere gratitude to all the experts who attended
the workshop, as well as to their respective institutions and companies, for preparing
and presenting the papers. Their willingness to share valuable technical insights and
innovative experiences will undoubtedly contribute to enhancing the overall production
performance of this aquaculture subsector.
Teri Neer (FAO, Rome) is warmly acknowledged for her invaluable assistance
with internal administrative matters, which facilitated an efficient and transparent
collaboration with AIC. The graphic layout of the proceedings was expertly prepared
by José Luis Castilla Civit.
The organization of the workshop and the preparation of this document were
possible thanks to funds provided by the FAO Regular Programme.
viii

Abbreviations

AI artificial intelligence
AIC Aquaculture Innovation Centre (Singapore)
AILMCGS Australian Industry Live Mud Crab Grading Scheme
AO Administrative Order
ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations
AWMCF Arnhem West Mud Crab Fishery (Australia)
BAFS Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Standards (Philippines)
BDT Bangladeshi taka
BFAR Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (Philippines)
BFRI Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute
BSFL black soldier fly larvae
BT Blue transformation Initiative (FAO)
BW body weight
C1, C2, etc. crablet stage
CFU colony forming unit
CO2 carbon dioxide
COFI Committee on Fisheries (FAO)
COVID Coronavirus disease
CPUE catch per unit effort
CUC commercially unsuitable crab
CW carapace width
CYN Chinese yuan renminbi
DA Department of Agriculture
DAF Department of Agriculture and Fisheries
DAFF Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry
DENR Department of Environment and Natural Resources (Philippines)
DHA docosahexaenoic acid
DNA deoxyribonucleic acid
DO dissolved oxygen
DOF Department of Fisheries
DOST Department of Science and Technology
EDTA Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
EFA essential fatty acids
EGF Estuary General Fishery (Australia)
EPA eicosapentaenoic acid
EU European Union
FAO UN Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FAO Fisheries Administrative Order (Philippines)
 ix

FCR feed conversion ratio

FM fishmeal
FRA Fisheries Research and Education Agency (Japan)
GAqP good aquaculture practices
GI geographical indication
GoC Gulf of Carpentaria (Australia)
GS genomic selection
GWAS genome wide association studies
HACCP hazard analysis and critical control points
HDPE high density polyethylene
HiFi high fidelity
hp horsepower
HPI hours post-injection
HS harmonized system code
HUFA highly unsaturated fatty acids
ICW internal carapace width
IFREMER Institut Français de Recherche pour l’Exploitation de la Mer
(French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea)
INR Indian Rupee
IoT Internet of Things
ITCAL interim total commercial access level
JMU Jimei University (China)
KCMF Kimberley Crab Managed Fishery (Australia)
KKP Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries (Indonesia)
LG linkage groups
LSI larval stage index
LTP local transport permit
MAPK mitogen-activated protein kinase
MCLC Mud Crab Learning Centre (Thailand)
MCRV mud crab reovirus
MMK Myanmar kyats
MNR Ministry of Natural Resources (Philippines)
MOI megalopa occurrence index
MPEDA Marine Products Export Development Authority (India)
MPN most probable number
MSC Marine Stewardship Council
MYR Malaysian ringgit
MYSAP Myanmar Sustainable Aquaculture Programme
NGF Nowabenki Gonomukhi Foundation (Bangladesh)
NGO non-governmental organization
NIRS near infrared spectroscopy
NRMP national residues monitoring plan
NSW New South Wales (Australia)
x

NT Northen Territory (Australia)

OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
OTC oxytetracycline
OXO oxolinic acid
PCAARRD Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural
Resources, Research and Development
PCR Polymerase Chain Reaction
PD Presidential Decree
PER protein efficiency ratio
PNS Philippine National Standard
PSU Prince of Songkhla University (Thailand)
PVC polyvinyl chloride
Qld Queensland (Australia)
QTL quantitative trait locus
R&D research and development
RAS recirculating aquaculture system
RGCA Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Aquaculture (India)
RI refractive index
S&T science and technology
SAFS Status of Australian Fish Stocks
SDR sex-determining region
SEAFDEC/AQD Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center/Aquaculture
Department
SGR specific growth rate
SNP single nucleotide polymorphism
SPC sodium percarbonate/soy protein concentrate
SRF Sundarbans Reserve Forest (Bangladesh)
SSC soft-shell crab
TAC total allowable catch
TAS Thai Agricultural Standards Committee
TEPS threatened, endangered and protected species
THB Thai baht
TWG technical working group
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
USD United States dollar
USFDA United States Food and Drug Administration
UV ultraviolet light
VASEP Viet Nam Association of Seafood Exporters and Producers
VFI voluntary feed intake
WA Western Australia
WGoCMCF Western Gulf of Carpentaria Mud Crab Fishery (Australia)
WPP Fisheries Management Area (Indonesia)
WSSV white spot syndrome virus
 xi

WTO Wildlife Trade Operation

XX female
XY male
Z1, Z2, etc. Zoea larval stage
ZW heterogametic
ZZ homogametic

> greater than

< less than
≥ greater than or equal to
cM centimorgan
nm nanometre
cm centimetre
m metre
mM millimolar
mmol millimole
mg milligram
g gram
kg kilogram
t tonne
ml millilitre
L litre
m2 square metre
ha hectare
ppt parts per thousand
ppm parts per million
°C degree Celsius
% percent
psu practical salinity unit
 1

Workshop summary and key

recommendations

BACKGROUND
An expert workshop on mud crab aquaculture, organized by the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in collaboration with the Aquaculture
Innovation Centre (AIC), was held in Singapore from 27 to 30 November 2023.
The main objective of this technical event was to assess the current progress and
development, as well as to identify persisting bottlenecks, future challenges and priority
needs of the sector and identify key pathways for sustainable mud crab aquaculture
production at a global level. The workshop was divided into four main sessions: a
glimpse of the current global status of mud crab aquaculture; the advancement of
mud crab hatchery, larviculture and nursery production; the development of current
value chains, marketing and farming systems; and a final session on topics related to
management, conservation, transportation and future industry needs.
The experts agreed that there is a strong and increasing global market demand for
mud crabs, both in hard-shell and soft-shell forms. Soft-shell crabs are seeing a rise in
demand, in particular, as a result of the value-adding opportunities they provide. Key
advances include a shift towards the use of formulated feeds to reduce a dependence on
unsustainable wild fishery feed resources and the improvement of hatchery production
methods, including the adoption of probiotics and the integration of advanced water
quality management technologies. The industry’s future will also be strengthened by
the development of selective breeding and genetic improvement programmes.
At present, most mud crab farming employs extensive production systems.
However, research and trials on intensive farming systems, including strategies
to minimize cannibalism, are gaining attention, incorporating cellular systems
(individualized compartment) to reduce cannibalism. Many processes across the entire
mud crab aquaculture system, ranging from broodstock culture to juvenile production,
still require optimization. Close collaboration and knowledge exchange among
stakeholders is required to propel these advancements forward.
Although mud crab aquaculture is a relatively small sector in the global aquaculture
industry, it has promising growth potential based on several decades of industry
development, a solid technological foundation and strong global demand. The decline
of shrimp aquaculture industry in many countries has opened opportunities for
alternative aquaculture options, with mud crab farming gaining increasing attention.
This sector merits consideration of private sector investment to meet market demand.
In addition, mud crab aquaculture and its associated product value chains support
the livelihoods of local communities in mud crab producing countries. Thus, future
development of the mud crab aquaculture sector can contribute to livelihood
improvement and economic growth in many developing countries.
To build on the momentum generated by the workshop, the experts agreed on the
importance of further dissemination of information through digital channels, targeted
events and meetings to engage the broader aquaculture community.

INTERNATIONAL MUD CRAB INDUSTRY STATUS

The most recent FAO production figures showed that whilst China dominates global
production of mud crabs with over half the total annual production of 296 000 t,
Viet Nam has demonstrated the strongest growth over the past decade, increasing its
2 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

production by over 650 percent, to about 81 000 t/year. Most mud crab producing
countries farmed the most abundant mud crab species in their localities. The main
species produced in China and Viet Nam is the green mud crab, Scylla paramamosain,
which also contributes to Indonesian farming. In the Philippines and India the giant
mud crab, Scylla serrata, is the most common species farmed, whilst the orange
mud crab, Scylla olivacea, is cultured by countries including Thailand, Myanmar,
Bangladesh and Indonesia. However, globally, all mud crabs of the genus Scylla are
generally regarded as one type of crab, with no specific preference for individual
species in most markets.
Mud crab farming now incorporates intensive (individual compartments), semi-
intensive and extensive systems, polyculture and crab fattening of both hard-shell and
soft-shell crabs. The choice of system selection depends on several factors, including
space, resource availability, technical feasibility, and availability of financial resource. In
some countries with more advanced mud crab culture technologies, such as China and
Viet Nam, the growth of the sector has led to significant segmentation of the industry,
with individuals or companies specializing in the sale of live feeds, broodstock, larvae
and/or crablets, juveniles and farming.
Identified global key issues include:
• Continued dependence on wild seedstock for farming.
• Use of unsustainable feed sources such as trash fish.
• Insufficient hatchery production of quality seedstock.
• Inadequate aquatic health management of mud crabs.
• Domestication and genetic improvement of mud crab broodstock.

The reliance on capture-based stock for farming, coupled with overfishing, has
resulted in significant reduction in catch per unit effort, decrease in the size of wild
broodstock, and increase in the costs of wild stock for farming in many countries. This
highlights the urgent need for more investment and transfer of technology to establish
more mud crab hatcheries. Having the capability to produce sufficient high quality
seedstock would not only reduce wild stock reliance but could also contribute toward
sustainable fishery management through targeted restocking of wild populations.
Transition from a capture-based to hatchery-based industry is critical to underpin the
long-term sustainability of the industry and wild mud crab populations.

DOMESTICATION AND SELECTIVE BREEDING OF MUD CRABS

The workshop recognised that broodstock quality, desired species to culture, desirable
traits, and stock genetic diversity are essential criteria in the development of mud crab
selective breeding programme. Preliminary domestication of S. serrata, with a special
focus on growth and disease resistance, was successfully conducted by Southeast
Asian Fisheries Development Center/Aquaculture Department (SEAFDEC/AQD).
Preliminary findings indicated that stronger and healthier mud crabs could be
produced. Whilst genome editing technologies could potentially be used for future
trait enhancement, subject to consumer acceptance, trait selection through traditional
selective breeding is certainly possible.
Currently, two kinds of whole genome maps and four kinds of genetic linkage
maps of S. paramamosain are publicly available. Meanwhile a 40 K liquid SNP array
was developed for breeding based on whole genome resequencing data. In addition,
an artificial inter-specific hybridization technique has been developed between
S. paramamosain and S. serrata and two kinds of hybrid offsprings produced. This
work will serve as important baseline information for the development of various
genetic selection and improvement programmes for the mud crab aquaculture
industry.
Workshop summary and key recommendations 3

MUD CRAB BROODSTOCK

Mud crab broodstock husbandry practices and culture systems are well established and
standardised in some countries such as China, Viet Nam, Philippines and Thailand.
The most significant issue with mud crab broodstock in many countries is
the inconsistent availability of good quality broodstock for hatcheries, which is
exacerbated by the uncertainty of female insemination and seasonal availability of
broodstock in some regions. The lack of good quality broodstock in some countries
has led to some limited translocation of mud crabs between countries. One option
under consideration is the need for ‘broodstock banks’ to be developed to underpin
future hatchery production.
Another commonly agreed issue faced by broodstock hatcheries is their reliance on
wild caught aquatic organisms such as trash fish, bivalves, molluscs and polychaetes
as food sources. Thus, the development of a formulated diet to potentially improve
broodstock performance is needed to ensure nutrient consistency and improve
biosecurity.
An important element related to biosecurity identified at the workshop was the
need for screening of broodstock and food sources for viral and bacterial pathogens as
has been conducted in the Philippines and India. However, owing to the high cost of
screening, the use of common disinfection techniques and resulting uncertain health
status of stock remains common for the majority of hatcheries. The development of a
low-cost pathogen detection system for broodstock is recommended.
Domestication and genetic improvement of mud crab stocks are essential for
the future growth of the mud crab industry based on consistent, reliable hatchery
production. This has a key role in shifting from an industry dependent on capture-
based stock to a more sustainable hatchery-based one. The domestication and genetic
improvement of mud crabs are anticipated to yield significant production gains,
akin to the remarkable advancements achieved in shrimp farming with the genetic
enhancement of species like Penaeus monodon and Penaeus vannamei.

MUD CRAB HATCHERY AND NURSERY PRODUCTION

Mud crab hatchery technology has evolved significantly over the last 20 years, using
feeds and systems adapted from those developed for shrimp culture. However, the
average larval survival remains inconsistent and low in all countries compared to that
of shrimp hatcheries. Nonetheless, the fecundity of female mud crabs, which varies
from 1.5 to over 6 million larvae per broodstock, has enabled the commercial-scale
production of megalopa and crablets.
Two notable trends in mud crab larviculture is the replacement of antibiotics
with probiotics and a greater importance being given to water quality. Recirculating
aquaculture system (RAS) and water sterilisation techniques including UV and ozone
are being increasingly adopted by industry players to better manage water quality
during this delicate stage of mud crab farming. Nature-based RAS hatcheries utilising
seaweeds and other organisms to maintain and remediate water have also been used,
which can also provide secondary crops for farmers.
In mud crab nurseries, an improved understanding of the moulting cycle and
nutritional requirements of mud crabs should lead to the development of improved,
crab-specific diets in the near future, replacing shrimp feeds and low value fisheries
products.
Discussions held at the workshop reflected the wide variety of approaches to mud
crab larviculture in terms of stocking densities, feeds, feeding management and water
quality management. Tanks, ponds and net cages (“hapa”) are all used in the nursery
phase. The megalopa-to-crablet transition remains the most significant challenge for
many operations, whereby low survival is often observed if not managed properly. As
larvae move from the zoea to megalopa and crab stages in nurseries, significant more
4 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

surface area is required as both megalopa and initial crab stages are kept at relatively
low densities, compared to zoea.
Notable constraints to the economic performance of the hatchery and nursery
sectors include:
• Aquatic disease management (viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoans) in eggs and
larvae.
• Lack of suitable formulated feeds.
• Inconsistent crablet survival.
• Cannibalism.
• Lack of quality standards for crablets.
• Absence of automated counting systems for megalopa and crablets.

FARMING SYSTEMS
The current status of farming systems being used to produce hard-shell mud crabs
include extensive earthen brackish water ponds (polyculture or monoculture systems),
fattening in boxes or cellular/compartmental systems, aqua-silviculture and crab-rice
farming. Species that are often being co-cultured with mud crabs include various
fish species (omnivores or herbivores), shrimps, seaweeds and molluscs. Although
co-culturing other species with mud crabs can diversify production outputs and
potentially increases profitability, it can also add significant biosecurity and health risks.
For soft-shell crabs, floating box systems within ponds, where juvenile crabs are
being cultured until their next moult and then harvested, remains the most productive
and economically viable technology in most mud crab producing countries. Facilities
utilizing cellular closed systems with recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS), where
crabs are housed individually in “condominium” or “vertical” structures, offer an
alternative approach that allows for better control of environmental parameters,
though at a higher operational cost.
Critical issues in farming include:
• Control of cannibalism and relatively low survival rate.
• Disease management.
• Quality and quantity of seedstock.
• Formulated feed development.
• Inter-moult duration and growth.
• Mortalities in soft-shell crab farming.
• Adaptation to changing climatic conditions e.g. heavy rainfall leading to reduced
salinity and alkalinity.
• Effective harvesting technique.

As sourcing wild crab seedstock for soft-shell production is still dominant,

overfishing is continuing to result in significant increase in unit costs; transitioning
to hatchery-based production is the only long-term solution for growth and
sustainability, combined with responsible wild fishery management and practical
fisheries enforcement.
A relatively new innovation in soft-shell crab production is the use of claw or
cheliped “restraints” applied on pre-moult crabs at high densities in communal systems
to prevent intra-specific aggression, damage and mortalities, negating the need for
cellular systems in some instances.

PRODUCT HANDLING, VALUE CHAINS AND POST-HARVEST PROCESSES

Hard-shell mud crabs

Quality grading of live hard-shell mud crabs is based on several criteria, including body
size and weight, meat fullness, appendage completeness and activity. Various national
Workshop summary and key recommendations 5

guidelines for mud crabs have been developed for countries such as Philippines and
Thailand to underpin marketability, global competitiveness and customer satisfaction.
Post-harvest losses for live mud crabs are also an issue. Such losses can be from poor
storage and packing, and inappropriate transportation and logistics processes during
the transport of live mud crabs from farms to wholesale or retail markets. Research and
development in Australia examined the live mud crab value chain from a physiological
perspective resulting in significant improvements in post-harvest management. To date
this post-harvest technology has yet to be disseminated internationally. In Viet Nam,
practical measures to reduce dehydration of crab stock have also been developed to
reduce post-harvest loss.
Whilst hard-shell mud crabs of all sizes (100 g and above) are traded live, the larger
sized crabs (≥ 700 g) and females at the final stage of ovarian maturation (full of eggs
internally) fetch premium prices. Generally, the larger the crab and the higher the
grade, the higher the price/kg. In some markets, such as Singapore, value added services
such as slaughtering, segmenting and separation of claws, legs and body to minimise
chef’s preparation time can improve wholesaler income.
With increased overfishing, it is becoming more difficult to access large mud crabs
for the live trade, constraining the growth of the industry. The market demand (for
perceived better meat quality) of wild-caught crabs is higher compared to farmed
crabs in some markets. Although the demand has increased, wild-caught supply has
plateaued. In some countries regulations can influence prices. For example, Indonesia
prohibits the sale of female crabs and Papua New Guinea has had a 6-month closed
season on mud crabs.

Soft-shell crabs
Anecdotal information from experts at the workshop points to significant wastage
and losses in mud crab value chains from harvest to consumer. Losses are particularly
high in the soft-shell crab production sector due to unoptimized culture conditions,
poor storage and transportation of wild caught seedstock, improper packing, physical
damage from sorting and on-farm losses from poor husbandry practices. In contrast,
post-harvest processing of soft-shell crabs require high standards as the product has to
be prepared to meet international food safety standards.
Soft-shell mud crabs have significantly more value-adding opportunities than hard-
shell counterparts. Whole Round and Whole Cleaned are the two major processed
types of soft-shell mud crabs, with size grades standardised, based on those developed
for soft-shell crabs in the United States of America. Their popularity has been largely
driven by the global growth of Japanese restaurants, other Asian cuisines and fast
food sectors. The sector will in the future benefit from economies-of-scale, improved
consumer awareness and development of more value-added products incorporating
soft-shell mud crab.
Soft-shell crab processing for international markets typically includes the
development and ongoing audit of HACCP for cold chain management, food safety
and soft-shell crab cleaning and preparation.
The soft-shell crab value chain is often segmented with specialisation in either
fishing, trading, farming or processing. A soft-shell processing plant, designed to
process large quantities of raw material is expensive to build and operate. For this
reason, it is common for many small-scale soft-shell crab farmers to supply each
processing plant, rather than process themselves.
An important issue in soft-shell crab farming is the forced moulting of mud crabs,
used in some countries, to hasten the moulting process. This results in “balloon crabs”;
crabs with little meat and significant physical deformities, which are of lower quality
compared to those crabs that moult naturally, and fetch a lower market price compared
to natural moults.
6 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Another major concern in the soft-shell crab industry is the sustainable supply of
juvenile crabs to be used for soft-shell crab production. Currently, most soft-shell crab
production farms source wild mud crab juveniles that are still available, especially in
Southeast Asian countries. There is an urgent need for mud crab producing countries to
set forth sustainable fishery management measures and focus on large-scale production
of mud crabs to cater for the high demand needed in the soft-shell crab industry.

FISHERY MANAGEMENT
In most mud crab producing countries, overfishing of mud crabs, at varying degrees,
are apparent. However, Australia has demonstrated that it is possible to sustainably
manage wild mud crab populations. Its management regime reflects the country’s
unique industry structure, involving few fishers and strong regulatory and enforcement
capabilities. It is considered possible to adapt Australia’s management approach to help
improve fishery management in other countries, if there are adequate resources and
the necessary political will. Many other countries, e.g. Indonesia and Philippines, have
fisheries regulations limiting mud crab catches based on size and sex which contribute
to better fisheries management, but generally and globally more needs to be done in
this area to effectively manage and conserve wild Scylla populations.
The decline of wild mud crab populations, particularly S. olivacea has also been
exacerbated by the destruction of mangrove habitats in a number of countries.
Mangroves serve as critical breeding, nursery, and feeding grounds for mud crabs. The
loss of these vital ecosystems has far-reaching socio-economic consequences.

FUTURE INDUSTRY NEEDS

The needs of the mud crab aquaculture sector identified during the workshop varied
significantly between countries, between species and the hard- and soft-shell sectors.
Additionally, their perceived importance will vary relative to each stakeholders’ role in
the mud crab value chain and their principal occupation (e.g. farmer, trader, processor,
researcher or government).
Overall, there was strong consensus to work towards a sustainable, hatchery-based
mud crab farming sector, incorporating domestication, formulated feeds and reliable
technology to produce high quality crab products to meet the increasing market
demand. Global needs and recommendations generated by the workshop are listed
below.

International
• Shift from a capture-based to a hatchery-based aquaculture sector.
• Replace low value fish and other unsustainable fresh feeds with formulated diets.
• Increase hatchery and nursery production to meet the growing demand for
seedstock.
• Domesticate and genetically improve mud crab broodstock.
• Implement sustainable management practices for mud crab fisheries.

Broodstock
• Ensure an adequate supply of broodstock to meet short- and medium-term
hatchery demands before fully relying on domesticated stock.
• Domesticate and genetically improve mud crab broodstock.
• Improve husbandry and nutrition of broodstock to maximise reproductive
performance.

Mud crab hatchery and nursery production

• Improve aquatic health management in hatchery and nursery operations.
• Develop improved hatchery and nursery systems to increase survival rates, reduce
Workshop summary and key recommendations 7

production costs and produce high quality seedstock.

• Incorporate enhanced monitoring and control of hatchery and nursery systems
into management systems.
• Make use of advanced water management treatments and probiotics to reduce the
dependence on prophylactic use of antibiotics.
• Utilise an improved understanding of the microbiome of mud crab larval and
nursery systems to improve larval rearing protocols, feeds and feeding regimens.

Farming systems
• Improve extensive and semi-intensive pond-based systems through adoption of
standard operational procedures and best aquaculture practices.
• Develop improved cellular systems for both soft-shell and hard-shell farming of
mud crabs to reduce losses from cannibalism.
• Utilise best practices on biosecurity, improve health screening and increase aquatic
health surveillance to reduce losses to common crustacean diseases.
• Formulate suitable mud crab diets to improve the physical nature of feeds to
enhance growth and immunity, improve disease resistance and reduce wastes.
• Develop more efficient reduction of intra-specific aggression and cannibalism in
communal farming systems.

Product handling and marketing

• Disseminate best practice on mud crab packaging and transportation techniques
to support reduced waste, unnecessary stock loss and improved profits.
• Develop high quality standards for mud crab products to further improve value
chain efficiency and international trade similar to other seafood commodities.
• Discourage forced moulting as this produces an inferior quality product.

Fishery management
• Regularly assess wild mud crab populations to address widespread overfishing
concerns.
• Determine cost-effective mud crab fishery management plans. Such plans will only
be effective with strong community, industry and other stakeholder consultation
and government support.

Training
• Determine training needs as there are significant differences in mud crab
aquaculture development between countries.
• Develop information, education and communication (IEC) materials to enable
mud crab farming technology to be shared at scale via digital transmission.
• Support international collaboration in technology transfer and knowledge sharing.

GENERAL CROSS SECTOR RECOMMENDATIONS

The establishment of aquatic health surveillance programmes and better management
practices to mitigate significant diseases need to be developed. The development of
disease screening platforms and molecular kits to monitor key viral and bacterial
diseases are required, that include mud crab specific diseases, as well as generic
crustacean ones.
In comparison to major aquaculture commodities, such as shrimp or salmon, there
is still a paucity of research and information on mud crab aquaculture. To support
the industrialisation of mud crab farming, there is need for ongoing research and
development in areas including, but not limited to:
• Genetics, genomics, immunogenetics and nutrigenomics.
• Nutrition and feed development, proteomics.
8 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

• Water quality treatment and management.

• Aquatic health management.
• Reduction of aggression and cannibalism.
• Immune system enhancement.
• Improved control of moulting.
• Microbiome analysis and microbial management.
• Moult death syndrome mitigation.
• RAS engineering.
• Automation of farm management systems including the incorporation of advanced
sensors, internet of things, machine learning, deep learning, robotic systems and
artificial intelligence.
COUNTRY STATUS AND
TECHNICAL PAPERS
 11

Global overview of the mud crab

production sector

Colin Shelley
Scylla Mud Crab Consultancy, Brisbane, Australia

ABSTRACT
Whilst a significant dataset is available on mud crab aquaculture production, the level
of information it provides is limited. At present there is no differentiation in the dataset
between the four species of mud crab, Scylla serrata, Scylla paramamosain, Scylla
olivacea and Scylla tranquebarica. The vast majority of farmed mud crab production
is still capture-based, where wild seedstock of various sizes are harvested and
subsequently cultured for either hard-shell or soft-shell production. The contribution
from hatchery-based production to the overall production volume is uncertain.
However, other papers from this workshop will shed some light on that matter.
Similarly, based on industry experience, there is also uncertainty regarding the volume
of farmed or wild-caught crab products. This paper reviews official FAO statistics
and combines personal industry experiences and other information sources to provide
an overview of production. It is acknowledged that the statistics and observations
presented herein have significant limitations and inherent inaccuracies.

GLOBAL PRODUCTION OF MUD CRABS

In a global context, mud crab aquaculture production of approximately
300 000 tonnes per annum in 2021 represents around 4.25 percent of the total
7 million tonnes of coastal crustaceans produced annually (Figure 1). This places mud
crab aquaculture as a relatively small sector compared to freshwater fish and seaweeds,
which have production volumes of 50.5 million and 35.1 million tonnes, respectively.

World Aquaculture
FIGURE 1 Production
Trend in the production of farmed species groups 2006–2021
60 World aquaculture production by species groups 2006–2021
Unit: million tonnes in live weight

50.50 Farming of finfish in freshwater outpaced other subsectors

50

2006 2007– 2020 2021

40 GREY bar BLUE bars RED bar
35.17
Millions tonnes/live weight

30

18.42
20

8.92 7.05
10
4.83
1.14
0
Finfish (Inland) Finfish (Marine coastal) Crustacean (Inland) Crustacean (Coastal) Molluscs** Other animals*** Algae

Note: * quantity
* Includes small Includes of aquatic turtles,
tropical spiny frogs,and
lobsters seanegligible
cucumbers, sea squirts
quantity of marineandshrimps
edible grown
jellyfish, etc. in the sea.
in cages
** Mostly marine Mostly marine
**molluscs, such asmolluscs, such as oysters,
oysters, mussels, mussels,
clams and clams
scallops, and
etc. andscallops, etc. and
small quantity of small quantity
freshwater of and
clams freshwater
snails. clams and snails.
*** Includes
*** Includes aquatic smallsea
turtles, frogs, quantity of tropical
cucumbers, spinyand
sea squirts lobsters
edibleand negligible
jellyfish, etc. quantity of marine shrimps grown in cages in the sea.
Source: FAO. 2024. Fishery and Aquaculture Statistics – Yearbook 2021. FAO Yearbook of Fishery and Aquaculture
Statistics.
Source: FAO. 2024. FisheryRome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc9523en
and Aquaculture Statistics – Yearbook 2021. FAO Yearbook of Fishery and Aquaculture
Statistics. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc9523en
12 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Among the top eight producers of mud crabs, only those exceeding 3 000 tonnes per
year are notable, with production from other countries totalling less than 0.1 percent
of total global production. China and Viet Nam are the largest producers of mud
crabs, accounting for 51 and 28 percent respectively of the global annual production
of 296 848 tonnes in 2021 (Table 1). Viet Nam has shown rapid growth in mud crab
aquaculture production, with a nearly 650 percent increase in production since 2010.
This increase can be largely attributed to the rapid rise in hatchery production, where
estimates of the number of crablet-producing hatcheries in Viet Nam varies from 400–
700, seasonally. Whilst hatchery production of mud crabs is practised in China, the
Philippines, Indonesia, Bangladesh and India to varying degrees, Viet Nam is the only
country where more crablets are produced from hatcheries (80 percent) than harvested
from the wild (20 percent).
TABLE 1
World aquaculture production quantity of mud crabs by producing country and territory (t)
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021

China 112 408 115 772 123 599 132 149 134 507 135 094 146 189 151 976 157 712 160 616 159 433 152 065
Viet Nam 12 500 12 500 13 000 13 000 49 140 54 588 64 633 65 463 66 000 71 757 80 162 81 144
Philippines 14 438 15 731 16 360 15 794 16 160 16 199 16 860 18 100 20 770 20 772 20 766 23 113
Indonesia 9 557 8 153 14 164 11 898 13 594 12 546 11 407 2 704 33 807 14 208 10 767 12 823
Bangladesh ... ... ... ... ... ... 13 160 14 421 11 787 12 084 12 562 12 337
India*** ... ... 3 000 4 000 5 000 6 000 6 500 7 000 7 500 7 600 7 900 8 400
Thailand 45 600 700 700 800 800 1 000 1 100 1 773 1 561 2 556 3 479
Myanmar 1 500 1 500 1 933 1 950 2 000 2 836 3 151 3 038 2 883 842 2 973 3 096
Malaysia 8 20 42 14 36 61 14 96 15 234 210 206
Cambodia 20 20 40 40 50 50 68 70 80 90 120 100
Singapore ... 7 42 314 137 101 45 35 43 27 19 36
Taiwan Province of
225 165 122 89 26 32 21 7 6 6 12 27
China
Fiji*** ... ... ... ... 7 7 7 10 10 10 10 10
Sri Lanka 18 20 2 1 2 12 155 51 69 60 22 7
United Republic of
5 0 ... 0 0 0 2 2 1 0 ... 1
Tanzania
Brunei Darussalam 3 5 5 ... ... ... ... ... 1 ... 1 1
Timor-Leste*** ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 1 1 1 1 1
Mauritius 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Papua New
18 0 4 4 4 4 4 0 0 0 1 1
Guinea
Madagascar*** 5 5 5 5 5 5 ... ... ... ... ... ...
Samoa 0 0 0 0 ... ... ... 0 0 0 ... ...
Australia ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
WORLD 150 751 154 499 173 019 179 959 221 468 228 335 263 219 264 075 272 459 416 841 297 516 296 848

The resilience of mud crab aquaculture production in 2020 (Figure 2) despite

dramatic reduction of seafood consumption in most countries during the peak of
the COVID-19 pandemic is noteworthy. This phenomenon prompts speculation on
whether it underscores the robust demand for the product or highlights potential
inaccuracies in the dataset.
Over the last 70 years, the proportion of farmed mud crabs has increased
dramatically compared to wild harvest, with only just over 10 percent coming from the
wild in 2021 compared to the 1970s when that figure was 90 percent (Figure 3). Whilst
limited numbers of mud crabs are produced in seawater, most are from brackish water
operations.
 Global overview of the mud crab production sector 13

FIGURE 2
World production of farmed mud crabs by major producing countries 2006–2021
(tonnes live weight)

350 296.85

Thousands tonnes
300
144.78
250
200 152.07
150
100
50
0
WORLD China All others
180 152.07
160
2006 2007–2020 2021
Thousands tonnes

140
GREY bar BLUE bars RED bar
120 81.14
100
80
60 23.11
40
12.82
12.34 3.48
20 8.40 3.10
0.39
0
China Viet Nam Philippines Indonesia Bangladesh India Thailand Myanmar Others

Source: FAO. 2024. Fishery and Aquaculture Statistics –Yearbook 2021. FAO Yearbook of Fishery and Aquaculture Statistics. Rome.
https://doi.org/10.4060/cc9523en

spp. share of world produc

FIGURE 3 on by produc on source,
Scylla spp. share of world production by production source, 1950–2021
100% 1950 – 2021

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Capture production Aquaculture production (marine) Aquaculture production (brackish water)

Source
Source: FAO. 2024. Fishery and Aquaculture Statistics –Yearbook 2021. FAO Yearbook of Fishery and Aquaculture Statistics.
Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc9523en

Although production is now dominated by farmed produce, the main source of seed
is still capture-based, from wild fishery stocks. This indicates the growing pressure on
mud crab fisheries in most countries, which are now considered unsustainable.
Over the last 70 years, Scylla spp. production has demonstrated significant
exponential growth (Figure 4). This surge in production is largely attributed to China,
which is also the largest market for live mud crabs. The growth in production aligns
with the expansion of China’s middle class and their increasing ability to afford higher-
priced seafood products, thereby driving demand. If this trend in production is to
continue, it is highly unlikely that capture-based seed-stock will be able to sustain it.
To fulfill the market demand for mud crabs, increased hatchery production will be
required.
14 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 4
Scylla spp. global production over time, 1950–2021
Scylla spp. global produc on over me, 1950 2021
300 000

250 000

200 000
Live weight (t)

150 000

100 000

50 000

-
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Source: FAO. 2024. Fishery and Aquaculture Statistics –Yearbook 2021. FAO Yearbook of Fishery and Aquaculture Statistics.
Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc9523en

Overview by species
Of the four species of mud crabs, production is dominated by S. paramamosain, the
only species farmed in both China and Viet Nam. S. serrata is the most common species
in the Philippines and India, whilst S. olivacea dominates the production in Thailand,
Myanmar and Bangladesh. All four species contribute to Indonesia’s production.
When looking at soft-shell mud crab farming only, then S. olivacea accounts for
the most farmed production (Myanmar, Bangladesh and Thailand), followed by
S. paramamosain (Viet Nam) and S. serrata (Philippines, Indonesia).

Country production notes

China produces mud crabs in seven of its 11 coastal provinces, with Guangdong
being the largest – averaging around 60 000 tonnes per annum for the last four years
(Figure 5). Two other provinces, Hainan and Guangxi, reported an annual production

FIGURE 5
Production of farmed green mud crab in coastal provinces in China
1
2

China
Bohai

Mud crab
3
Bay
2

Eleven coastal provinces 4

in China mainland
Production of farmed green mud crab in coastal provinces in China Unit: tonnes (in live weight)
1 Liaoning 辽 宁
Yellow Sea 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
2 Hebei 河 北
3 Tianjin 天 津 Liaoning 辽宁 … … … … … … …
5
4 Shandong 山东 Hebei 河北 … … … … … … …
5 Jiangsu 江 苏 Tianjin 天津 … … … … … … …
6 Shanghai 上海 6
7 Zhejiang 浙 江 East Shandong 山东 … … … … 220 555 675
8 Fujian 福 建 China Jiangsu 江苏 1 968 1 990 1 972 2 047 1 887 1 987 1 800
7 Sea
9 Guangdong 广东 Shanghai 上海 … … … … … … …
10 Guangxi 广 西
11 Hainan 海 南 Zhejiang 浙江 26 563 26 549 26 083 25 358 26 272 26 090 27 595
8 Fujian 福建 32 335 35 093 35 109 36 320 36 305 37 497 38 898
Guangdong 广东 47 421 51 664 55 036 60 691 65 107 62 390 59 228

Guangxi 广西 16 730 17 394 19 298 19 521 18 048 18 390 11 871

9
10 Hainan 海南 16 023 16 287 14 478 13 775 12 777 12 524 11 998

TOTAL 141 040 148 977 151 976 157 712 160 616 159 433 152 065
Source: Fisheries
Fisheries
Source:Refer
Note: Administration,
to the disclaimerMinistry
Administration, of copyright
Agriculture
on Ministry
the and Rural
of Agriculture
page forAffairs,
and China.
theRural
names Affairs, China.
and boundaries
11 used in this map.
South China Sea

Source: Fisheries Administration, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, China.

Global overview of the mud crab production sector 15

FIGURE 6
Philippines: Top four regions in mud crab farming production (2022 ranking)

Top four regions in mud crab farming production (2022 ranking)

1. Region III (Central Luzon)

2. Region IV-A (Calabarzon)
3. Region X (Northern Mindanao)
4. Region VI (Western Visayas)
5. Other regions

25 2007 2008 - 2021 2022

GREY bar BLUE bars RED bar
Thousands tonnes

20 16.38

15

10 4.34 3.45
4.98
5 1.68 1.93

0
PHILIPPINES Central Calabarzon Northern Western Other
Luzon Mindanao Visayas regions

Source: FAO. to be provided................

Note: Refer to the disclaimer on the copyright page for the names and boundaries used in this map.
Source: Philippines Statistical Authority. Aquaculture: Volume of production by species, region and province, 2022. Fisheries Statistics
Division.

of over 10 000 tonnes, whilst the annual mud crab production in Zhejiang and Fujian
was well over 20 000 tonnes.
The mud crab industry in the Philippines has shown steady growth until 2022, when
the sector was badly affected by floods, with all key production regions reporting
lower than normal production (Figure 6). Government legislation has attempted to
limit capture-based production and encourage hatchery-based farming; however,
hatchery development has been relatively slow compared to Viet Nam.
Myanmar, known for its top quality soft-shell crabs, was badly affected by the
COVID-19 pandemic, which impacted on demand, sales and production (Table 2). It
is anticipated that this was a temporal anomaly, and that production will reach its pre-
COVID-19 levels in the near future (Anon, 2020). However, trading conditions in the

TABLE 2
Myanmar: Annual export of fisheries production, including mud crabs
2021 Oct to
2019–2020 2020–2021
Rank Species Rank Species Rank Species 2022 March
Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value
1 Rohu 58 838 61 1 Ribbon fish 32 449 55 1 Fishmeal 39 314 40
2 Fishmeal 58 694 56 2 Fishmeal 53 061 53 2 Rohu 24 732 30
3 Squid 32 754 56 3 Rohu 43 990 46 3 Live mud crab 5 711 29
4 Ribbon fish 30 478 55 4 Live mud crab 10 762 46 4 Squid 9 793 23
5 Hilsa 13 769 39 5 Live eel 9 305 37 5 Hilsa 5 247 22
6 Soft-shell crab 2 745 32 6 Hilsa 10 600 32 6 Big eye croaker 14 804 16
7 Live mud crab 9 621 30 7 Soft-shell crab 3 096 32 7 Soft-shell crab 1 570 16
8 Trash fish 78 055 26 8 Big eye croker 20 974 28 8 Ribbon fish 13 633 15
Platu/Indian
9 Live eel 6 991 24 9 Squid 16 513 28 9 mackerel/Short 16 774 13
body mackerel
10 White/Silver po 4 406 23 10 Black pomfret 9 659 21 10 Live eel 3 062 12
Note: Soft-shell crabs are most likely of farm origin. Live mud crabs are of both capture and aquaculture origin.
Source: Fishery Statistics. Annual yearbooks. Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation, Department of Fisheries, Republic of the
Union of Myanmar.
16 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 7
Thailand: Quantity and value of sea crabs farms by provinces, 2021
Units: tonnes/thousand bhat
Thailand Scylla Portunus TOTAL
Quantity
Thailand: Quantity and value of sea crabs farms by provinces, 2021 Units: tonnes / thousand bhat
Value Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity
Scylla Portunus
COASTAL ZONE 1 60 19 345 - - 60 TOTAL19 345
Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value
Trat 29 10 078 - - 29 10 078
เขต 1
Chantaburi Coastal28Zone 1 8 147 60 19-345 - - - 28 60 819147
345
ตราด Trat 29 10 078 - - 29 10 078
Rayong 3
Chantaburi
1 120 28
-
8 147 -
- -
3 28 18147
120
จนทบร
COASTAL ZONE
ระยอง 2 574
Rayong 182 095 3 13120 607
- - 577 3 1821120
702
Chon Buri - - - - - -
เขต 2 Coastal Zone 2 574 182 095 3 607 577 182 702
Chachoengsao
ชลบร 7
Chon Buri 3 098 - - - - - - 7 - 3 098-
ฉะเชงเทรา
Samut Prakhan Chachoengsao
98 34 728 7 3-098 - - - 98 7 343728 098
สมทรปราการ Samut Prakhan 98 34 728 - - 98 34 728
Bangkok 7
Bangkok 2 330 7 2-330 - - - 7 7 22330
330
กรงเทพมหานคร
Samut Sakhon
สมทรสาคร 357Sakhon 100
Samut 000 357 1000000 68
0 68 357357 100
100068
068
สมทรสงคราม Samut Songkhram 97 39 359 2 539 99 39 898
Samut Songkhram 97 39 359 2 539 99 39 898
เพชรบร Phetchaburi 8 2 581 - - 8 2 581
Phetchaburi 8 2 581 - - 8 2 581
เขต 3ZONE 3
COASTAL Coastal
114Zone 3 37 324 114 370324 0
107 107 114114 3737431
431
ประจวบครขนธ Prachuap Khiri Khan 22 8 163 0 107 22 8 270
Prachuap Khiri Chumphon 7 20272 - -
ชมพร 22 8 163 107 22 7 82270
272
Khan สราษฎรธาน Surat Thani 85 26 889 - - 85 26 889
Chumphon 7 2 272 - - 7 2 272
Coastal Zone 4 1 779 574 341 0 67 1 779 574 408
Coastal Zone 1 Surat เขต 4
Thani 85 26 889 - - 85 26 889
นครศรธรรมราช Nakhon si Thammarat 1 752 565 064 0 67 1 752 565 130
COASTAL
สงขลาZONE 4 1 779
Songkhla 574 341 22 70410 67
- - 1 779 22 5747408
410
ปตตาน
Nakhon si Pattani 5 1 868 - - 5 1 868
Coastal Zone 2 นราธวาส 1 752
Narathiwat 565 064 - 0 - 67
- - 1 752 - 565 130-
Thammarat
Songkhla
เขต 5 Coastal22
Zone 5 7 410 952 -
241 668 - - - 22952 7 410
241 668
Coastal Zone 3 Pattaniระนอง Ranong5 1 868 848 211 989
- - - - 5848 211 989
1 868
พงงา Phangnga 17 4 996 - - 17 4996
Narathiwat Phuket
- - -
- - -
- -
- - -
-
ภเกต
COASTAL
กระบZONE 5 952
Krabi 241 668 19 4 -276 - - - 952 19 2414668
276
Coastal Zone 4 Trang 13 4 097 - - 13 4 097
Ranongตรง 848 211 989 - - 848 211 989
Coastal Zone 5 สตล Satun 56 16 310 - - 56 16 310
Phangnga 17 4 996 - - 17 4 996
รวมทงหมด
Phuket Total - - 3 479 1 054 -773 3- 781 3-482 1 055 554
-
Krabi 19 4 276 - - 19 4 276
Source: DoF. 2022. Fishery statistics of Thailand 2020. Report No. 4/2022. Bangkok, Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.
Trang 13 4 097 - - 13 4 097
Satun 56 16 310 - - 56 16 310
Total 3 479 1 054 773 3 781 3 482 1 055 554

Note: Refer to the disclaimer on the copyright page for the names and boundaries used in this map.
Source: DoF. 2022. Fishery statistics of Thailand 2020. Report No. 4/2022. Bangkok, Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives.

country, currently under a military regime, will likely impact the sector’s performance
in the short to medium term.
In Thailand, over 2 700 tonnes of the country’s annual production are from its
two most southern zones, 4 and 5 (Figure 7). Having once led the production of soft-
shell crabs, Thailand suffered from overfishing of its wild stocks and in recent years has
become dependent on imported live crabs from Myanmar to stock its farms. However,
in the last few years Thailand has reported steady growth (see Figure 3), and hatchery
production is now adding noticeably to the industry’s development.
Mud crab production is the smallest form of coastal pond aquaculture in Bangladesh,
representing just over 4 percent of the total, with over 13 000 tonnes produced in 2022
(Table 3). However, the collection of mud crab for both farming and direct export has
resulted in significant overfishing in the country, with key indicators – including catch

TABLE 3
Bangladesh: Production of coastal pond aquaculture by species
2020 2021 2022
Species
Production Share (%) Production Share (%) Production Share (%)
Rohu Shrimps/prawns* 127 601 45.14 131 509 45.24 137 021 45.54
Finfish** 142 513 50.42 146 908 50.52 150 476 50.01
Mud crabs 12 562 4.44 12 337 4.24 13 397 4.45
Total 282 676 100 290 754 100 300 894 100

Note: *Include both marine shrimps and freshwater prawn; **Mostly freshwater fish species.
Source: DoF. 2022. Yearbook of Fisheries Statistics of Bangladesh, 2021–22, Volume 39. Dhaka, Fisheries Resources
Survey System, Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock.
Global overview of the mud crab production sector 17

per unit effort and the average size of crabs collected – all showing significant decreases
in recent years.

GLOBAL ISSUES IN MUD CRAB FARMING

The strong market demand for live mud crabs of all sizes, particularly from China
has put significant pressure on mud crab fisheries globally. Mud crabs are widely
distributed from the east coast of Africa, through Asia to the mid-Pacific, and from
South Africa and Australia in the south to China and southern Japan to the north. This
wide geographic distribution provides an opportunity for many countries to start mud
crab farming, particularly those that have a history of exporting wild mud crabs. Some
of the countries where mud crab farming has significant potential, but are yet to have
any consistent mud crab aquaculture activities, are listed in Table 4.
Overfishing of wild mud crab populations has been recognized as a common issue
in most countries with an active fishery sector. These typically exhibit decreasing catch
per unit effort (CPUE) and a decreasing average size of crab, both for direct sale and
for use as broodstock in hatcheries. An example of the potential effects of overfishing
are seen for S. olivacea, comparing sizes of crabs between locations. In Bangladesh,
finding female crabs over 200 g (carapace width approximately 100 mm) is becoming
increasingly difficult, whilst in Western Australia – a resource that has so far not
been fished – S. olivacea can grow to over 150 mm in shell width and weigh 1.5 kg
(Government of Western Australia - Department of Fisheries, 2013). Also of concern
is Sri Lanka, which had a reputation for supplying many of the very large mud crabs
(>1 kg) for the international market, however, in recent years it is understood that the
average size of crabs traded has reduced, with crabs greater than 1 kg becoming less
common.
An issue that makes discussion of capture-based and hatchery-based production
difficult is that no official statistics appear to distinguish between them. Indirect
measures such as the number of hatcheries and nurseries, their production and pricing
of crablets may provide some indication of the state of development of the hatchery-
based sector in a country or region. Together with hatchery-based production is the
need for juvenile pond production of mud crabs to farm small crabs for soft-shell crab
farming (80–100 g) and for grow out to a larger size for hard-shell markets. These
provide an additional economic opportunity for coastal aquaculture, supporting
livelihoods and new employment opportunities.
TABLE 4
Regions and selected countries/states with a potential in mud crab aquaculture
Region Country/State Region Country/State
Kenya Brunei Darussalam
Madagascar Southeast Asia Cambodia
Mozambique Timor-Leste
Africa
Somalia American Samoa
South Africa Australia
United Republic of Tanzania Fiji
Iran (Islamic Republic of) French Polynesia
Middle East Oman Guam
Saudi Arabia Hawaii (USA)
Pacific Islands
New Caledonia
Maldives
Palau
Mauritius
Papua New Guinea
Asia/Indian Ocean Pakistan
Solomon Islands
Réunion
Vanuatu
Sri Lanka
Samoa
18 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Statistics are also difficult to interpret when it is known that there is significant
cross-border trade, much of it informal, in both juvenile and adult crabs between
countries. Official international transfer or translocation of stock is more likely to
include professional health certification and appropriate veterinary control, however,
informal trade increases inherent biosecurity risks.

MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABILITY

Regulation and licencing for both wild mud crab fisheries and aquaculture need careful
management to optimize the economic benefits of both and can provide areas for
conflict and concerns within the sector. For example, in Madagascar all export licences
for mud crabs from its fishery were owned by overseas companies, much to the
concern of locals who quite rightly expect to be able to share in the economic benefits
of the fishery in an equitable and transparent manner (Gorez, 2021). In the Philippines
there are official regulations in place, both to safeguard wild stocks and to indirectly
support hatchery production. However, enforcement is sometimes an issue.
Small crablets are still being harvested from the wild fishery for use by farmers,
negatively impacting the wild fishery and making hatchery development difficult. As
the cost of wild stock in some locations is currently less than hatchery production,
some farmers are preferentially taking the cheaper product, placing less value on other
attributes of hatchery produced crablets. In Bangladesh, seasonal mud crab fishery
closures have been ignored, as they have coincided with peak prices obtained from
China during the Chinese New Year season.
In developing countries, where fisher numbers are high and enforcement resources
limited, the management of sustainable mud crab fisheries has proved extremely
difficult, with most country’s mud crab fisheries overfished to varying degrees.
Two key areas to improve the sustainability of the mud crab farming sector moving
forward is the transition of farming from capture-based to hatchery-based and for
formulated feeds to become adopted, removing the dependence on trash fish and other
unsustainable wild fisheries resources.

WASTE MANAGEMENT
Some losses during the transportation of live products, such as hard-shell mud crabs,
are unavoidable; however, much can be done to reduce waste. The adoption of best
practice packing techniques has been shown to dramatically reduce losses of live mud
crabs. Despite this, in some countries they are not being used. Training and sharing of
knowledge are simple strategies to reduce waste in this area.
The soft-shell crab (SSC) sector experiences higher waste compared to the hard-
shell sector, which is related to a variety of factors including storage of fished product,
transport, grading and farming practices. Waste is evident at all stages of the value
chain, significantly impacting the wild fishery, where a greater number of small crabs
need to be collected to stock farms due to high losses along the value chain. Within the
SSC sector, on-farm losses vary from lows of 10 percent to highs of over 50 percent.
These losses are related to poor storage of harvested crabs, substandard packing and
transportation, unnecessary damage to stock from aggressive grading by traders
and dealers, feeds, feed frequency and water quality issues. Adoption of improved
techniques across the value chain can drive major increases in average survival rates,
thereby positively impacting the demand on wild fisheries.

FUTURE OPPORTUNITIES FOR MUD CRAB FARMING DEVELOPMENT

Mud crab farming is possible in at least 29 other countries than those currently
practising it (see Table 4) considering the distribution of the genus Scylla. To support
such development, inter-regional technology transfer will be required. Countries
including various Pacific Island Countries and Territories (PICTs), Sri Lanka and
Global overview of the mud crab production sector 19

coastal East African states are amongst the most promising candidates for such activity
and investment.

REFERENCES
Anon. 2020. Soft-shell crab and hatchery diagnostic survey report. Yangon, Myanmar,
Myanmar Sustainable Aquaculture Programme, Brussels, European Union & Bonn and
Eschborn. Germany, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ)
GmbH.
Gorez, B. 2021. Mangrove crab, a lucrative trade that is disturbing Malagasy waters. In:
CFFA. Brussels, CFFA. [Cited 21 September 2023]. https://www.cffacape.org/news-
blog/mangrove-crab-a-lucrative-trade-that-is-disturbing-malagasy-waters.
Government of Western Australia - Department of Fisheries. 2013. Fisheries Fact Sheet –
Mud Crab. Perth, Australia, Government of Western Australia: Department of Fisheries.
 21

Mud crab production in Viet Nam

Vu Ngoc Ut & Tran Nguyen Duy Khoa

College of Aquaculture and Fisheries, Can Tho University, Xuan Khanh, Ninh Kieu, Can
Tho City, Viet Nam

ABSTRACT
Mud crab breeding and culture in Viet Nam were initiated during the late 1990s. There
are only two Scylla species, Scylla paramamosain and Scylla olivacea, distributed in
Viet Nam specifically in the Mekong Delta. S. paramamosain is the dominant species
(> 95 percent) and is an economically important commodity in Viet Nam. Wild crablets
and other marketable size crabs have been exploited in all fishing areas. In the past,
mud crab farming relied mainly on the collection of the wild seeds. Due to the rapid
development of hatchery technology, a more reliable and sustainable alternative for the
sourcing of seedstocks now exists.
Mud crabs are farmed using various culture systems including the grow-out of
juveniles to marketable size in ponds, fattening of lean crabs, and soft-shell crab
production. However, there are several issues that need to be addressed for the future
growth of the mud crab industry in Viet Nam. These include alternatives to antibiotics
to improve hatchery efficiency, lack of a formulated feed for crab larvae and low-cost
formulated diet for growing the crabs in ponds, cannibalism, lack of market product
standard. Once these problems are addressed the risks associated with mud crab
culture will be reduced significantly, and mud crab production may become more
profitable.

INTRODUCTION
Mud crabs are an important crustacean commodity and one of the main sources of
income for farmers in the coastal areas of Viet Nam, particularly the Mekong Delta.
Farmers are interested in mud crabs due to their high economic value and potential
as an export commodity. Mud crabs were either directly exploited from natural
resources or cultured using wild seeds before the 1990s. The breeding techniques
developed in late 1990s and early 2000 have made hatchery-reared seeds available and
this accelerated the advancement and expansion of mud crab aquaculture. The number
of mud crab hatcheries have significantly increased, particularly in the Mekong
Delta. A preliminary survey showed that there are up to 600 hatcheries operating
(mostly seasonal) in the Mekong Delta, mainly in Bạc Liêu and Cà Mau, producing
up to 1.5 billion crablets each year. This is sufficient to satisfy the demand for seeds
for many types of mud crab culture systems in the Mekong Delta. In recent years,
interest in mud crab farming has increased due to growing domestic and international
markets. However, there are still some constraints that need to be addressed to make
the industry more sustainable.

Species of mud crabs

Mud crab aquaculture has been practised for many years in Southeast Asia, primarily
involving fattening of crabs from the wild. Based on the samples collected from South
Viet Nam, Serene (1952) categorized four species, namely Scylla oceanica, Scylla
tranquebarica, Scylla serrata and Scylla crassimana. Keenan (1999) reclassified the
species to S. serrata (Forsskål, 1775), S. tranquebarica (Fabricius, 1798), S. olivacea
22 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

(Herbst, 1796) and S. paramamosain (Estampador, 1949) based on morphological and

genetic features. Following the classification by Keenan (1999), mud crabs obtained
from central Viet Nam consisted of S. paramamosain, S. olivacea and S. tranquebarica,
where S. paramamosain accounted for more than 90 percent of over 3 000 crab samples
(Thach, 2001). However, according to recent taxonomic revisions, S. paramamosain
and S. olivacea are the target of large local fisheries in Viet Nam. S. paramamosain is
the most prevalent and preferred species for culture in Mekong Delta (Keenan, 1999;
Macintosh et al., 2002; Hai, 2017). Mud crabs are important source of income and food
for many coastal communities and are considered a luxury item appreciated for their
taste and texture, as well as their low-fat, high-protein, vitamin and mineral content
(Petersen et al., 2013; 2016).

Wild stock status

Mud crabs occur in most central coastal provinces of Viet Nam (Binh Dinh, Phu Yen,
Khanh Hoa) and the Mekong Delta (Bến Tre, Trà Vinh Bạc Liêu, Sóc Trăng and Cà
Mau). Artisanal fisheries for mud crabs are an important source of income in coastal
communities of the Mekong Delta. S. paramamosain was found to be the dominant
mud crab species within an estuarine system, comprising over 96.8 percent of crab
fishery landings while S. olivacea accounts for 3.2 percent. Mature females were
observed throughout the year, with a peak occurrence from September to October (Le
Vay et al., 2001).
In most Southeast Asian countries, mud crabs have traditionally been exploited
allowing capture of all sizes including crablets for pond culture, adults and subadults
for fattening, juveniles for soft-shell crab production or for food (Le Vay et al., 2001).
Mud crab fisheries employ gears such as gill nets, trawls and traps, while in some areas
handpicking in the intertidal is common, sometimes with the use of crabbing hooks.
The most frequently used gears are baited traps or pots.
Varying levels of overfishing or reduced landings (decrease in size and abundance)
have been reported throughout Southeast Asia due to the demand of crabs in national
and international markets. Mud crabs are closely associated with mangrove habitats;
thus populations may be subjected to the combined pressure of overexploitation
and habitat loss. Total sustainable catch from the wild stock should be estimated by
assessing the size of the mud crab and its yearly increment. Catching of crabs during
spawning season and berried crabs throughout the season must be banned to allow
recruitment of wild stock.

INDUSTRY STATUS

Production status
Mud crab resources are abundant and distributed throughout the seas, estuaries
and bays. Large quantities of mud crabs are produced and handled every year, with
Viet Nam among the top crab producers in the world (Table 1). In recent years, due to
increased domestic consumption and export demand along with natural exploitation,
mud crab farming developed in the coastal regions in many of the southern and northern
provinces, especially in the Mekong Delta region, where the productivity of crab
farming reached over 1 000 kg/ha annually (DoF, 2019). According to the Viet Nam
Association of Seafood Exporters and Producers (VASEP), the export of crabs and
other crustaceans grew by 3.9 percent, reaching a total value of USD 189 million in
2021, thus contributing a 6 percent market share in the total seafood export value
of USD 3.4 billion in 2021. Moreover, the total export value of crab in Viet Nam
amounted to approximately USD 111 million up to July 2022.
Mud crab production in Viet Nam 23

TABLE 1
Crab production in Viet Nam and other countries (t)
Ranking Country 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

1 Indonesia 835.2 1 276.4 1 286.5 875.0 987.0

2 China 1 091.2 947.3 1 056.2 673.0 765.0
3 Philippines 307.1 308.1 309.2 222.1 213.0
4 Viet Nam 322.1 255.2 378.3 102.1 112.0
5 Thailand 190.4 124.0 124.5 154.3 102.0
6 India 112.1 87.3 98.2 43.0 44.0
7 Mexico 119.0 160.3 167.2 86.0 90.1
Venezuela (Bolivarian
8 132.9 148.3 156.0 32.0 43.0
Republic of)
9 Other countries 387.5 729.9 654.2 312.0 342.0
Total 3 497.5 4 036.8 3 174.1 2 499.5 2 698.1

Source: FAO. 2024. Fishery and Aquaculture Statistics – Yearbook 2021. FAO Yearbook of Fishery and Aquaculture
Statistics. Rome. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc9523en

From 2016 to 2020, the Mekong Delta region was considered the “crab granary”
of Viet Nam with a production accounting for 73 percent of the country’s total crab
production. In 2020, the whole region reached a production of 68 000 tonnes, an
increase of nearly 8.2 percent of total output within 5 years. However, the average
productivity of mud crabs is still low in integrated extensive farming systems (shrimp–
mud crab–mangrove or shrimp–mud crab–rice) due to low stocking densities of 0.1–
0.2 ind./m2. Kiên Giang, Cà Mau and Bạc Liêu provinces have the highest production,
accounting for 80 percent of the entire Mekong Delta’s production (Table 2).

TABLE 2
Mud crab production in some provinces in the Mekong Delta (t)
Province 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Kiên Giang 17.7 16.7 17.3 18.7 20.3

Cà Mau 17.4 20.1 22.0 22.2 24.0
Bạc Liêu 14.6 15.8 14.7 12.7 10.2
Trà Vinh 8.0 8.1 7.4 7.9 8.1
Bến Tre 4.8 4.8 4.9 4.7 5.1
Sóc Trăng 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2
Total 62.7 65.7 66.4 66.3 67.9

Source: Danh, L.N. 2023. Economic analysis of the mud crab (Scylla paramamosain) supply chain in the Mekong Delta.
PhD dissertation in Agriculture Economic. Can Tho University, 165pp (In Vietnamese).

Farming areas
In addition to wild stock harvest, mud crabs have been farmed in many coastal provinces
in Viet Nam, including Quang Ninh, Hai Phong, Thanh Hoa, Ninh Binh, Nghe An,
Thua Thien–Hue, Ba Ria–Vung Tau, Can Gio (Ho Chi Minh City), and the Mekong
Delta using hatchery-reared crablets (Figure 1). Different farming systems have been
applied such as grow-out in the improved extensive shrimp ponds, integrated shrimp–
crab–mangrove, integrated shrimp–crab–rice, fattening in tanks or cages, and soft-shell
crab production (Phuong and Hai, 2004). Various methods for crab culture have been
developed to suit the diverse conditions in different provinces. Farming areas have
increased in most of the provinces of the Mekong Delta since 2016 (Table 3).
24 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

TABLE 3
FIGURE 1 Mud crab farming areas in the Mekong Delta from
Major mud crab farming areas in Viet Nam and 2016 to 2020 (ha)
hatchery locations
Province 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

Cà Mau 273.2 271.2 273.5 276.4 277.0

Kiên Giang 58.7 64.3 64.3 65.5 73.2
Bạc Liêu 111.9 111.2 98.3 87.2 73.0
HA NOI
HA NOI
Bến Tre 26.8 27.0 27.2 27.8 28.6
Trà Vinh 10.5 11.0 11.3 12.8 13.0
Quang
QuangNinh
Ninh Sóc Trăng 0.4 0.4 0.1 0.1 0.2
Hai Phong
Hai Phong Total 481.5 485.1 474.7 469.8 465.0

Source: National Agriculture Extension Center. Retrieved from

https://khuyennongvn.gov.vn/ky-thuat-thuy-san (25 August
2023)

Hue
Hue
In 2016, the farming area in the Mekong
Delta increased by 50 percent compared to
2012, then the farming area began to stabilize
from 2016 to 2020. In 2020, the farming
areas in the Mekong Delta reached nearly to
465 000 ha, mainly located in the provinces
of Cà Mau, Kiên Giang, and Bạc Liêu. Cà
Mau province has 277 000 ha and leads in
farm area followed by Kiên Giang (73 000 ha)
and Bạc Liêu (72 962 ha) (Figure 2). Due to
high profitability of integrated crab farming,
people have heavily invested in crab farming
and expanded the areas.
Ho Chi
Ho Chi Minh City
Hatcheries, nurseries and grow-out
ponds
Vung Tau
Vung Tau Mud crab breeding and culture in Viet Nam
Bến Tre
Bến Tre
were initiated during the late 1990s.
Trà Vinh
Trà Vinh
KiênGiang
Kiên Giang Soc
SocTrang
Trang
Commercial hatchery production of crab
Bạc
BạcLiêu
Liêu seeds has been developed for several years in
Cà Mau
Cà 0 100 Km
the Mekong Delta. Shrimp hatcheries were
Note: Refer to the disclaimer on the copyright page for the names converted to produce mud crab seeds to
and boundaries used in this map. operate full-cycle or alternately produce crab
© 2015 www.mapsoftworld.com
and shrimp based on demand. Recently, there

FIGURE 2
Culture areas and production of mud crabs in Mekong Delta in 2021 (t)
Trà Vinh Trà Vinh
22 206 6 689
5% 9%
Bạc Liêu
113 895 Cà Mau Bạc Liêu
24% 25 057 18 588
Cà Mau
26%
250 000
Kiên Giang Kiên Giang
54% 78 184 22 080
17% 30%

Culture areas in Mekong Delta (ha) Production (t)

Mud crab production in Viet Nam 25

TABLE 4
Number of mud crab hatcheries and production outputs in selected Mekong Delta provinces

Province 2014 2015 2016 2021

Bạc Liêu

Number of hatcheries 40 40 40 –
Production (million) – – 500 –
Cà Mau

Number of hatcheries 372 394 438 523

Production (million) 618.4 802.6 935.8 1 000
Kiên Giang

Number of hatcheries 136 136 136 –

Production (million) 167.2 172.4 157.5 –
Total no. of hatcheries 548 570 614 –

Source: Hai, T.N., Vinh, P.Q. & Viet, L.Q. 2018. Technical and financical aspects of mud crab hatcheries in the Mekong
Delta. Can Tho University. Journal of Science, (2018)(1): 169–175.
Ngoan, L.H. 2023. Analysis of technical aspects and financial efficiency of the seed production of mud crab hatcheries
in Ca Mau. Master thesis in Aquaculture, Can Tho University. 72pp.

are 523 mud crab hatcheries in Cà Mau province (Table 4), some operating seasonally.
Each of these hatcheries can produce 0.7–10 million crablets annually, with survival rates
of 5–11 percent. Nurseries are operated for the culture of megalopa and crab instar to
juvenile stage in lined ponds or net cages within 2–3 weeks before stocking in grow-out
ponds. Mud crabs are grown in extensive shrimp farms and mangrove forests. Recently,
indoor crab culture has been developed for soft-shell crab production.

AQUACULTURE PRACTICES

Broodstock management
In Viet Nam, crab spawning occurs throughout the year. Hatcheries rely on the
collection of ovigerous (egg-bearing) females from the wild or ponds. Wild broodstock
showed better performance than those obtained from ponds (Table 5). Because
females store viable spermatophores for months after mating, mature females can also
be brought into maturation tanks and spawn naturally, although spawning can be
accelerated by eyestalk ablation. Broodstock are fed fresh foods such as fish, blood
cockle, squid and clam. Broodstock culture is also an economically important activity
in Cà Mau province where high-quality broodstock are supplied to hatcheries in the
Mekong Delta.

TABLE 5
Comparison of reproductive characteristics between wild and farmed crabs

Reproductive parameters Wild crabs Farmed crabs

Spawning time (day) 19.5±7.9 29.0±7.7

Spawning percentage (%) 85.7±10.3 77.5±5.2
Fertilization percentage (%) 88.1±3.53 78.2±2.48
Hatching (%) 74.9±2.84 64.2±2.08
Fecundity (× 1 000 larvae/female) 1 768±476 1,236±369
Survival from zoeae1 to crablet (C1) (%) 11.3±2.07 9.70±1.41

Larval rearing
Crab larval rearing has been adopted from shrimp larviculture, where the feeding of
rotifers at the first larval stage, a practice more common with finfish larval rearing, has
been eliminated. Feeding of early “teardrop” or “umbrella” stage Artemia to zoea 1 is
26 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

also possible where Artemia of appropriate nutritional quality is available (Nghia et al.,
2007). Small crab larvae should not be fed with large prey. Relatively high mortality
can occur during larval rearing of Scylla spp., and tanks (composite and cement) with
darker background are recommended to reduce stress. Rotifers and Artemia are used
for convenience in aquaculture, with rotifers being good live food for early zoea stages
since they are small and slow moving.
Several issues still must be addressed in larval rearing. Nutritional problems affect
the survival and growth of larvae. Cannibalism can be a problem at high densities.
Asynchronous moulting may result in cannibalism. The clawed megalopae prey on
their conspecific which are still at zoea 4 and 5. Likewise, moult death syndrome
(MDS) is sometimes observed. This occurs when zoea 5 are unable to free themselves
from their old exoskeleton and eventually die. The exact cause of this syndrome is not
fully understood, but inadequate nutrition is often suspected.
Larval nutrition studies have resulted in the development of particulate larval diets,
but more research is needed. Live feeds are not nutritionally sufficient and are routinely
fortified either with algae or commercial booster formulations. Commercial pelleted
larval diets are preferred because of the expense and labour involved in growing algae
and other live feeds. Initial trials using microbound diets are promising although there
is still a long way to go before these can be produced and used commercially. Artificial
diets are accepted by the zoeae, which is already an achievement considering that size
and quality must be manipulated to avoid fouling of the water.

Nursery phase
Nursery production at high density has emerged as an important intermediate phase
between hatchery (production of megalopae and crab instars) and grow-out phase at
low density. The megalopae are transported in water. However, benthic crab instars are
more robust and can be shipped to farms in damp packing materials only. Conditioning
in the nursery is also beneficial in cases where juveniles are reared for restocking in
the wild. Mortalities of 50 percent or more are still reported during the nursery phase
mostly due to cannibalism. Within a few weeks of stocking, the crab juveniles prefer a
mixed diet of pellets and krill. Mortality is reduced by providing shelters or artificial
substrates in the nursery.

Grow-out culture for hard-shell crabs

Aquaculture of mud crabs Scylla spp. was originally based on the collection and
extensive culture of juveniles in earthen ponds. This farming system is commonly
practised in the coastal areas of Viet Nam (Figure 3). While crabs are generally
harvested for the hard-shell live market, production of soft-shell crabs is becoming
more popular. Mud crab females with mature ovaries also sell at premium price,
presenting an opportunity for mono sex culture.
Mud crabs are grown in earthen ponds, with perimeter fences to prevent the crabs
from escaping. They are known to burrow in the wild, but this behaviour has not been
apparent when crabs are reared in ponds. Soon after stocking, the existing natural food
in the pond is sufficient for the crablets. Their diet is eventually supplemented with
low-cost fishery products and wastes. Selective harvesting is done using traps when
some crabs attain market size.
Polyculture is possible with mud crabs and other species under certain circumstances.
However, polyculture of carnivorous fish and crabs is not recommended. Depending
on the timing of the introduction of each commodity and the relative size and growth
rate of the fish fry, the fish can eat the newly moulted juvenile crabs or vice versa.
Species cultured together with mud crabs are usually tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon),
white leg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei), mullet, tilapia, oyster, clam and seaweeds
(such as Gracilaria tenuistipitata) (Hai, 2017). Polyculture of fish or shellfish and crabs
Mud crab production in Viet Nam 27

FIGURE 3
Mud crab culture in extensive shrimp (a) and mangrove-shrimp farms (b) in the Mekong Delta

a b

©Chuc Ly
may have the advantage of lower disease occurrence because they do not have common
type of diseases.

Soft-shell crab production

Large mud crab juveniles up to 60 g are induced to moult using multiple limb autotomy
(removing all claws and legs, leaving only the paddle-like legs), stocked at high density
in earthen ponds and fed with fish. After about one and a half weeks, the pond is
drained and the pre-moult crabs with well-developed limb buds are transferred to
floating baskets for closer monitoring. Crabs are harvested as soon as they moult.
Confining crabs in this manner allows them to be maintained and checked efficiently
at higher density than the typical communal crab culture. However, feeding and water
management should be appropriately done to avoid stress to the crabs, particularly
while they undergo moulting (Dat, 1999).
Recently, the mud crab farming model in plastic boxes using Recirculating
Aquaculture System (RAS) has been introduced in Viet Nam, bringing in high
economic efficiency (Figure 4). RAS system is installed with oxygen aerators. The
leftover feeds and other wastes are filtered before going to a probiotic tank and
UV-based sterilization system. Microorganisms living on Kaldnes media serve as coral
to filter leftover feeds and other crab waste, resulting in a clean environment. The crabs
are reared separately in perforated plastic boxes to prevent cannibalism and facilitate
management. Some of the problems in soft-shell crab production are the lack of supply
of small-sized crabs, and that the transfer of pathogens from one crab to another is
difficult to prevent since each box is connected to the same system.

FIGURE 4
Soft-shell crab production in plastic boxes
©Nguyen Thuy
28 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

HEALTH AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT

In some cases, mass mortality is largely attributed to bacterial infection. For this
reason, there has been too much reliance on antibiotics such as oxytetracycline (OTC)
to manage the risks of batch rearing failures. Fungi have also caused problems in crab
hatcheries, requiring a different treatment, but widespread use of antimicrobials in
this manner is not recommended and it is often illegal in many countries. The major
problem in the use of antimicrobials is not the residue that might persist in the larvae
beyond the hatchery phase; the greatest threat is that unregulated drug use leads not
only to antimicrobial-resistant bacteria in the hatchery but also to the occurrence of
antimicrobial resistance in other animals or even in humans.

Virus
White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) is considered as one of the most dangerous
viruses so far observed in crustaceans. WSSV is characterized by rapid disease onset
that may infect up to 90 percent of the crab stocks within 2 to 7 days. WSSV can infect
the crabs by vertical transmission from wild broodstock or by horizontal transmission
in monoculture of mud crabs, from feeds, and co-habitation with WSSV-infected
shrimps. Hence, it is extremely important to inform the shrimp farmers regarding the
mode of transmission of WSSV, especially in the polyculture of crabs and shrimps.

Bacteria
Pathogenic Vibrio species have been implicated as one of the major causes of disease in
aquatic organisms. Zoeae are very sensitive to luminous bacteria, with V. harveyi being
a major contributor to disease along with several Vibrio species, such as V. alginolyticus
and V. parahaemolyticus, which have been isolated and tested for their pathogenicity to
zoea. Vibrio spp. are also found to be involved in shell disease associated with captive
crab broodstock as a result of a combination of fouling organisms and chitinoclastic
bacteria (Figure 5).

FIGURE 5
Shell disease caused by Vibrio spp. in mud crab

©Tran Nguyen Duy Khoa

Fungi
Several fungi including Lagenidium scyllae, Haliphthoros philippinicus and Atkinsiella
fluminensis have been frequently observed to infect the eggs, larvae and ovaries of
mud crabs. Fungal infection can more easily penetrate unfertilized eggs than fertilized
eggs. Larvae suffer from devastating infections by the non-host-specific pathogen
Lagenidium sp. resulting in high mortalities. Loss of eggs in berried females occurs
during the incubation period, resulting in partial hatching or complete loss of egg mass
(Figure 6). Haliphthoros sp. causes the abortion or resorption of eggs. Fusarium sp.,
Mud crab production in Viet Nam 29

FIGURE 6
Mud crab eggs infected with fungus (a) that may cause egg loss in berried female (b)

a b

©Tran Nguyen Duy Khoa

Lagenidium sp. and Sirolpidium sp. usually infect the damaged and dead tissues caused
by lesion or mycelia growth, making it difficult for the larvae to swim. Mycosis causes
secondary infection in crab larvae and leads to mortalities. Bath treatment using
formalin and fungicides were found to be effective in minimizing the infection.

Parasites
Protozoans such as stalked peritrich ciliates Epistylis sp., Zoothamnium sp. and
suctorian ciliates, such as Acineta sp. and Lagenophry sp., have been observed to attach
to the shell and gills of crabs (Figure 7). The ciliates Zoothamnium and Lagenidium
were observed to attach to eggs of berried females sourced from brackish-water areas
(Figure 8). Peritrichs are usually associated with water that is high in organic matter
and other nutrients. Apart from suctorians that feed on other protozoans, most
peritrichs feed primarily on bacteria. Bacteria thrive in water with high organic matter
and is probably the reason why peritrichs are also common in such conditions. In
addition, settling larvae of barnacles are often found attached as parasites in the gills,
especially in females.

FIGURE 7
Mud crab eggs colonized by Zoothamnium alrasheidi
©Tran Nguyen Duy Khoa
30 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 8
Octalasmis sp. on exoskeleton (a); Octalasmis sp. on gills (b); Sacculina sp. attached to
the crab’s abdomen (c, d)
!
a b

c d

©Nam Song Hau. Fisheries Research Sub-Institute

Abnormalities/deformities
In the hatchery, delay or failure to moult from zoea 5 to megalopa leads to several
negative impacts such as abnormal swimming behaviour and inability to consume feed.
Delay or failure to moult is believed to be due to unsuitable environmental conditions
in the tank and deficiency of nutrients given to the larvae. In grow-out culture, newly
moulted crabs are sometimes attacked by hard-shelled crabs resulting in missing
limbs or deformities such as chitinolytic spots on the abdominal flap, injuries on the
exoskeleton, broken claws, among others.

Albinism
Many kinds of albinism have been observed. Partial albinism or discoloration either on
limbs or carapace has been found in crabs cultured in ponds.

Treatment of diseases
Treatment of diseases in mud crabs is quite limited. Probiotics have been used in crab
larviculture to overcome bacterial disease. Water quality, larval stage index, percentage
of metamorphosis to megalopa stage, as well as yellow and green Vibrio colony counts
are also monitored during the utilization of probiotics. It is recommended that further
investigation into the larval rearing of mud crabs using probiotics be done, as it can be
applied to produce consistent quantity of mud crab seeds at commercial level. A recent
Mud crab production in Viet Nam 31

study on the use of ozone treatment during egg incubation and larval rearing revealed
a promising alternative to control bacterial infection and parasite infestation in the
hatchery (Bac and Ut, 2020a; 2020b).

RESEARCH AND INNOVATIONS

One of the main challenges of mud crab hatchery operation is the lack of appropriate
larval diets. Current hatchery production relies heavily on live foods such as rotifers
and Artemia nauplii. Furthermore, live food production requires skilled manpower,
more facilities, and maintenance of microalgae culture as food for the live prey. To
overcome the nutritional deficiency in rotifers and Artemia, many hatchery operators
or technicians enrich the live food to enhance the levels of highly unsaturated fatty acids
(HUFA), particularly docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3, DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid
(20:5n-3, EPA), prior to feeding to crab larvae. The recent employment of umbrella
stage Artemia instead of Artemia instar 1 or 2 to feed zoea 1 has resulted to improved
survival of the larvae. The application of this in several hatcheries has made the industry
more successful in the Mekong Delta.
Despite the current technology, mass mortality during larval metamorphosis,
especially from zoea 2, still occurs. Mortality may be caused by Vibriosis, nutritional
deficiency and poor water quality. Alternative means to improve the non-specific
immune response of crab to prevent outbreak of diseases have been considered, with
one such feasible option being the use of dietary supplements and herbal extracts in
crab hatcheries and farms.
Prebiotics and probiotics have been applied for better health conditions of aquatic
animals. Recent studies showed that probiotics can also improve growth and digestion,
enhance immune responses, and control diseases in mud crab larvae (Khoa et al., 2018).
Recently, Khoa et al. (2023) applied light-emitting diodes in mud crab larviculture.
It was reported that certain spectra of light in clear water systems have been shown to
affect crab growth by increasing the activity or moulting rates. The photoperiod used
may also affect appetite, food intake, and feed conversion ratio in crabs, thus affecting
their growth and survival. Light intensity and photoperiod may influence most
physiological functions and endocrine control or may increase cannibalism.

MARKET INFORMATION
According to the VASEP, exports of crab to major markets increased in 2022. Viet Nam
exported mud crabs to the United States of America valued at around USD 38 million,
making the United States of America the leading importer of mud crab. During
this period, the total export value of crabs in Viet Nam amounted to approximately
USD 111 million. The top markets of crabs include China, United States of America,
Japan, and France, accounting for over 92 percent of Viet Nam’s total export value. As
of 15 July 2022, Viet Nam obtained over USD 38 million through the export of crabs
to the United States of America, a 27 percent increase from the same period last year.
Viet Nam’s sales of crabs to the United States of America grew in the second quarter of
2022. The market of the United States of America has totally opened, leading to a high
consumption of crabs. China is the second biggest market, with USD 37 million from
sales reported by 15 July 2022, a 76 percent increase from the same period last year.
Crab exports continued to grow in 2022, although more slowly. As for the Japanese
market, over USD 24 million was recorded in sales, a 51 percent increase from the same
period last year. Crab exports reached nearly USD 15 million in the second quarter,
up by 64 percent from the same period last year. Japan is still the biggest market
for crabs among the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Tran-sPacific
Partnership (CPTPP) members. Viet Nam’s crab exports to European Union countries
increased sharply in 2022. France continued to be the largest market for crabs, with
over USD 3 million recorded as of 15 July 2022, a 60 percent increase on the prior year
32 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

(Vietnam Fisheries Magazine, 2022). Likewise, exports are skyrocketing in Belgium

and the Netherlands.

Product prices
The export price of crabs from Viet Nam has seen a steady increase over the last
five years. In 2016, the price was USD 12.57/kg, and by 2020 it had increased to
USD 15.52/kg. This represents an increase of USD 2.95/kg, or 23.5 percent. The
highest price was seen in 2019, when the export price was USD 20.82/kg. Based on this
trend, it is predicted that the export price of crab from Viet Nam will be approximately
USD 18.45/kg in 2023 and USD 21.38/kg in 2024. According to Viet Nam Fisheries
Magazine (2022), Viet Nam sold 3 166 tonnes of crabs in 2019 that were categorised as:
• Fresh or chilled, dried, salted, smoked or in brine (HS code 0306Xe).
• Prepared or preserved (excluding smoked) (HS code 160510).

MAJOR ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

Improving hatchery efficiency

Alternatives to antibiotics in larviculture is a major priority. While acceptable levels
of survival to metamorphosis is obtained in hatcheries, bolstering these figures by
using antibiotics to control the bacterial flora is not acceptable. More work needs to
be done to adopt other alternatives such as ozonation or use of specific probiotics.
Development of appropriate artificial diets for mud crab larvae is worth examining.
This helps reduce the use of live feeds that may eliminate a major source of microbial
contamination, via mass culture and enrichment of live food.

Feed development
Nutrition, particularly protein and lipids, play an essential role in obtaining good
quality ovigerous female crabs. Information on lipid requirement is crucial in the
development of artificial diets to ensure that the nutrients necessary for good growth
and maturation in crustaceans are included. At present, crab hatcheries still rely on
the use of natural food such as fish, clam, squid and shrimps, since these provide
high protein, essential fatty acids (EFA), and other micronutrients, which help hasten
growth and induce maturation of broodstock.
Formulated feeds developed for shrimp can be used successfully in mud crab
larviculture. These are used in addition to live feeds but their usefulness depends on
the particle size. Some feeds may need to be screened to obtain the appropriate size
for a particular stage of larvae. It has been reported that 50–70 percent of live feed can
be replaced with formulated larval feeds. While significant work has been undertaken
on the use of microbound diets for crab larvae, there is no commercially available
feeds designed for crabs that have been developed. Some operators utilize minced
bivalve or fish as supplementary feeds for megalopae. However, such feeds can lead to
water quality issues, hence the need for the quality of water to be monitored closely.
Alternatives to trash fish is also becoming a research priority because low-cost feed is
emerging as the next bottleneck in the expansion of the crab farming industry.

Addressing aggression and cannibalism

Cannibalism remains a major obstacle to improve the productivity of crabs in the
grow-out phase. Studies showed that mortality from cannibalism is reduced by adding
shelters and lowering the stocking density, thereby reducing encounters between
individuals. Understanding the social behaviour of crabs in ponds is likely one of
the keys to reducing cannibalism. Likewise, the feasibility of crab production using
individual containers to reduce cannibalism needs to be determined. This is based on
the experience gained from individual rearing of crabs in feeding experiments.
Mud crab production in Viet Nam 33

Culture in individual containers

Individual rearing of crabs is an obvious solution to the mortality and injury that occur
when crabs are reared communally. Crab mortality is almost absent when they are
raised in a properly maintained system, albeit with a slower growth rate than those in
ponds. Operating the RAS at maximum efficiency means there is little margin for error.
The recirculation and remediation systems in place must be determined based on the
designed output of the facility. However, large RAS farm requires enormous numbers
of individual containers, which need to be cleaned and maintained, as well as including
a more expensive and complicated water recirculation system.

Market and product standardization

There is a lack of information on the total volume of mud crab-based products and
their percentage sold in the domestic market. For support programmes and policy
makers to recognize the contribution of mud crab farming, detailed information on
production value chain and market values are required (Figure 9). Moreover, mud crab
products in particular markets need to be standardized.

FIGURE 9
Supply chain of mud crab in the Mekong Delta

Input
Producers Middlemen collectors Trading Consumption
suppliers

65.0 % Traders 30 %

Retailers 35.0 %
35.0 %
5.0 % Domestic
consumers
Inputs:
- Seeds 35.0 % 10.0 %
- Feeds Farmers 24.0 % Super
- Drugs markets/
Restaurants
Whole- 14.0 %
salers
26.0 % 26.0 % Domestic
Wholesale
consumers
markets

15.0 %
Export
©T.N.D. Khoa

Source: Hien, H.V. 2022. Supply chain of some potential species in the Mekong Delta. Survey Report, College of Aquaculture
and Fisheries, Can Tho University (CAF-CTU), Viet Nam. 54pp.

CONCLUSION
There are many issues concerning the sustainability of mud crab aquaculture. Major
issues include deforestation of mangroves to construct shrimp ponds, pollutants,
intensification of culture system, diseases, food safety, certification schemes, and
trade. Government and development organizations should develop more programmes
to disseminate technical knowledge on mud crab production to stakeholders, which
may help them overcome constraints. Likewise, the government should focus on
establishing enough hatcheries to ensure the supply of high quality crablets. The
cost-effectiveness of pelleted diets for mud crab grow-out farming requires attention.
Improved practices and reduced fluctuations in prices are likely to reduce the overall
risk of the crab industry. Such improvements would lead to higher profitability
considering that demand for export is high.
34 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

REFERENCES
Bac, N.V. & Ut, V.N. 2020a. Effects of ozonation frequency on egg quality of the blue mud
crab (Scylla paramamosain). Can Tho University. Journal of Science, 56(5B): 176–183 (In
Vietnamese).
Bac, N.V. & Ut, V.N. 2020b. Effects of ozonation frequency on metamorphosis and
survival of the blue mud crab (Scylla paramamosain) larvae. Can Tho University. Journal
of Science, 56(6B): 237–245 (In Vietnamese).
Dat, H.D. 1999. Description of mud crab (Scylla spp.) culture methods in Vietnam. In:
C.P. Keenan & A. Blackshaw. eds. Mud Crab Aquaculture and Biology. Proceedings
of an International Scientific Forum. Darwin, Australia, 21–24 April 1997. ACIAR
Proceedings No. 78: 67–71.
DOF. 2019. Seafood production in 2019 (https://bom.so/zrOWkQ).
FAO. 2020. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2020. Sustainability in action.
Rome, FAO.
Hai, T.N. 2017. Mud crab seed production and farming. Agriculture Publisher, 152pp. (In
Vietnamese).
Keenan, C.P. 1999. The fourth species of Scylla. In: C.P. Keenan & A. Blackshaw, eds.
Mud Crab Aquaculture and Biology. Proceedings of an International Scientific Forum.
Darwin, Australia, 21–24 April 1997. ACIAR Proceedings No. 78: 48–58.
Khoa, T.N.D. 2018. Effect of probiotic (Bacillus subtilis) on water quality, survival rate
and digestive enzyme activities of mud crab larvae (Scylla paramamosain). Can Tho
University. Journal of Science, 54: 1–8.
Khoa, T.N.D. 2023. Application of LED light in larviculture of mud crab. Project Report,
Can Tho University. 60pp.
Le Vay, L., Út, V.N. & Jones, D.A. 2001. Seasonal abundance and recruitment in an
estuarine population of mud crabs, Scylla paramamosain, in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam.
Hydrobiologia, 449: 231–239.
Macintosh, D.J., Ashton, E.C. & Havanon, S. 2002. Mangrove rehabilitation and
intertidal biodiversity: A study in the Ranong mangrove ecosystem, Thailand. Estuarine,
Coastal and Shelf Science, 55: 331–345.
Nghia, T.T., Wille, M., Binh, T.C. Thanh, H.P. Van Danh, N.P. & Sorgeloos, P. 2007.
Improved techniques for rearing mud crab Scylla paramamosain (Estampador 1949)
larvae. Aquaculture Research, 38(14): 1539–1553.
Petersen, E.H., Phuong, T.H., Van Dung, N., Giang, P.T., Dat, N.K., Tuan, V.A., Nghi,
T.V. & Glencross, B.D. 2013. Bioeconomics of mud crab, Scylla paramamosain, culture
in Vietnam. Reviews in Aquaculture, 5: 1–9.
Petersen, E.H., Glencross, B.D., Phuong, T.H., Tuan, V.A. & Tuan, L.A. 2016. Recent
changes in the bioeconomics of lobster and mud crab mariculture in Vietnam. Asian
Journal of Agricultural Development, 13(2): 89–105.
Phuong, N.T & Hai, T.N. 2004. Seed production and farming of crustacean. College of
Aquaculture and Fisheries, Can Tho University.
Thach, N.C. 2001. Study on artificial breeding of Scylla serrata var paramamosain
Estampador 1949 in Viet Nam. Report Science, p. 47.
Vietnam Fisheries Magazine. 2022. Exports of crab to major markets all increase. In:
Vietnam Fisheries Magazine. Hanoi. [Cited 25 August 2023]. https://vietfishmagazine.
com/markets/exports-of-crab-to-major-markets-all-increase.html.
 35

Potential and challenges of mud

crab (Scylla spp.) cultivation in
Indonesia

Yushinta Fujaya
Faculty of Marine Science dan Fisheries, Hasanuddin University, Makassar, Indonesia

ABSTRACT
Mud crabs are one of the leading fishery commodities in Indonesia. There are four
species of mud crabs in the world, namely Scylla serrata, Scylla paramamosain, Scylla
tranquebarica, and Scylla olivacea, all of which are found in Indonesia. The market
demand for mud crabs continues to increase each year. However, a significant portion
of this demand is being met through unregulated wild catches, thereby further
threatening the sustainability of the mud crab industry. The Ministry of Maritime
Affairs and Fisheries of the Republic of Indonesia (Kementerian Kelautan dan
Perikanan Republik Indonesia [KKP]) has reported that mud crab fisheries in almost
all regions of Indonesia are fully exploited or even overexploited. The situation forced
the KKP to issue a regulation to restrict mud crab capture and promote mud crab
aquaculture.
In Indonesia, mud crab aquaculture started in the 1900s but still facing several
important challenges. One of the main problems is the inability to produce seed
from hatcheries. Current mud crab farmers would like to increase their production
but the seed supply provided from local hatcheries is not enough. The Government
operates two hatcheries and continuously provides seed to farmers. The private
sector is reluctant to invest in mud crab hatcheries as the hatchery technology is not
well established. There are many problems facing hatchery operations, such as high
mortality in the larval stage, live feed and disease outbreaks. In the nursery phase,
cannibalism is a significant problem, so lower stocking density is practised resulting
in lower income for the farmers. Although the hurdles in the mud crab industry are
still many, the high price of mud crab in the global market motivates farmers to stay
up-to-date with mud crab aquaculture and attempt to deal with the problems faced,
for example, using seaweed in ponds to reduce cannibalism. Indonesian researchers
have taken part in developing some farming innovations, including the development
of herbal treatments to increase immunity, moulting, growth and to improve water
quality. Formulated feeds have been developed for crablets and juveniles to counteract
the constraints in the availability of fresh feed during the rainy season. At present,
researchers are encouraging aquasilviculture to increase mud crab production as
Indonesia has large areas of mangrove forest. For this, community development and
capacity building are paramount.

INTRODUCTION
Crabs are important fishery resources that are abundantly found along the Indonesian
coastline. Two types of crabs, the mud or mangrove crab (Scylla spp.) and the blue
swimmer crab (Portunus pelagicus) hold significant economic importance. They are
primarily sourced from wild catches and cultivation.
36 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Species of mud crab

In Indonesia, mud crabs of the Scylla genus are abundantly found from Sumatra Island
to Papua. This is not surprising because as an archipelagic country with an extensive
coastline, most coastal zones of Indonesia are covered by mangroves, making it an ideal
habitat for mangrove crabs to thrive and reproduce.
The common names of the four mud crab species in Indonesia follow that of Keenan
et al. (1998), i.e. the giant mud crab S. serrata, the green mud crab S. paramamosain, the
purple mud crab S. tranquebarica, and the orange mud crab S. olivacea (KKP, 2022a).
Figure 1 illustrates that almost all islands have all four species of Scylla with varying
levels of abundance.

FIGURE 1
Distribution and species composition of mud crabs (Scylla spp.) in Indonesia
© Y. Fujaya

Note: Refer to the disclaimer on the copyright page for the names and boundaries used in this map.

Wild stock status

Mud crab market demand continues to increase annually, causing increased exploitation
of mud crabs and consequently impacting the health natural population of wild crab
stocks. The high demand for female crabs, especially those with late-stage ovaries, also
contributes significantly to their overexploitation. According to the KKP (2022b),
almost all national fishery management areas (Wilayah Pengelolaan Perikanan [WPP])
have been fully exploited, with several areas already experiencing overexploitation
(Table 1).
The level of exploitation of aquatic resources is determined by the Ministry (KKP)
in accordance with statutory regulations. The exploitation rate (E) is estimated as the
total number of mud crabs caught compared to the total number of crab mortality,
due to natural factors or fishing activities. An exploitation rate of E < 0.5 indicates that
the fishing effort can still be increased or intensified; a rate from 0.5 < E < 1 indicates
that the fishing effort should be maintained and under strict supervision; while a
rate of E ≥ 1 indicates that fishing has exceeded the maximum exploitation level, and
hence management measures are required to reduce fishing efforts and avoiding the
overexploitation of the resource.

Conservation and management of wild resources

To address the overfishing issue, KKP issued a regulation to limit destructive fishing
which threatens the sustainability of this fishery resource (including mud crabs), which
was implemented in 2015 (KKP, 2015). This regulation was further updated in 2016
(KPP, 2016), 2020 (KKP, 2020), 2021 (KPP, 2021) and 2022 (KPP, 2022b).
Potential and challenges of mud crab (Scylla spp.) cultivation in Indonesia 37

TABLE 1
Estimated potential of crab resources, allowed catches and level of resource exploitation in the
state fisheries management areas of Indonesia (WPP)

National fishery Estimated Allowable annual

Exploitation
Water body management resources crab catch
rate
area (t) (t)

Strait of Malacca and Andaman Sea 571 10 870 5 435 1.5

Indian Ocean 572 6 787 6 108 0.1
Indian Ocean south of Java to the south
of Nusa Tenggara, Savu Sea and Western 573 585 410 0.7
Timor Sea
Karimata Strait, Natuna Sea and North
711 3 388 1 694 1.9
Natuna Sea
Java Sea 712 7 360 5 152 0.9
Makassar Strait, Bone Bay, Flores Sea and
713 6 213 4 349 0.7
Bali Sea
Tolo Bay and Banda Sea 714 1 758 879 1.4
Tomini Bay, Maluku Sea, Halmahera Sea,
715 336 235 0.7
Seram Sea and Berau Bay
Sulawesi Sea and North of Halmahera
716 1 470 1 029 0.8
Island
Cendrawasih Bay and Pacific Ocean 717 545 491 0.2
Aru Sea, Arafuru Sea and East Timor Sea 718 1 498 1 198 0.85

Under the KKP (2022b) provisions governing the capture, trade and/or release of
crabs (Scylla spp.) for consumption purposes are listed below. It is important to note
that these provisions do not apply to educational, research, development, assessment,
implementation or pilot farming activities.
• Crabs must not be in egg-laying condition.
• Crab carapace width should be > 12 cm and the body weight should be > 150 g.
• Fishing activities must be carried out using passive and environmentally friendly
equipment, in accordance with statutory regulations.
• Trading female crabs bearing mature eggs is prohibited, except during the period
from December to the end of February.

Management and regulation of mud crab aquaculture

The management and regulations governing crab cultivation in Indonesia are also
regulated by the KKP (2022b). According to this regulation:
• For cultivation purposes, the minimum weight of wild crab seed must be 30 g/ind.,
except for crablets obtained from hatcheries.
• Berried crabs can be caught for hatchery purposes. However, hatcheries that use
berried females from the wild are obligated to carry out restocking of at least
1 percent of their harvest.
• Berried crabs and crablets of < 30 g/ind. sourced from hatcheries can be traded,
provided they are accompanied by a certificate of origin from the technical
implementing unit in charge of aquaculture or the Fisheries and Maritime Service.

INDUSTRY STATUS

Production status
Mud crabs from Indonesia are exported in various forms, including live, frozen or
canned. Based on data released by the official fisheries statistic website (https://
statistik.kkp.go.id/home.php), the United States of America is the largest importer
of Indonesian crabs, followed by China, Japan and Canada. Despite fluctuations, the
volume of crab exports from 2012–2022 consistently exceeded 20 000 t/year with a
38 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

TABLE 2
Indonesian crab exports and contribution from aquaculture (2015–2020)
Export Aquaculture

Year Contribution to the

Volume Value Volume
export volume
(t) (USD 1000) (t)
(%)
2015 23 746 309 735 12 546 53
2016 29 040 321 846 11 407 39
2017 27 067 409 816 10 589 39
2018 27 792 472 962 13 795 50
2019 25 943 393 498 14 205 55
2020 27 616 367 520 10 749 39
Source: National fishery statistics, Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries, 2023. https://statistik.kkp.go.id/home.php

value exceeding USD 400 million in 2017 and 2018 (Table 2). These crabs were obtained
from the wild as well as farming operations. Aquaculture accounts for about 46 percent
of total annual production.

Farming areas
Mud crabs are primarily cultivated along the coastal regions, especially in areas with
mangrove forests and with muddy or sandy mud substratum. Indonesia has extensive
suitable locations for mud crab cultivation. The total area of brackish-water cultivation
land in Indonesia in 2021 was approximately 666 309 ha, consisting of intensive,
semi-intensive and traditional ponds (Table 3). Currently, most of this area is used for
shrimp and milkfish farming activities. Traditional ponds are very well-suited for crab
cultivation with lower ecological impacts.

TABLE 3
Land area (ha) of brackish-water aquaculture according to farming systems
Cultivation systems 2018 2019 2020 2021

Intensive pond 15 924 16 758 33 571 39 535

Semi-intensive ponds 66 329 98 352 53 099 50 911
Traditional pond 676 162 852 489 592 778 575 863
Source: National fishery statistics, Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries, 2023. https://statistik.kkp.go.id/home.php

In addition to land-based pond cultivation, mud crabs are also farmed using the
silviculture concept – an integrated approach that promotes sustainable mangrove
management while balancing ecological and economic interests. Implementing this
cultivation method presents a unique challenge for Indonesia due to its vast mangrove
forests. According to the 2021 National Mangrove Map, Indonesia’s mangrove
coverage spans approximately 3 364 076 ha (Table 4). This extensive mangrove area
plays a critical role in ensuring the success of silviculture-based crab farming while also
supporting the country’s broader environmental and conservation goals.

Hatcheries
The availability of high-quality crab seeds is a limiting factor in the expansion of
crab aquaculture. Generally, seeds are obtained from the wild, and their availability is
not consistent. Crab seeds are usually abundant during the rainy season but become
scarcer in the dry season. One major concern is the decreasing number of wild seeds
caught year after year, resulting in failure to meet the increasing cultivation needs and,
consequently, unsustainable and overharvesting of crab seeds.
To sustain and grow the mud crab aquaculture industry, it is essential to develop the
capacity for mass-producing high-quality crab seeds in controlled environments like
Potential and challenges of mud crab (Scylla spp.) cultivation in Indonesia 39

TABLE 4
Mangrove forest areas in Indonesia
Mangrove areas
based on tree density level *
Total
Main Indonesian islands (ha)
(ha)
High Moderate Low

Sumatera 621 802 19 158 19 484 660 444

Jawa 32 160 17 130 7 209 56 499
Bali Nusa Tenggara 30 495 2 629 1 850 34 974
Kalimantan 590 088 89 068 8 869 688 025
Sulawesi 98 897 29 174 9 112 137 183
Maluku 219 024 3 798 1 224 224 046
Papua 1 528 773 27 406 6 726 1 562 905
Indonesia Total: 3 364 076
* Mangrove coverage High: > 70%; Moderate: 30–70%; Low: < 30%.
Source: National Mangrove Map, 2021. Directorate of Soil and Water Conservation, Directorate General of Watershed
Management and Forest Rehabilitation. Ministry of Environment and Forestry.

hatcheries. This is particularly critical for the soft-shell crab production sector, where
large quantities of crab seeds are required to raise juveniles, which are then induced to
moult and produce soft-shell crabs. Consequently, the current practice of relying on
wild-caught juveniles for soft-shell crab production is highly unsustainable.
Currently, there are only a few crab hatcheries in Indonesia and most of them are
operated by Government agencies. Among them, two crab hatcheries, namely the
Takalar Brackish Water Aquaculture Development Center (Balai Perikanan Budidaya
Air Payau Takalar [BPBAP Takalar]) and the Jepara Brackish Water Aquaculture
Development Center (Balai Besar Perikanan Budidaya Air Payau Jepara [BBPBAP
Jepara]), operate regularly and supply crab seeds to farmers. However, due to limited
infrastructure, seed production remains constrained, preventing them from meeting
the needs of local communities. A commercial crab hatchery has been established in
Belitung, Sumatra, but it has yet to fully engage in serving the broader community. In
addition, several former shrimp hatchery facilities were re-purposed into research-scale
mud crab hatcheries.

AQUACULTURE PRACTICES AND SYSTEMS

Crab culture systems, including hatchery operations, are generally based on the
protocols outlined in Shelley and Lovatelli (2011), with various adjustments and
adaptations. Nursery activities of hatchery-produced crabs are carried out in earthen
ponds, and co-cultured with seaweed and milkfish. The abundant availability of ponds
in Indonesia facilitates this practice, but the high level of cannibalism is still a challenge
in crab farming.

Hard-shell farming
Mud crab farming includes various approaches, such as crablet grow-out, fattening, and
production of berried and soft-shell crabs. Each strategy requires different pond sizes,
depending on the availability of land in the region. In Bone Regency, South Sulawesi,
fishers stock small crabs in large ponds (about 1–2 hectares), while larger crabs are
sold immediately. These smaller crabs are cultured for several months until they reach
marketable size, allowing them to be sold at a higher price. In Losarang, West Java,
fattening is done in smaller, enclosed ponds that are fenced to prevent the crabs from
escaping. Some farmers also practice integrated farming, using feed sources to enhance
the fattening process. For instance, in Kupang, East Nusa Tenggara, farmers cultivate
40 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

snails to feed their crabs. They grow water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica; Kangkong in
Indonesia) in the same area to sustain the snails as a food source.
Aquasilviculture is currently practiced widely across various regions of Indonesia.
This aquaculture approach integrates fish production with the conservation of
mangrove ecosystems (Velsa et al., 2022). In Indonesia, the concept is like silvofishery,
a system that combines crab farming with mangrove reforestation, supported by a
management strategy aimed at minimizing inputs and reducing environmental impacts
(Paruntu et al., 2016). This model not only promotes mangrove conservation but also
enhances the economic benefits for local communities (Hilmi et al., 2021).

Soft-shell crab production

Soft-shell crab production consists in raising hard-shell crabs until they moult or shed
their shell. Soft-shell crabs are harvested about 2–3 hours after moulting when their
shells are still soft (Fujaya et al., 2012). Several methods are used to accelerate moulting,
including autotomy, the “Popeye” technique, or allowing the crabs to moult naturally.
• Autotomy is a technique used to accelerate moulting by removing the crab’s
appendages, including the chelipeds and the first three pairs of walking legs. The
crabs, left with only their swimming legs, are then placed in bamboo cages divided
into small compartments. These cages are floated on the surface of the pond,
where the crabs are kept until they moult.
• The “Popeye” method is like autotomy but differs in that only the first three pairs
of walking legs are removed, while the claws (chelipeds) are left intact. The retained
large chelipeds resemble Popeye’s muscular arms, giving this technique its name.
• The natural method does not involve any appendage removal, and crabs are
reared naturally until their next moult. Crabs subjected to “Popeye” and natural
methods are kept in crab boxes to avoid cannibalism when they moult.

Two primary systems are commonly used in soft-shell crab production in

Indonesia: the horizontal and vertical systems. In the horizontal system, crabs are kept
in individual boxes that float on the surface of pond water. In contrast, the vertical
system – often referred to as “crab apartments” – cultures crabs in vertically stacked
boxes inside an indoor facility, utilizing a recirculating aquaculture system (RAS). Each
system has its own advantages and disadvantages. The horizontal system has a lower
dependency on electricity, as the crab boxes float naturally on pond water. However,
workers must operate in direct sunlight, which can be challenging. The vertical system,
on the other hand, relies heavily on electricity to maintain the RAS and is more
sensitive to changes in water parameters. Additionally, it requires careful maintenance
of the crab box installations to ensure proper functioning.
Soft-shell crab cultivation is highly labour-intensive, requiring workers for tasks
such as stocking, feeding, monitoring, harvesting, and post-harvest processing. As
a developing country, Indonesia can leverage this activity to create employment
opportunities. The general process for soft-shell crab production, as outlined in
Figure 2, involves the following key steps: seed preparation, stocking the seeds into
crab boxes, feeding, monitoring, harvesting, and soft-shell crab processing.

MUD CRAB HEALTH AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT

Health management in mud crab farming is still inadequate, as evidenced by the
recurring mass mortalities in both hatcheries and rearing ponds. The main problem
appears to be associated with cleanliness. In Indonesia, many farmers still believe that
mud crabs thrive on decaying matter since they are scavengers, thus neglecting the
importance of maintaining a healthy environment in crab farming. Various reports
show that poor living conditions will trigger the emergence of diseases.
Potential and challenges of mud crab (Scylla spp.) cultivation in Indonesia 41

FIGURE 2
The general steps for soft-shell crab production
(a) seed preparation; (b) putting the seeds in the crab boxes; (c) feeding; (d) monitoring; (e) harvest; and
(f) soft-shell crab harvest

a b

c d

e f

©Y. Fujaya

Diseases can still occur when water parameters

FIGURE 3
such as salinity, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO) Milky disease observed in soft-shell crab culture
and temperature are at their optimal levels. in North Sumatra
One of the contributing factors is believed to
be the high content of organic matter in the
water and substrate. Apart from that, natural
feed sources such as livestock waste, trash fish
and molluscs also play a role in facilitating the
entry of pathogenic microbes into the holding
tanks or grow-out ponds. This condition was
observed in a soft-shell crab farm in North
Sumatra, where crabs died and the body fluids
turned milky and whitish in colour (Figure 3).
The disease is caused by dinoflagellates of
the genus Hematodinium sp., which infects
the haemolymph and tissues of crabs, causing
©Y. Fujaya

a condition known as “milky disease”. This

condition is characterized by symptoms such
 42 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

as moribund behaviour, opaquely discoloured carapace, a cooked appearance, milky

body fluids, unpalatable flavour, and high mortality (Jithendran et al., 2011).
According to the report by Sarjito et al. (2018), bacterial diseases present a significant
challenge in mud crab culture in Pemalang, Central Java, Indonesia. Infected mud crabs
(S. serrata) exhibit clinical signs such as red and dark spots on the carapace, as well as
wounds on the body surface, including the claws and carapace. Similar clinical signs
can also be observed on the abdomen. Through 16S DNA sequencing analysis, it was
determined that the bacteria associated with these diseases in mud crabs from extensive
brackish-water ponds in Pemalang are closely related to Vibrio harveyi, Vibrio
alginolyticus, Bacillus marisflavi, and Exiguobacterium aestuarii.
In addition to bacterial diseases, ectoparasites pose a significant threat to mud crabs
due to their potential to damage various body organs, including the carapace and gills.
This damage can impair the host’s immune defense, leading to disrupted growth and
increasing susceptibility to secondary infections from other pathogens, such as bacteria
and viruses, ultimately resulting in death.
Three types of ectoparasites commonly found in Indonesian waters infecting mud
crabs are Octolasmis sp., Zoothamnium sp. and Epistylis sp. (Indarto et al., 2021). Most
of these ectoparasites are found on the gills of mud crabs. For instance, Octolasmis
infestations in farmed mud crabs have been reported in Surodadi Village, Central
Java (Herlinawati et al., 2017). Infected mud crabs often display clinical signs, such as
blackened gills with sprout-like structures.

RESEARCH AND INNOVATION

In response to the various challenges encountered in the field, universities and research
centres have conducted extensive research to identify effective farming solutions.
Several research and development initiatives have been launched to create innovative
practices, including a RAS with an individual compartment design developed by the
Takalar Brackish Water Aquaculture Fisheries Center. This system addresses the issue
of cannibalism during the nursery phase, significantly reducing mortality rates and
allowing crabs to grow to approximately 2 cm in size, making them suitable for grow-
out culture.
Several innovations have been developed by Hasanuddin University, including
a herbal extract formula (Figure 4) that enhances growth and moulting, improves
the overall health of crabs, and boosts water quality through the incorporation
of probiotics and phytobiotics (Fujaya et al.,
FIGURE 4 2011; Fujaya et al., 2021; Kanna et al., 2021).
Herbal extract (moulting stimulant) for soft-shell This formulation aims to provide an alternative
crab production to the autotomy method, which raises animal
welfare concerns (Fujaya et al., 2020). To
address feed limitations, researchers have also
developed artificial feed (Figure 5) specifically
designed for mud crabs (Aslamyah et al., 2022).
This research indicates that herbal extracts can
serve as effective feed additives, enhancing feed
utilization, stimulating growth, and promoting
moulting in crab cultivation.
Further innovations include the development
of an automated feeding system for soft-shell
crabs utilizing a microcontroller (Niswar et al.,
2017), as well as the design and implementation
of an IoT-based water quality monitoring system
for crab farming. This system provides farmers
©Y. Fujaya

with real-time alerts to maintain acceptable

Potential and challenges of mud crab (Scylla spp.) cultivation in Indonesia 43

water quality levels in their ponds (Niswar

FIGURE 5
et al., 2018). Additionally, advancements in Formulated crab feed
digital image processing have been made for
the detection of megalopa phase crab larvae
(Nurlaela et al., 2019).

MARKET INFORMATION
In 2023, the KKP reported that crabs from
Indonesia are exported to 184 countries, with
the largest importer being the United States of
America, followed by China and Japan (Table 5).
The price of crabs is influenced by their
condition, quality and size. Several characteristics
indicate high-quality crabs, including intact and
unbroken claws, swimming legs that quickly

©Y. Fujaya
return to their original position when pulled and
released, responsive eyestalks that retract into the
eye sockets when touched, a mouth that does not produce foam, and a vibrant carapace
colour. These factors can all be used to assess crab quality (Desyana et al., 2023).
TABLE 5
Top ten countries importing Indonesian mud crab based on export value percentage
Export value
Importing country (%)
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022

United States of America 39 37 40 44 37

China 14 17 16 16 18
Japan 14 13 12 11 12
Viet Nam 3 3 3 3 5
Malaysia 2 3 3 2 3
Thailand 3 3 4 2 2
Taiwan, Province of China 2 3 3 2 2
Italy 3 2 2 2 2
Singapore 2 2 2 2 2
Australia 1 2 2 2 2
Source: National fishery statistics, Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries, 2023. https://statistik.kkp.go.id/home.php

In Indonesia, several categories determine the selling price of mud crabs. Live crabs
typically command higher prices and are classified into three grades:
CB - Large female crabs with mature gonads, weighing > 200 g.
LB - Large males weighing between 500–1 000 g.
BS - Rejected live mud crabs, which may have missing body parts, be undersized,
or possess thin carapaces. Notably, mature female crabs without eggs, even if
they are large, are also classified as BS grade. At the collector/trader level, CB
crabs generally achieve the highest market prices.

Soft-shell crabs are priced twice that of comparable hard-shell crabs and are also
classified into three grades:
Grade A - All legs are intact, in perfect soft condition.
Grade B - Some legs are missing, but in perfect soft condition.
Grade C - Missing legs, hardened shells or deceased.

Grade A soft-shell crabs command the highest selling prices (Khotimah et al., 2018).
44 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

MAJOR ISSUES AND CHALLENGES FACING THE INDUSTRY

Crab cultivation in Indonesia is not yet widely practised using hatchery-produced
seeds. In Indonesia, most of the crab farms rely on sourcing crab seeds from nature,
indicating that the full potential of mud crab aquaculture is yet to be realized. The
primary challenges in cultivating mud crabs are inadequate seed supply, cannibalism,
disease outbreaks, and feed development. Seed supply can be increased through
hatchery-based seed production. However, various culture parameters still lack
optimization, leading to inconsistent survival of larvae and crablets. Besides this, high
mortality rates are also prevalent in the nursery phase, primarily due to cannibalism.
One of the useful solutions to address this challenge is the provision of shelter. Disease
outbreaks can be controlled and minimized with proper water and feed management.
Developing artificial feed optimal for mud crab growth and maturation is a complex
challenge as reliance on fresh feed such as trash fish is season dependent.

CONCLUSION
Based on this description, it appears that Indonesia has great potential as the biggest
mud crab producer in the world. Indonesia has all four species of mud crab (Scylla
spp.) found in the world, and these crabs are spread throughout Indonesia. The species
distribution appears to be closely related to the environment and region so, when
determining which species to develop, regional differences will need to be considered.
Existing ponds and extensive mangrove areas are Indonesia’s geographical
advantages for crab cultivation. However, no matter how big the natural potential
is, if environmental management is poor, the sustainability of this business can be
threatened. Aquasilviculture is the hope for the future to promote crab cultivation
while simultaneously protecting the environment, especially existing mangrove forests.
Mangroves serve as natural protectors of the coastal area, nursery ground, and a source
of food for cultivated crabs.
Efficient and environmentally friendly cultivation technology is also a future
challenge. Technology for providing healthy and quality seeds; controlling cannibalism,
disease, and water quality to reduce mortality; as well as developing artificial feed
are the tasks that await researchers. Apart from this, innovation to produce quality
cultivated crabs needs to continue because quality crabs have a higher value and can
greatly increase farmers’ income.

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Jurnal Biologi Tropis, 19(1): 101–107.
Rosmiati, La Sara & Yusnaini. 2019. Species diversity and sex ratio of mud crab (Scylla sp.)
based on mangrove density in the river mouth of Wawoone of Konawe. Journal of
Fishery Science and Innovation, 3(2): 60–67.
Sarjito, Desrina, Haditomo, A.H.C. & Prayitno, S.B. 2018. The bacterial diversity
associated with bacterial diseases on mud crab (Scylla serrata Fab.) from Pemalang Coast,
Indonesia. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1025: 012076.
Sasamu, A., Mingkid, W.M. & Monijung, R.D. 2019. Identifikasi karakter morfometrik
dan usaha penggemukan kepiting bakau (Scylla spp.) Di pulau para, kecamatan
tatoareng, kabupaten kepulauan sangihe, provinsi sulawesi utara. (The identification of
morphometric characteristics and fattening of mud crabs [Scylla spp.] in Para Island,
Tatoareng District, Sangihe Islands Regency, North Sulawesi Province). Jurnal Ilmiah
Platax, 7(1): 42–48.
Shelley, C. & Lovatelli, A. 2011. Mud crab aquaculture – A practical manual. FAO
Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper. No. 567. Rome, FAO.
Sunarto, Sulistiono & Setyobudiandi, I. 2015. Relationship of mudcrab (Scylla spp.) with
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Applied Business and Education Research, 3(9): 1777–1790.
 49

Status of mud crab aquaculture in

India

Shanmuganathan Kandan
Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Aquaculture, Marine Products Export Development Authority,
Karaimedu, Sirkazhi, Tamil Nadu, India

ABSTRACT
It is estimated that the potential crab resource in India, particularly from its 7 770 km²
of estuaries and backwaters, amounts to 13 209 t. This figure is part of a total potential
resource of 43 816 t, derived from approximately 8 103 km of coastline with highly
productive coastal waters. The estimated brackish-water area in India totals roughly
1 190 900 ha, out of which 170 000 ha are developed for shrimp farming with the
potential to become suitable for crab farming – as seen in Tuticorin, Tamil Nadu. Live
mud crab export from India was higher in 2020–2021 (4 519 t) compared to 2021–2022
(3 219 t) and 2022–2023 (3 481 t). Andhra Pradesh is the largest producer of mud
crabs in India (17 529 t) in 2022–23. Mud crab farming, fattening and soft-shell crab
production are now emerging as lucrative business ventures in India.
The genetics team of the Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Aquaculture (RGCA) has
deciphered the taxonomic ambiguity of mud crab species commonly available in Indian
coastal waters using multiple molecular genetic markers and concluded that only two
species of mud crabs, Scylla serrata and Scylla olivacea are commonly found in Indian
coastal waters.
The decline in the mud crab populations in the natural habitat throughout Indian
coastal waters is due to overexploitation and indiscriminate fishing of juvenile crabs
by artisanal fishers. Wild seeds are collected throughout the year from Chilka Lake
of Odisha; backwater zones of Sundarbans, Kakdwip and Namkhana of West Bengal;
coastal waters of Kakinada, Visakhapatnam and Rajahmundry of Andhra Pradesh;
Pulicat Lake, Killai backwaters, Muthupet saline swamps, Punnakayal estuarine
complex and Colachel coastal waters of Tamil Nadu; Neendakara, Cochin and
Kozhikode backwaters of Kerala to meet the demand for farming.
Recent disease surveillance showed the occurrence of mud crab reovirus (MCRV) in
farms and in wild broodstocks which is now becoming a major threat. RGCA’s genetic
study showed that Indian mud crabs have low genetic variations among and within
the populations. It may become a threat for future selective breeding programmes and
management of the viable genetic stocks. Establishment of more private hatcheries and
nursery rearing facilities in different parts of India is essential.

INTRODUCTION
Commercial-scale mangrove or mud crab aquaculture is fast developing in the coastal
areas of Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Odisha, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. There is a
huge demand for mud crabs both in local and export markets and this has led to the
overexploitation of natural resources in many areas. Indiscriminate exploitation of mud
crab without paying attention to the size, maturity status (ovigerous on non-ovigerous)
and physiological status (soft- or hard-shelled crabs) exerts much pressure on the
natural population. All the phases of culture have been developed in India. However,
 50 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

due to the major knowledge gaps in seed production such as lack of artificial feeds and
standardized culture technology in all phases of culture, commercial-scale production
has not expanded in the country.

Mud crab species in India

The genetics team of the Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Aquaculture (RGCA) has
deciphered the taxonomic ambiguity of mud crab species commonly available in
Indian coastal waters using multiple molecular genetic markers and concluded that
only two species of mud crabs, S. serrata and S. olivacea, are commonly found in
Indian coastal waters (Mandal et al., 2014a; 2014b). Both species have huge demand
for export market but only S. serrata is widely cultured in India because of its quality
and higher price.
Identification of mud crabs, Scylla spp. is always confusing because of their
wide variations in colour, size, spination, habitat, etc. Most of the researchers
from India reported only S. serrata (Forskål) or Scylla tranquebarica from Indian
coastal waters and many of the reports are contradictory. Mandal et al. (2014a;
2014b) collected adequate crab samples
from a wide geographical range of
FIGURE 1
Scylla serrata collected from Indian coastal waters natural habitat and developed multiple
molecular genetic markers including
ITS, RAPD, PCR-RFLP and mtDNA
gene sequencing to confirm that only
S. serrata and S. olivacea are commonly
found in Indian coastal waters. This
was validated by the taxonomic
identification of Keenan et al. (1998).
The results of gene sequencing and
other molecular markers clearly
indicated that the “green” morph of
Indian mud crab is S. serrata, while the
“brown” one is S. olivacea (Figure 1
Figure 1. Scylla serrata collected from Indian coastal waters
and 2). The species S. tranquebarica, as
described by several Indian researchers,
Photo: ©RGCA is most likely S. serrata, as identified by
© RGCA

Keenan et al. (1998).

Figure 1. Scylla serrata collected from Indian coastal waters
FIGURE 2 Distribution
Photo:from
Scylla olivacea collected ©RGCA Indian coastal waters
With a coastline of approximately
8 103 km, India offers vast near-shore
water resources in addition to the
1.2 million ha of brackish water area
in the adjoining coastal zone. Mud
crabs are available from the entire
stretch of east (Tamil Nadu to West
Bengal), west (Kerala to Gujarat) and
Andaman coastal waters (Figure 3).
The distribution of Scylla spp. is
characterized by significant ontogenic
changes and predominantly related
to hydrological circulation along the
areas of coastal shelf. The juveniles
up to 8 cm carapace width (CW) are
© RGCA

Figure 2. Scylla olivacea collected from Indian coastal waters most abundant on intertidal flats, while
Photo: ©RGCA
Figure 2. Scylla olivacea collected from Indian coastal waters

Photo: ©RGCA
Status of mud crab aquaculture in India 51

FIGURE 3
Availability of mud crab species in different coastal sites (solid black circle) and commonly
available species (Scylla olivacea and Scylla serrata)

© RGCA
Note: Refer to the disclaimer on the copyright page for the names and boundaries used in this map.

the habitat of subadult and adult crabs is more subtidal. Occurrence of S. olivacea
is evident throughout the year from mangrove-dominated coastal waters of India
including Andaman waters, but the scarcity of S. serrata (green crab) in many localities
is noticeable. In southeast India, the greatest catch of juvenile S. olivacea occurs in
the post-monsoon period, in muddy substrates in shallower water with areas of rich
seagrass and algal community, and almost nil during the monsoon when the salinity
is very low. In the Chilika Lagoon (Odisha), the juveniles of S. olivacea can be found
throughout the year, while the peak abundance of S. serrata, is restricted during
the monsoon period (June–September). S. olivacea is abundant in the mangroves of
Sundarban area of West Bengal and various parts of Gujarat throughout the year, but
the scarcity or even the absence of S. serrata was noticeable in both states.

Habitat
India has 4 663 km2 of mangrove forest, which is known to be the best natural
habitat for mud crabs (Table 1). They are mostly found in estuarine and sheltered
coastal habitats. In general, large populations are usually associated with established
mangroves (Avicennia spp., Rhizophora spp. or Bruguiera spp.), especially in estuaries
where they feed predominantly on molluscs and other less mobile invertebrates. The
bottom substrate in estuaries in the Indian coast varies from sandy to muddy with wide
fluctuating hydrobiological parameters. The large mangrove forest coverage of many
coastal states has huge potential for development of mud crab aquaculture.

Wild mud crab resources and conservation status

Due to lack of national policies and regulations for mud crab aquaculture and
conservation, wild crabs are being overexploited and there has been a notable decline in
their population in the natural habitat throughout Indian coastal waters. The genetics
 52 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

TABLE 1
Coastal length and mangrove resources in India and potential brackish water area suitable for
mud crab culture
Potential brackish-
Coastal length Mangrove cover Area under shrimp
State/Union Territory water area
(km) (km2) culture (ha)
(ha)
Andhra Pradesh 1 037 352 150 000 76 687
Goa 113 22 18 500 650
Gujarat 1 915 1 058 376 000 2 271
Karnataka 258.15 3 8 000 3 500
Kerala 560 6 65 000 14 106
Maharashtra 510 186 80 000 1 281
Orissa 457 222 31 600 12 877
Tamil Nadu 865 39 56 000 5 286
West Bengal 374 2 155 405 000 50 405
Puducherry 31 1 800 130
Andaman and Nicobar
1 962 617 – –
Islands
Daman and Diu 21 1.6 – –
Total 8 103.15 4 662.6 1 190 900 167 193

Source: Forest Survey of India. 2011. India State of Forest Report 2011. Dehadrun, India, Forest Survey of India, Ministry
of Environment and Forests.

team of RGCA (unpublished data)

FIGURE 4
found low genetic variations among
Members of Women Self-Help Group in Maharashtra
conducting Scylla serrata nursery and grow-out along with mud crab populations in Indian coastal
mangrove conservation waters, particularly for S. serrata,
which is a cause of great concern for
their conservation and management.
Marine Products Export
Development Authority (MPEDA)-
RGCA is continuously working with
different agencies in India, particularly
with the Mangrove Foundation,
Government of Maharashtra for
restoring mangroves and promoting
© RGCA

sustainable mud crab grow-out through

a Women Self-Help Group (Figure 4).
FIGURE 5 The RGCA team, along with mud
Crab expert providing technical input to members of crab experts, provided the required
Women Self-Help Group in Maharashtra scientific input to the members of
Women Self-Help Group encouraging
them to engage in crab farming in tide-
fed areas of Maharashtra (Figure 5).

Crab export from India

India is one of the largest exporters
of live mud crab in the world and
exports most of its crabs to China,
Singapore and the United States of
America. Likewise, frozen form of sea
crabs such as Portunus pelagicus and
© RGCA

Portunus sanguinolentus, along with

Status of mud crab aquaculture in India 53

other crab meats, soft-shell crabs, crab cutlet, crab curry, etc. make up a major share
in the export market (Table 2). The top three global exporters of crabs are India with
121 656 shipments, followed by Viet Nam with 41 617 and Indonesia in the third spot
with 36 168 shipments in 2023 (data up to October).

TABLE 2
Export of crab and crab products from India (2013–2023)
Year 2013–14 2014–15 2015–16 2016–17 2017–18 2018–19 2019–20 2020–21 2021–22 2022–23
Quantity (t) 7 338 7 460 6 937 8 423 7 235 9 119 15 852 5 509 6 938 7 438
Value (INR
377.18 439.08 403.38 507.09 448.49 629.79 738.14 398.34 880.11 693.44
10 million)
USD million 62.76 72.42 62.45 76.66 70.90 90.76 105.69 54.33 119.53 87.86
Source: MPEDA. 2023. Annual report of Marine Product Export Development Authority, 2023–2024. Ministry of
Commerce and Industry, Government of India.

INDUSTRY STATUS

Production status
The only commercial mud crab hatchery in India operated by MPEDA-RGCA was
awarded patent for its hatchery technology and production of disease-free seeds
under strict biosecurity condition. Since its inception in 2005, the hatchery facility
capable of producing 1 million seeds annually located at Thoduvai, Tamil Nadu has
produced 9.62 million crab instars/crablets that were supplied to 991 farmers and other
stakeholders. During the last 10 years, more than 9.17 million mud crab instars/crablets
were supplied to 970 beneficiaries (Table 3). There is a huge deficiency in the supply of
crab seeds required by the industry.

TABLE 3
Quantity of crab instars/crablets supplied by MPEDA-RGCA and the corresponding number of
beneficiaries

Year Crab instars/crablets Beneficiaries

2013–14 730 981 96

2014–15 735 605 77
2015–16 1 060 375 104
2016–17 807 162 105
2017–18 982 043 121
2018–19 1 237 575 144
2019–20 1 017 497 133
2020–21 435 389 47
2021–22 882 290 82
2022–23 1 285 910 61
Total 9 174 827 970
Source: MPEDA. 2023. Annual report of MPEDA, 2022–2023. Kerala, India, Marine Product Export Development
Authority (MPEDA).

Farming areas
The main and largest crab farming sites are in the Sundarbans coastal areas of West
Bengal, Chilka Lake of Odisha, Godavary estuary of Andhra Pradesh, Pulicat Lake,
Killai backwater and Punnakayal backwater of Tamil Nadu, Veerampatnam backwater
and Karaikal estuary of Puducherry, Vembanad Lake of Kerala and mangrove forests
of Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra and Gujarat. The large mangrove resources of south,
middle and north Andaman Islands have huge resources of mud crab. The total
 54 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

potential resource of Indian coastal

FIGURE 6
Figure 5. Mud
Crab expert
crabproviding
farming technical input to members
demonstration of Women-Self-Help
by MPEDA-RGCA ingroup waters was more than 43 816 t, out of
Westin Maharashtra
Photo: ©RGCA Bengal which estuaries and backwaters had a
potential resource of 13 209 t.
Organized mud crab farming in
land-based earthen ponds, pens and
cages using hatchery-produced crab
seeds is lacking in India. Considering
the potential and high export value,
MPEDA-RGCA established a pilot
scale mud crab hatchery at Thoduvai,
Nagapattinam District, Tamil Nadu at
the end of 2004 for seed production,
and developed the nursery and grow-
out technology at the Aquaculture
Demonstration Farm in Karaikal,
Union Territory of Puducherry. In
2013, the newly renovated hatchery was
© RGCA

inaugurated and recently the hatchery

received a patent for 20 years. RGCA
Figure 6. Mud crab farming demonstration by MPEDA-RGCA in West Bengal
is providing Photo: hands-on
©RGCA training on mud crab aquaculture for the benefit of farmers
across the country. As a result of RGCA-MPEDA’s demonstration effort, many
farmers have been involved in mud crab farming (Figure 6). In Bhimavaram District
of Andhra Pradesh (~1 050 ha for crab culture currently in operation), farmers are
purchasing 70–130 g size crabs from local agents for stocking (most of the agents are
obtaining crabs from Chennai and some are collecting crabs from Repalli area, Guntur
District, Andhra Pradesh). In West Bengal, production is mainly from MPEDA crab
demonstration farms, from fattening of wild collected juveniles, or from watery/soft-
shell crabs. The fattening areas are located at Jharkhali, Sonakhali, Basanti, Gosaba
of South 24 Parganas district, and Dhamakhali, Rampur, Bermajur, Hingalganj and
Hasnabad of North 24 Parganas district, West Bengal. Apart from fattening, wild catch
of adult S. olivacea is the major contributor to crab production from West Bengal.

AQUACULTURE PRACTICES
Figure 7. Transport of crablets using wet mangrove leaves to maintain moist conditions
Larval rearing
Photo: ©RGCA Healthy hard-shelled and mature female crabs (500–800 g) are sourced from Tuticorin,
Kodiyakarai (Vedaranyam), Palayar, Killai (Pitchavaram) and Pamban, Tamil Nadu, as
broodstock source for the hatchery. Crabs are subjected to conditioning, formalin bath
and screening before holding them in the broodstock tank. Regular sampling is done
for the presence of ovigerous females, which are transferred to separate spawning tanks
(1 crab/tank). Newly hatched S. serrata zoeae are stocked at 70–80 ind./L. Rotifers (10–
20 ind./ml) and Artemia 0.5–1.0 ind./ml) are the major food for the crab larvae. About
30–50 percent of the water is replaced every 3 days or depending on the water quality.
Some zoea 5 are usually transferred to other tanks and the rest of the larvae are reared
until crab instar in the same tank where they were originally stocked. The survival rate
from zoea 1 to crab instar 1–2 (25–35 days) is 7–10 percent (Thampi Samraj et al., 2013).

Nursery rearing
Megalopae or crab instars are reared up to juvenile stage in brackish-water ponds or net
cages in creeks with salinity range of 15–35 ppt for 30–40 days. PVC pipes, shade nets
(used for plants), seaweeds (Gracilaria sp.), etc., are used as shelters in nursery rearing
to minimize cannibalism. Apart from natural food available in the culture system, the
 Status of mud crab aquaculture in India 55

megalopae are fed with either Artemia

FIGURE 7
biomass or with chopped minced fish. Transport of crablets using wet mangrove leaves to
After nursery rearing, the crablets maintain moist condition
(> 2.5 cm CW) are used for grow-
out farming. Bamboo baskets, plastic
dust bins and plastic fruit baskets are
commonly used as packing containers.
Wet grass, shade nets, mangrove leaves,
sand, etc., are used to maintain the
moist condition during transport of
crablets (Figure 7).

Grow-out culture in earthen ponds

Mud crab farming started in India with
low stocking density of wild juveniles

© RGCA
in polyculture with fish or shrimp
during the early 1980s when cages,
pens and small ponds with nets were used to hold crabs for 4–8 weeks. At present, mud
crab culture is fast developing in the coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal,
Tamil Nadu, Odisha and Kerala. S. serrata is widely preferred for aquaculture as it
grows to 2.0 kg (shooters) and causes little damage to pond dikes or fences compared
to S. olivacea. Recently, farmers are stocking crab instars with tiger shrimp, Penaeus
monodon, in polyculture in some of the brackishwater farms particularly in coastal
Andhra Pradesh.
Brackish water ponds in mangrove areas, as well as existing or abandoned shrimp
ponds are utilized for grow-out culture of crablets. Net enclosures are installed along
the inner side of the pond dike to prevent the escape of crabs and entry of unwanted
species (Figure 8). Nursery-reared crablets are used for grow-out culture whenever
available. Crablets attain the marketable size of ≥ 500 g within 6–7 months of culture.

FIGURE 8
Net enclosures along the inner side of the pond dike to prevent crab escape and entry
of predators
© RGCA

8. Net enclosures along the inner side of the pond dike to prevent crab escape and entry of predators
 56 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Another way of grow-out culture is growing the juvenile crabs initially in small
brackish water earthen ponds for a period of two months to attain an average size of
50–75 g. These juveniles are then further cultured in grow-out ponds to marketable
size within 4–5 months.

Pen culture
In many areas in India, pen culture of juvenile crabs is gaining momentum (Figure 9).
Figure 8. Net enclosures along the inner side of the pond dike to prevent crab escape and entry of
The pens (about 20 × 10 × 1.2 m) are usually made of high-density polyethylene
predators
(HDPE) net with mesh size of about 10 mm and has a culture period of 4–5 months.
Photo: ©RGCA The pen culture method allows for easy growth monitoring and selective harvesting,
while also enabling the stocking of crabs of various sizes in separate pen compartments.
This approach can help increase overall yield.

FIGURE 9
Pen culture of mud crabs

© RGCA

Fattening of mud crabs

In Andhra Pradesh, Figure 9. Pen culture
the farmers of mudregion
in the coastal crabshave been practicing crab
fattening since 2006. Crab fattening is concentrated in the Krishna, Guntur, West and
East Godavari districts of thePhoto: ©RGCA
state. Fishers collect juvenile and adult crabs from mud
flats and estuarine areas. Hard-shell crabs weighing more than 350 g are sold to the
exporters, while smaller crabs along with soft-shell crabs are sold to those engaged
in crab fattening (Figure 10). As the natural stock is becoming depleted due to the
overexploitation, most of the fattening facilities and farms are not getting sufficient
crabs. The culture, including the fattening period, lasts about 90 days. Farmers prepare
their crops for harvest between November and January to take advantage of the high
market demand during the festival season in other countries, which drives up market
prices. Crabs weighing 500–750 g are sold for INR 700–750/kg while those above
750 g at INR 850–900/kg. The harvested crabs are primarily purchased by traders in
Kakinada, Andhra Pradesh, and Chennai, Tamil Nadu, who mainly export live crabs
to Singapore.

Soft-shell crab production

Existing tide-fed shrimp or fish ponds are used for soft-shell crab farming in India
(mainly on an experimental basis). Ponds ranging from 0.4 to 0.6 hectares with water
Status of mud crab aquaculture in India 57

FIGURE 10
Mud crab fattening farm supported by MPEDA-RGCA

© RGCA
Figure 10. Mud crab fattening farm supported by MPEDA-RGCA
salinity levels between 15 and 30 ppt
FIGURE 11
areFigure 10.crab
ideal for Mudculture.
crab fattening farm supported
Perforated Photo: ©RGCA
by MPEDA-RGCA
Newly moulted Scylla serrata in the plastic box
plastic boxes are used for soft-shell crab
Photo:by©RGCA
production. The boxes are inspected
retrieving from the pond the frame that
holds multiple boxes. Newly moulted
crabs are monitored daily at 3–4 hours
interval while the operator is seated on
a wooden catwalk or platform. Once
newly moulted crabs are detected,
the boxes are immediately removed,
and the crabs collected for further
processing (Figure 11). The soft-shell
crabs are processed either chilled or
frozen and exported to Japan, the
United States of America, Republic of
Korea, Malaysia, China, Hong Kong
© RGCA

SAR and the European Union. Soft-

shell crabs are sourced partly from
local landing centres and from Chennai. The price of soft-shell crab (100–300 g) ranges
from INR 320–480/kg (approx. USD 6/kg). Figure 11. Newly molted Scylla serrata in the plastic box
MPEDA-RGCA is promoting soft-shell crab culture which could fetch good
returns in just a short time. The results of soft-shell farmPhoto: ©RGCA
operated by an MPEDA-
RGCA trainee at Tajpur, West Bengal (Figure 12) and few others in Odisha and West
Bengal are quite encouraging.
Figure 11. Newly molted Scylla serrata in the plastic box
HEALTH AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT
Photo: ©RGCA
The Central Aquaculture Pathology Laboratory (CAPL) of MPEDA-RGCA,
accredited by the National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration Laboratories
(NABL), routinely monitors the health of crabs in the RGCA hatchery and provides
 58 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 12
Soft-shell crab farm operated by MPEDA-RGCA in West Bengal, India

© RGCA
Figure 12. Soft-shell crab
guidance on farm operated
maintaining by MPEDA-RGCA
strict biosecurity in West Bengal,
measures. Disease-free India and
crab instars
crablets are supplied to farmers to support sustainable production. However, during
Photo: recent disease surveillance, the RGCA team detected mud crab reovirus (MCRV) in
©RGCA
both farm-reared crabs and wild broodstocks (Sathiyaraj et al., 2023). Moribund Scylla
serrata samples were collected from various farms, wild breeders, and the hatchery
quarantine sections in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Odisha. Infected crabs from
culture ponds, tanks, and the wild exhibited lethargic movement. Wet mount analyses
revealed a high presence of viral giant cells in the hepatopancreas and connective
tissues. Histopathological analysis showed MCRV inclusion bodies in the connective
tissues of the hepatopancreas, gill lamellae, muscles and gonads. Similarly, viral
particles proliferated within the cytoplasm of the cells without affecting the host nuclei.
The presence of the virus in crab samples was confirmed by PCR using specific primers
(ReoF and ReoR), and rDNA sequence analysis revealed a 99 percent similarity with
mud crab reovirus and S. serrata reovirus (OL466868 and OL466869). Transmission
electron microscopy showed that MCRV viral particles measured 70–75 nm in
diameter, had an icosahedral shape, were non-enveloped, and possessed two capsid
layers located in the cytoplasm. The prevalence of MCRV infection ranged from 80
to 100 percent in farmed crabs within 25 days and 19 to 33 percent in wild samples.
In pathogenicity studies, an intramuscular injection bioassay resulted in 100 percent
mortality, while a cohabitation assay led to 70 percent mortality 14 days post-infection,
indicating that MCRV is highly pathogenic in mud crab culture. To ensure disease-free
production, strict biosecurity measures are recommended during the collection and
culture of mud crabs.

Figure
RESEARCH AND13. Common marketing channel of mud crabs in India
INNOVATION
Mud crab hatchery technology is now available in India, with the RGCA initially
launching a pilot-scale project in late 2004. The technology, originally adopted
from the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Aquaculture Department
(SEAFDEC/AQD), was later modified to suit Indian conditions, leading to steady
progress in the production and supply of mud crab seeds. Through continuous
Status of mud crab aquaculture in India 59

refinement, the hatchery technology has achieved higher survival rates at every critical
stage. Equipped with state-of-the-art infrastructure, RGCA’s mud crab hatchery now
has the capacity to produce over 1 million seeds annually, meeting the growing demand
from farmers.

MARKET INFORMATION
Chennai, Mumbai and Kolkata are major hubs for live mud crab collectors, who export
primarily to Southeast Asian countries and the United States of America. Andhra
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, and West Bengal are the leading producers of S. serrata
and S. olivacea. A notable increase in total crab production was observed in 2020–21
(Table 4), with natural collection from the coastal waters of West Bengal being the
highest. Apart from the period between 2020 and 2022, Andhra Pradesh consistently
produced the largest volume of crabs, with Bhimavaram District being the major
contributor.
Processing of live mud crabs and crab products follows a similar pattern throughout
India. The live crabs are collected and carefully packed in gunny bags or bamboo
baskets after tying the legs. In the case of cut crabs, the sections are prepared after
cleaning and removal of the carapace, gut, gills and gonads. The sections are frozen
and stored in shallow layers of shaved ice. The crab meat extraction is normally carried
out using whole raw or cooked crabs. Meat extraction from uncooked crabs requires
more care since contamination from hepatopancreas, gills and gonads must be avoided.
Southeast Asian countries are the major importers of Indian live crabs, while hard-
shell crabs and crab products are primarily sold to China and the United States of
America. These products are mainly exported from the ports of Tuticorin, Chennai,
Kolkata, Visakhapatnam and Mumbai. Live crabs command a higher market price
compared to other crab products. Due to high export demand, local agents charge
exporters over INR 900/kg (approximately 2–3 crabs per 2 kg) for larger crabs that can
be sold at a premium. India exports live mud crabs primarily to Singapore, Malaysia,
China and Taiwan. Recently, soft-shell crabs or watery crabs (newly moulted crabs)
weighing 90–100 g have been exported to Japan, the United States of America and
Southeast Asian countries. Table 2 shows mud crab export data from India over the
TABLE 4
Mud crab production (t) by State in India (2018–2023)
Production (t/yr)
State
2018–19 2019–20 2020–21 2021–22 2022–23

West Bengal 158 325 1 830 1 485 657

Odisha 356 462 576 488 344
Andhra Pradesh 665 977 1 709 797 2 061
Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry 15 19 22 51 124
Kerala 10 21 8 7 3
Karnataka and Goa 22 10 8 0.4 0
Maharashtra 445 187 366 390 292
Gujarat 0 0 0 0.6 0
Telangana 0 0 0 0 0
Total 1 671 2 001 4 519 3 219 3 481

Source: MPEDA. 2023. Annual report of MPEDA, 2022–2023. Kerala, India, Marine Product Export Development
Authority (MPEDA).

past 10 years.

Marketing channel of live mud crab

The mud crab trade involves a series of intermediaries, ranging from crab collectors to
60 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 13
Common marketing channel of mud crabs in India

Crab catchers

Middleman/
Local suppliers Local markets
collector

Large suppliers Rejected

crabs

Soft-shell
crabs Exporters
Fattening ponds

Export to foreign
countries

© RGCA
exporters and local consumers. While the process does not follow a strict pattern, it
typically includes crab catchers, local collectors, large suppliers, agents and exporters
(Figure 13). Chennai serves as the major export centre in India, with crabs from the
Andaman Islands highly sought after in the Chennai market.
Crab collectors from the mangrove forests of north, middle, and south Andaman
transport the crabs by bus to Port Blair daily. Once there, traders classify the crabs
and send them to major exporters in Chennai or Kolkata by plane after enough have
been gathered. S. serrata crabs are typically sent to Chennai, while S. olivacea crabs are
dispatched to Kolkata. Exporters from Chennai and other parts of India primarily ship
crabs to foreign markets. Crabs weighing less than 100 g as well as those rejected for
other reasons, are used for domestic consumption or sent to fattening ponds.

MAJOR ISSUES AND CHALLENGES FACING THE INDUSTRY

Indiscriminate harvesting of juvenile crabs is prevalent in many commercial fishing
grounds across India, including the coastal waters of the Andaman Islands. The
shortage of wild seeds and the limited availability of hatchery-produced seeds are
significant barriers to the expansion of crab farming in the country. Additionally, the
inconsistent supply of trash fish and the unavailability of artificial feeds for mud crabs
pose major challenges to the industry. Currently, MPEDA-RGCA operates the only
commercial mud crab hatchery in India, highlighting the urgent need for additional
hatcheries to meet the growing demand for crab seed stock in the farming sector.
Recent outbreaks of mud crab reovirus (MCRV) in both farms and wild populations
present a significant challenge for mud crab aquaculture in India. Furthermore,
RGCA’s genetic studies have revealed that mud crabs exhibit notably low genetic
variation both among and within populations (unpublished data), which could threaten
future selective breeding programs and the management of viable genetic stocks. To
address these issues, establishing more private hatcheries and nursery rearing facilities
across different regions of India is essential. Additionally, MPEDA-RGCA should
consider establishing a brood bank to produce quality broodstock, which can then be
Status of mud crab aquaculture in India 61

FIGURE 14
Larval rearing tank at the MPEDA-RGCA mud crab hatchery (a) and the technology patent
awarded by the Government of India (b)

a b

© RGCA
supplied to hatcheries for disease-free seed production.

RECOGNITION OF MUD CRAB HATCHERY TECHNOLOGY

The mud crab hatchery technology developed by RGCA has been granted a patent by
the Controller General of Patents, Designs, and Trademarks, Government of India,
valid from 2011 to 2030 (Figure 14). In response to the significant demand for mud
crabs, particularly in Southeast Asian countries, MPEDA launched a pilot project for
mud crab seed production in 2004. This initiative led to the establishment of India’s
first commercial hatchery in 2013, with an initial capacity of 1 million seeds per annum.
The hatchery technology for S. serrata was developed with technical assistance from Dr
Emilia Quinitio from the Philippines. Currently, the hatchery produces approximately
1.5 million seeds annually, significantly enhancing mud crab aquaculture in India.

CONCLUSION
To achieve sustainable mud crab production that supports the livelihoods of coastal
communities, it is crucial to ensure an uninterrupted supply of high-quality seeds and
implement organized farming practices. A cluster farming approach could be an effective
strategy to meet export demand. However, emerging diseases pose a significant threat
to the future of mud crab farming, making it essential to maintain strict biosecurity
measures throughout all stages of the culture process to control the spread of pathogens.
Given that wild populations are already under threat due to overexploitation, it
is necessary to establish more hatchery and nursery facilities to meet the growing
demand for seed stock, thereby alleviating pressure on natural habitats. Additionally,
the creation of a national broodstock bank is essential for the sustainable management
of mud crab resources.

REFERENCES
Keenan, C.P., Davie, P.J.F. & Mann, D.L. 1998. A revision of the genus Scylla de Hann,
1833 (Crustacea: Decapoda: Brachyura: Portunidae). Raffles Bulletin of Zoology,
46(1): 217–245.
Mandal, A., Mathews, V.M., Sobha, P.S., Anjali, K.M., Gopalakrishnan, A., Ganesh, K.,
Arulraj, S., Pandiarajan, S. & Thampi Samraj, Y.C. 2014a. Molecular markers reveal
62 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

only two mud crab species of genus Scylla (Brachyura: Portunidae) in Indian coastal
waters. Biochemical Genetics, 52: 338–354.
Mandal, A., Mathews, V.M., Anjali, K.M., Sobha, P.S. & Thampi Samraj, Y.C. 2014b.
Identification of Indian mangrove mud crab Genus Scylla spp. (Brachyura: Portunidae)
using RAPD and PCR-RFLP markers. Journal of Shellfish Research, 33(2): 503–510.
Sathiyaraj, G., Babu, B., Mithun, R., Saravanan, M., Velmurugan, K., Ruban, L.,
Mandal, A., Kandan, S. & Prabhu, N.M. 2023. Reovirus occurrence in mud crab
farming systems and wild-caught brooders located in eastern coastal area of India.
Aquaculture International, 31(2): 739–758.
Thampi Samraj, Y.C., Mandal, A., Ganesh, K., Arulraj, S., Pandiarajan, S. & Jaideep, K.
2013. Status of mud crab industry in India. In: E.T. Quinitio, F.D. Parado-Estepa, Y.C.
Thampi Samraj & A. Mandal. eds. Proceedings of the International Seminar-Workshop
on Mud Crab Aquaculture and Fisheries Management. Kerala, India, RGCA-MPEDA,
New Delhi, Government of India.
 63

Status of mud crab industry in

Bangladesh

Md. Mojibar Rahman

United Nations Development Programme, Begum Rokeya Sarani, Dhaka 1207, Bangladesh

ABSTRACT
Capture fisheries, aquaculture and trading of mud crab in Bangladesh is widely
practised and has a long history of commercial exploitation of wild stocks. The
two common species of mud crabs in Bangladesh are Scylla olivacea and Scylla serrata,
of which S. olivacea is the dominant species. The status of the wild population is
unknown, but with long and continuous exploitation of the wild resources, the crab
population has shown a significant decline in abundance and size. Therefore, several
regulations and policies have been introduced and a few more proposed to warrant the
sustainability of the industry. The effective implementation and enforcement of these
regulations and policies are essential.
Production of mud crabs has increased over the last 10 years. Hard-shell mud crabs
from aquaculture contribute 32–40 percent of the total national production. In 2022,
the production of hard-shell mud crabs stood at 13 397 tonnes (9 110 t from capture
fisheries and 4 287 t from aquaculture) while soft-shell crab production was around
404 tonnes. Broodstock management as well as larval and nursery standard rearing
practices and efficient technologies are still limited. At present four medium- to large-
scale crab hatcheries have been established in the country. The protocol for mud crab
production is continually being refined to enable commercial scale crablet production.
Crab fattening is widely practiced in shrimp ghers and grow-out ponds. Recent
advancements in technology and increased investments in soft-shell crab farming have
expanded aquaculture activities. However, sudden crab mortality during culture is
a common issue in grow-out ponds and fattening systems. Other challenges include
delayed moulting, shell hardening issues, and disease outbreaks. Farmers occasionally
face mass crab mortality in ponds, which may be linked to White Spot Syndrome Virus
(WSSV), a common pathogen in shrimp farming.
At both the local and national levels, there are significant gaps and challenges that
hinder the strategic management and development of the mud crab industry. Key
approaches have been identified to address these issues and support the sustainable
growth of mud crab aquaculture in the country.

INTRODUCTION
Mud crab aquaculture has been practised for many years in the brackish water
coastal regions of Bangladesh (Chakraborty, Azad and Sarker, 2018). Mud crab is
an economically important aquaculture species in many Asian countries (Yalin and
Qingsheng, 1994; Overton and Macintosh, 1997; Fazhan et al., 2017; Apine et al.,
2023). The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)
reported nearly 424 000 tonnes of crab production through aquaculture in 2021 of
which Bangladesh contributed 2.9 percent (Table 1) (OECD, 2024). The first crab
export was in 1977, sourced mainly from the wild (Ali et al., 2004). Capture fisheries
and trade have gradually developed and gained viability in Southwestern coastal
Bangladesh since the 1990s (Azam, Kamal and Mostofa, 1998) due to the abundance of
64 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

TABLE 1
Crab aquaculture production in selected OECD and non-OECD countries (2012–2021)
Crabs and sea-spiders
(t)
Country
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021

Greece 38 22 – 50 29 11 62 95 70* 144

OECD
Japan 0 0 – – – – – – – –
Members
Spain 1 1 1 3 0 0 – 2 2* –

Bangladesh – – – – 13 160 14 421 11 787 12 084 12 562 12 337

China 233 648* 247 843* 259 564* 26 2044* 282 653 286 031 293 797 293 643 287 500 282 655

India 3 000* 4 000* 5 000* 6 000* 6 500* 7 000* 7 500* 7 600* 7 900 8 400*

Indonesia 14 268 11 911 13 606 12 546 11 407 11 657 33 807 14 217 10 784 12 839
Non-
OECD Malaysia 42 14 36 61 14 96 15 234 210 206
Economics
Philippines 16 360 15 794 16 160 16 199 16 860 18 100 20 770 20 772 20 766 23 112
Taiwan Province
231 142 125 113 535 163 134 132 96 46
of China
Thailand 700* 700* 800* 800* 1 000* 1 100* 1 773 1 561 2 558 3 482

Viet Nam 13 000* 13 000* 49 140* 54 588 64 633 65 463 36 000 198 729 80 162 81 144
* Estimated values.
Source: OECD. 2024. Agriculture and Fisheries. Fisheries and Aquaculture. Fisheries and Aquaculture statistics. Aquaculture production;
Species - Crabs, Sea Spiders. [Accessed on 08 Apr 2024]. https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=FISH_AQUA#. License: CC BY 4.0.

crabs in Sundarbans mangrove forests and adjoining coastal areas (Chandra, Paul and
Das, 2012; Rouf et al., 2021).

Mud crab species

Sarower et al. (2017) reported that S. olivacea is the dominant mud crab species in
Bangladesh. Similarly, studies by Habib et al. (2016, 2022) and Akter (2016) confirmed
that S. olivacea is the most common species along the coastlines of Bangladesh,
including the Sundarbans. In coastal regions, approximately 82 percent of the sampled
crab population consists of S. olivacea, while the remaining 18 percent consist of
S. serrata.

Wild stock status

It is difficult to assess the status of existing natural crab stocks in Bangladesh due
to the absence of population data on wild crabs. However, it is widely speculated
that wild crab stocks, particularly in the Sundarbans mangrove forest, are at risk and
possibly overexploited (Azam, Kamal and Mostofa, 1998; Kosuge, 2001). Rahman
et al. (2017) reported that crab collectors have observed a decline in catch per unit
effort. For instance, 4–5 kg of crabs could be collected daily five years ago, but now
only 2–5 kg are sourced. Additionally, the average size of crabs has decreased from
250–350 g to 100–150 g. Collectors are also forced to venture deeper into the dense
forests to meet their daily collection targets (Rahman et al., 2017). A market study in
coastal Bangladesh further confirmed a declining trend in the availability of different
crab grades.
A decline in the wild female crab population in natural habitats has been observed
(Chakraborty, Azad and Sarker, 2018). Additionally, the availability of larger size-
grade crabs has significantly decreased compared to 10–20 years ago (Sakib et al., 2022).
This depletion in both the abundance and size of wild crab populations is attributed
to indiscriminate harvesting, overexploitation, habitat loss, environmental degradation,
and the impacts of climate change (Kosuge, 2001; Hoq, 2007; Rahman et al., 2017;
Istiak, 2018). The recent establishment of over 300 soft-shell crab farms in the coastal
Status of mud crab industry in Bangladesh 65

regions of Bangladesh is entirely dependent on wild seed supply, which has resulted in
intense harvesting pressure on small crabs from natural sources to meet the high seed
demand (Noorbaiduri, Abol-Munaf and Ikhwanuddin, 2014; Hungria et al., 2017;
Rahman et al., 2018).

Conservation and management of wild resources

There are a limited number of regulations and policies instituted for the management
of mud crab fisheries. Existing regulations are applicable to fisheries in general,
encompassing mud crab fishery. Under the legislation of major fisheries regulations
for the Sundarbans Reserve Forest (SRF), the Forest Department has implemented the
following regulations that are relevant for mud crab fishery management:
• Collection and Export of Live Crab Regulation (1995): Closure of the entire SRF
for crab fishing from December to February to ensure crab breeding.
• Closed Season Regulation (2000): Closure of fishing in the entire SRF for
five species (Pangasius pangasius, Plotosus canius, Lates calcarifer, Macrobrachium
rosenbergii and Scylla spp.) from 1 May to 30 June to ensure natural breeding.

Under the legislation of Wildlife Sanctuary Regulations, 1999, the Forest Department
further implements the following regulations that also protect the mud crab fisheries:
• Fishing is permanently prohibited in the three wildlife sanctuaries of SRF.

A proposed regulation for the management of mud crab fisheries in Bangladesh

aims to maintain current exploitation rates for commercial species, except for Penaeus
monodon fry, as recommended by the FAO (Project BGD/84/056) in 1994 and
implemented by the Forest Department. This regulation is intended to ensure the
sustainable management of mud crab resources.
The World Bank proposed the following regulations back in 1998:
• Establishment of annual harvest limits for various species, starting with hilsa shad
(Tenualosa ilisha), all catfish and mud crab species.
• Prohibition on harvesting gravid or egg-bearing female crabs.
• Implementation of minimum harvest size limits: 200 g for male and 120 g for
female crabs.
• Permanent closure of wildlife sanctuaries and other protected areas to all fishing
activities.
• Maintenance of detailed records for permits issued and the catch of all species by
individual fishermen.
• Enforcement of the National Fish Act to uphold minimum harvest size limits and
enforce seasonal fishing bans.
• Penalties for violations, including fishing without a permit, fishing in restricted
areas, using poisons, explosives, or banned materials, catching undersized fish
during prohibited months, or continuing to fish after reaching the individual quota.

Furthermore, the Forest Department in Khulna under the Sundarbans Biodiversity

Conservation Project (SBCP) proposed new management regulations for the 17 fisheries
in the Sundarbans that include mud crab as follows:
• Mud crab fishing to be prohibited annually from December to February.
• A minimum size limit of 10 cm carapace width is required for male mud crabs.
• Catching or possessing female mud crabs is strictly illegal.

Management and regulation of mud crab aquaculture

Currently, there are no regulations, licensing and certification in both hard-shell and
soft-shell crab production.
66 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Industry status
The mud crab production status over the past 10 years, as reported by the Department
of Fisheries (DoF, 2022), Fish Inspection and Quality Control (FIQC, personal
communication, 2023) and soft-shell crab farm data, is summarized in Table 2. Hard-
shell crabs from aquaculture contribute 32–40 percent of total production. Capture
fisheries harvest only hard-shell crabs from wild sources, primarily for live export,
while aquaculture similarly focuses on live exports of hard-shell crabs.

TABLE 2
Hard-and soft-shell crab production from capture fisheries and aquaculture (2012–2021)
Capture fisheries Aquaculture Aquaculture
Fiscal hard-shell crab hard-shell crab soft-shell crab
Year Volume Value Volume Value Volume Value
(t) (BDT 10 million) (t) (BDT 10 million) (t) (BDT 10 million)
2021–2022 9 110 464.17 4 287 218.43 403.82 69.78
2020–2021 8 389 352.28 3 948 165.78 147.43 28.66
2019–2020 8 542 838.28 4 020 394.48 289.54 59.41
2018–2019 8 217 784.26 3 867 369.07 542.57 105.48
2017–2018 7 072 557.41 4 715 371.60 216.94 49.20
2016–2017 8 653 694.34 5 768 462.89 279.39 51.30
2015–2016 7 896 528.14 5 264 352.09 120.58 20.84
2014–2015 8163 129.60 4 395 69.78 140 22.68
2013–2014 5 010 107.09 2 697 57.66 – –
2012–2013 4 828 110.17 2 600 59.32 – –

Source: DoF. 2022. Yearbook of Fisheries Statistics of Bangladesh, 2021–22, Volume 39. Dhaka, Fisheries Resources
Survey System, Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock.

Farming areas
Most coastal brackish water bodies in exposed coastal landscapes are well-suited for
crab farming. A total of 9 353 ha of water areas have been designated for crab farming
(DoF, 2022). Additionally, 262 980 ha of coastal ponds currently used for shrimp
farming also hold potential for mud crab aquaculture (DoF, 2022). Salam, Ross and
Beveridge (2003) identified, through GIS models, 228 111 ha of highly suitable land,
552 897 ha of moderately suitable land, and 30 072 ha of marginally suitable land for
crab farming in coastal areas (Figure 1).
Selected zones in the Sundarbans mangroves and inshore areas may also be
considered for cage and pen culture of mud crabs, practices commonly used in other
countries (David, 2009). The supply of mud crabs for export comes from three coastal
regions: the southwest (Khulna, Bagerhat, Satkhira, Pirojpur, Barguna, and Patuakhali
districts), southeast (Chattogram and Cox’s Bazar districts) and central coastal areas
(Bhola, Laxmipur, and Noakhali districts) (Figure 2).
According to DoF (2019), over 90 percent of crab farming occurs in the southwest
coastal region, followed by 8 percent in the southeast, and 2 percent in the central
coastal region. Most crab farming is concentrated in Khulna, followed by Bagerhat and
Satkhira districts, with smaller farming areas in Chattogram and Cox’s Bazar districts
(Figure 3).

AQUACULTURE PRACTICES AND METHODS

Broodstock management
Since 2013, various initiatives have been undertaken by research institutions,
government agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and international
non-governmental organizations (INGOs) to culture mud crabs in hatcheries.
Status of mud crab industry in Bangladesh 67

FIGURE 1
Available coastal areas for mud crab aquaculture in Bangladesh

Note: Refer to the disclaimer on the copyright page for the names and boundaries used in this map.

Source: Salam, M.A., Ross, L.G. & Beveridge, C.M.M. 2003. A comparison of development opportunities for crab and
shrimp aquaculture in southwestern Bangladesh, using GIS modelling. Aquaculture, 220: 477–494.

FIGURE 2
Coastal regions and districts where most mud crabs are cultured and sourced in
Bangladesh
©M. Rahman

Note: Refer to the disclaimer on the copyright page for the names and boundaries used in this map.
68 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 3
Mud crab farming areas (ha) by districts in coastal regions of Bangladesh

Note: Refer to the disclaimer on the copyright page for the names and boundaries used in this map.
Source: DoF. 2022. Yearbook of Fisheries Statistics of Bangladesh, 2021–22, Volume 39. Dhaka, Fisheries Resources Survey
System, Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock.

However, none of the hatcheries have achieved commercial production of crablets.

The Department of Fisheries in Cox’s Bazar has reported a 3 percent survival rate from
zoea 1 to crab instar.
Mature female crabs with dark orange ovaries, referred to as broodstock or
ovigerous females (berried females with eggs attached to their flap), are collected from
mangrove forests (such as the Maheshkhali Channel in Cox’s Bazar) and transported
to hatcheries. These ovigerous females are carefully transported in buckets or boxes
containing water from their source, along with aeration provided by portable aerators.
Upon arrival at the hatcheries, the crabs are gradually acclimatized to a salinity of
27–30 ppt and disinfected using a 100–150 ppm formalin bath. Ovigerous females are
then stocked individually in 30–50 L plastic buckets filled with aerated clean seawater,
while non-ovigerous females are placed in tanks with sand substrates and aeration. In
some cases, eyestalk ablation is performed to induce maturation. Feeding consists of
molluscs, fish, squid and other affordable protein sources available in the area, with
crabs fed to satiation twice daily.
Broodstock that have spawned are transferred to the bucket with aerated clean
seawater. Feeding of ovigerous females is stopped when their egg mass turns brown or
grey in colour. Newly hatched zoeae are stocked in concrete or fiberglass tanks.

Larval rearing
Seawater used for larval rearing is disinfected with 15–20 ppm of chlorine, and
additional treatment using UV light or ozone is sometimes employed. Newly stocked
larvae are introduced at a density of 50–100 ind./L and are initially fed umbrella-stage
Artemia or rotifers when available. Starting from zoea stage 2 or 3, formulated shrimp
feed is introduced. Newly hatched Artemia are provided to early zoeae, while biomass
Artemia are given to older zoea until they reach the early megalopa stage.
Status of mud crab industry in Bangladesh 69

The rearing environment is maintained at a water temperature of 27–30 °C and

salinity levels of 27–32 ppt, with limited water changes to minimize disturbance and
stress to the larvae. Prophylactic measures are implemented until the megalopa stage
is reached. The duration from zoea 1 to megalopa stage is approximately 18–20 days.
Once the zoea reach stage 5 or megalopa, they are transferred to other tanks equipped
with hanging shelters that allow the megalopae to cling to surface areas. The crab
instars are then harvested and transferred to a nursery facility.

Nursery rearing
The nursery system is still in its early stages, as the number of crablets produced in the
hatchery has not yet reached a commercially viable level. However, hatchery-reared
crablets are further cultured in nursery tanks or ponds until they reach a size that is
acceptable to farmers.

Grow-out culture
Farmers depend entirely on wild stocks for both farming and export (Rahman et al.,
2018). Following disease outbreaks in shrimp farms during 1995–1996, many shrimp
ponds along the coast were converted into crab farms (Karim and Stellwage, 1998). The
water culture parameters for crabs and shrimp are similar; however, crab farming has
demonstrated potential to support vulnerable coastal communities due to its resilience
and adaptability in the face of climate change (Rahman et al., 2017).
In Bangladesh, several mud crab culture systems are practiced, including grow-
out culture from juvenile to market size, polyculture with shrimp and fattening, as
summarized in Table 3. These systems vary in terms of stocking density, feeding
practices, culture duration and production outcomes.
TABLE 3
Mud crab culture systems in Bangladesh
Feeding rate
Stocking/ Stocking density Feeding/ Culture period Production Production
Culture system (body weight
practice (crabs/ha) practice (days) (t/ha/crop) (%)
%/frequency)
Not
Grow-out Not standard
5 000–10 000 standard 1–5/weekly 180–210 0.4–0.5 5
culture practice
practice
Not
Shrimp gher* Not standard
– standard Satiation 120–180 0.3–0.5 30
production practice
practice
Following Following
Fattening a stocking 9 000–16 500** a feeding 5–10/daily 15–45 0.7–1.3 65
protocol protocol
Total 100
* Earthen enclosure.
** Crabs usually tied to prevent cannibalism.

Some farmers engage in grow-out culture by stocking small crabs (1–50 g) in

ponds and ghers to raise them to market size (Figure 4). Marginalized coastal fishers
collect seed stocks using push nets in the marshes of the Sundarbans mangrove forest,
estuaries, canals and tidal rivers from January to March. They sell the seed to grow-
out farmers at USD 0.01–0.02/piece. The crablets are then stocked in confined waters
enclosed by bamboo or net pens. Most farmers follow traditional practices without
adhering to specific stocking densities or implementing measures to enhance growth
and survival. The crablets often enter shrimp ghers during water exchange, where
they grow alongside the shrimp until they reach marketable size. In this system,
farmers primarily focus on shrimp cultivation, while the crabs grow without direct
management, with no additional stocking or feeding.
During the first half of the year, farmers stock crablets in ponds for 3–4 months,
providing minimal feed on an irregular basis. In the second half of the year, the crabs
 70 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

are fattened in the same ponds. The

FIGURE 4
Wild crablets for grow out culture in brackish water ponds
lack of separate nurseries and grow-out
ponds leads to increased cannibalism
due to significant size variations among
the crabs.

Crab production in shrimp gher

Coastal brackish waters in Bangladesh
have primarily been used for shrimp
farming. Crablets are introduced into
traditional shrimp ponds during water
intake from adjacent canals. Initially,
crabs in shrimp ghers were regarded
as an invasive species because they
could damage pond dikes and compete
with shrimp for food and space.
©M. Rahman

However, due to the high market price

of crabs and the socioeconomic and
environmental challenges associated with shrimp farming, their cultivation along with
shrimp has become acceptable, providing farmers with an additional source of income.
Currently, thousands of hectares of traditional shrimp ghers are being utilized for
crab farming (Figure 5). It is estimated that nearly 30 percent of the total production
of hard-shell crabs comes from traditional shrimp farms, with Kamal, Khanom and
Rheman (2007) reporting this figure to be around 45 percent.

FIGURE 5
Shrimp ponds used for mud crab production
©M. Rahman

Fattening of crabs
Crab fattening has been widely practiced by coastal fishers and farmers. Grow-out
culture began in enclosed ponds in the early 1990s, followed by the introduction of
bamboo cages, pens, and pots in the early 2000s (Rahman et al., 2020; Kamal, 2002;
Khatun et al., 2009). Farmers typically stock small, undersized male crabs weighing
between 100–280 g, along with female crabs that have undeveloped gonads, ranging
from 60–110 g. Over 90 percent of farmers engaged in fattening prefer polyculture,
raising crabs along with other fish species such as tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus),
parshe (Mugil cephalus), tengra (Mystus gulio), bhangan (Labeo boga) and khorsula
Status of mud crab industry in Bangladesh 71

(Rhinomugil corsula). In terms of

FIGURE 6
profitability, better economic returns Percentage of fixed and variable costs in mud crab fattening
are achieved by co-cultivating mud in Bangladesh
crabs with tiger shrimp, milkfish, and/or Labour
mullet (Marichamy and Rajapackiam, Lease value 4%
1996; Venugopal et al., 2012; FAO, 5%
2015). Most farmers involved in crab Fence
fattening (approximately 68 percent) 8%
stock juvenile crabs during the wet
season (June–November), while only
32 percent do so in the dry season
(December–April). In coastal areas, Feed
12%
43 percent of farmers produce crabs
year-round, whereas 57 percent
alternate farming, dedicating six
months to shrimp and six months to
crab.
The average culture duration for Seeds
71%
fattening both male and female crabs
ranges from 32 to 46 days. Most
farmers purchase juvenile crabs from
local depots, while a few buy directly
Source: Rahman, M.M., Haque, S.M., Islam, M.A., Paul, A.K., Iqbal, S., Atique,
from wild crab collectors (Rahman U., Wahab, A., Egna, H. & Brown, C. 2020. Assessment of mud crab fattening
et al., 2017). Crabs are primarily fed and culture practices in coastal Bangladesh: understanding the current
technologies and development perspectives. AACL Bioflux, 13(2): 582–596.
fresh minced tilapia, along with other
marine and freshwater fish and snails.
When available, they are also given boiled rice, chicken entrails, wheat, maize, and shrimp
or prawn heads. The average survival rate of the crabs is 64–68 percent. The highest
average production from crab fattening systems is estimated at 1 383 ± 67 kg/ha/crop,
while the lowest average production is around 815 ± 22.6 kg/ha/crop (Rahman et al.,
2020). Overall, the productivity of crab aquaculture in Bangladesh is reported to be
678 kg/ha (DoF, 2017).
The average estimated cost of mud crab fattening is BDT 316 654 ± 37 042 per crop/ha.
The largest expense is the purchase of crab juveniles, accounting for approximately
71 percent of the total cost, followed by feeds (12%), fencing (8%), land lease (5%)
and labour costs (4%) (Figure 6). Ferdoushi and Xiang-Guo (2010) and Sathiadhas and
Najmudeen (2004) reported that seed input costs represent about from 74–87 percent
of operational expenses. In a cost and return analysis, the average gross return is
approximately BDT 514 748 ± 32 056/ha/crop, while the average net benefit is BDT
198 094 ± 8 387/ha/crop. The benefit-to-cost ratio in current fattening systems is 1.63,
whereas previous studies reported a benefit-to-cost ratio ranging from 1.18 to 1.94
(Jahan and Islam, 2016; Begum et al., 2009; Ferdoushi and Xiang Guo, 2010). Generally,
90 percent of those engaged in crab fattening sell their crabs to preferred depots in
nearby markets, while the remaining farmers sell their crabs to local middlemen.

Soft-shell crab production

The production of soft-shell crabs in small, perforated plastic boxes was first introduced
in Cox’s Bazar in 2010 and gradually expanded to the Satkhira region on a limited scale
(Islam, Aleem, and Rahman, 2015; Lahiri et al., 2021). Due to the higher profitability
of soft-shell crabs in the international market, the establishment of medium- and
large-scale farms in this area has significantly increased from 2018 to 2022 (FAO, 2015;
He, 2015). Crabs weighing between 50 and 150 g (Figure 7) are sourced from nearby
depots or directly from suppliers and middlemen, and are individually stocked in
 72 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

small, perforated plastic boxes placed

FIGURE 7
Juvenile crabs of various sizes (50–150 g) used for soft-shell within PVC frames (Figure 8). As of
crab production 2023, approximately 400 farms are
operational in the southwestern coastal
region of the Satkhira district. Based
on production capacity, 361 farms are
categorized as small (2 000–30 000
cage capacity), 35 as medium (31 000–
200 000 cage capacity), and only four as
large (200 000–800 000 cage capacity).
These farms occupy 170–190 hectares
of coastal areas that were previously
used for shrimp farming. Most of these
operations are owned by affluent non-
local businessmen, with land leased for
a minimum of five years. Due to the
©M. Rahman

substantial investment and large-scale

management required, soft-shell crab
farms are predominantly operated by
corporations (Rahman et al., 2017).
FIGURE 8 Crabs are primarily fed minced
Crab boxes positioned in PVC frames for soft-shell crab tilapia, which makes up 75–80 percent
production in brackish water ponds of their diet, along with small snails
comprising 20–25 percent, at a feeding
rate of 5–10 percent of their body
weight every 3 days or as needed (FAO,
2015). During high tides, pond water is
gradually replaced, up to 30–50 percent.
Moulting is monitored every 4 hours,
and once crabs have moulted, they are
immediately retrieved and placed in
containers with aerated freshwater for
30–60 minutes. After this period, the
crabs are transferred to trays, covered
with wet cloths and transported to the
processing plants (Figure 9). This labour
©M. Rahman

intensive monitoring of moulting

facilitates the prompt harvesting of
soft-shell crabs.
The production of soft-shell crabs is widely recognized as having significant
potential to enhance the livelihoods of coastal communities by generating income
from lucrative foreign markets. However, sourcing seed stocks has become a growing
concern.
The Nowabenki Gonomukhi Foundation (NGF), an NGO based in Shyamnagar,
Satkhira district, has initiated a program for recycling crab waste shells from moulting
(Figure 10). The discarded shells are dried on bamboo platforms, crushed into small
pieces, and mixed with leaves and manure. This mixture is kept moist for 10–15 days
to facilitate decomposition, after which it is used as organic fertilizer for various plants,
including vegetables.

MUD CRAB HEALTH AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT

Sudden mortality of crabs during the grow-out or fattening stages is often observed,
likely due to poor quality and rough handling of juvenile crabs sourced from
Status of mud crab industry in Bangladesh 73

depots or middlemen. Other issues

FIGURE 9
include delayed moulting, incomplete Soft-shell crabs in plastic boxes ready to be delivered to a
hardening of shells and disease. processing plant
Farmers occasionally experience mass
mortality in their ponds, which may be
attributed to the white spot syndrome
virus (WSSV), a pathogen commonly
found in shrimp culture (Karim and
Stellwagen, 1998). Unfortunately,
farmers rarely implement preventative
measures during their operations,
relying mainly on the application
of lime during pond preparation. In
some cases, potassium permanganate is
used as a disinfectant for pond water.

©M. Rahman
Additionally, prior to stocking, some
farmers splash seawater on juvenile
crabs that have been exposed to air
during transport. FIGURE 10
While no specific diseases have been Exoskeletons of moulted crabs from soft-shell crab
reported in soft-shell crab farming production farms in Satkhira district, Bangladesh
in coastal regions, farm operators
frequently encounter delayed
moulting and mortality. Deterioration
of pond water quality, along with
abrupt fluctuations in salinity and
temperature, can also lead to crab
mortality. To address this, pond water
is treated with dolomite or other types
of lime to adjust pH and alkalinity,
and probiotics are applied in some

©M. Rahman
instances. Regular water changes are
performed to prevent deterioration in
water quality and minimize the risk of
disease outbreaks.
For biosecurity measures, pond dykes used for soft-shell crab production are
constructed higher than usual. The entire farm is enclosed with nets to prevent the
entry of unwanted animals.

RESEARCH AND INNOVATION

Aquasilviculture
Aquasilviculture was implemented by NGF using eight enclosed pens. These enclosures,
located in mangrove areas, were stocked with wild juvenile crabs and grown to market
size. While the initiative achieved moderate production, it demonstrated promising
potential for small-scale crab farming within mangrove ecosystems.

Small-scale crab hatchery

Several NGOs, with financial support from donors, have established small-scale crab
hatcheries in various locations across the southwest and southeast coastal regions.
These hatcheries utilize the same technologies employed in commercial crab hatcheries.
Collectively, they have an estimated annual production capacity of 300 000 to 500 000
crablets.
74 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Nursery
A comparative study was conducted to assess the overall performance (growth,
survival, morphometric variations, etc.) of wild-sourced versus hatchery-reared
S. olivacea crablets in earthen ponds. The results indicated that hatchery-reared crablets
outperformed their wild-sourced counterparts in all measured parameters. This finding
has positively influenced farmer perceptions regarding the use of hatchery-reared
crablets (Sarower et al., 2021).

Integrated crab learning centre

Coast Foundation, an NGO based in Cox’s Bazar, has established an Integrated
Crab Learning Center. This facility allows individuals to observe the full spectrum
of crab farming operations, including hatchery, nursery, grow-out and soft-shell
crab production. The centre also provides comprehensive technical information
and documentation. Training is delivered by resource experts as a public service to
interested farmers, who can also access technical support and obtain crab seedstock for
their farming operations.

MARKET INFORMATION
The major markets for hard-shell and soft-shell mud crabs are outlined in Table 4.
China is the primary market for hard-shell crabs, followed by Hong Kong SAR,
Taiwan Province of China, and, to a lesser extent, Japan. Demand for live mud crabs in
these markets remains consistently high throughout the year, with peak demand and
prices during the Chinese New Year (January/February). Other markets exhibit less
stability in terms of regular demand. The hard-shell crab export market in Bangladesh
is predominantly controlled by Chinese importers.
For soft-shell crabs, the largest importer is Japan, followed by Australia, the United
States of America, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the
Kingdom of the Netherlands. Australia maintains a steady demand for soft-shell crabs
while small volumes are occasionally imported by Germany and Spain.

TABLE 4
Major markets for hard- and soft-shell crabs produced in Bangladesh
Export share
Products Top export destinations
(%)
China 62
China, Hong Kong SAR 13
Taiwan Province of China 11
Republic of Korea 7
Hard-shell mud crabs
Japan 3
Thailand 2
Malaysia 1
Singapore 1
European Union 3
Australia 33
Japan 37
Soft-shell mud crabs United States of America 9
United Kingdom 8
Netherlands (Kingdom of the) 8
China 1
Status of mud crab industry in Bangladesh 75

Product prices
Table 5 shows the pricing structure for hard-shell and soft-shell crabs in both primary
aggregation and export markets. Hard-shell crabs are exported live, with market
prices fluctuating throughout the year, irrespective of grade or sex. Soft-shell crabs
consistently command a higher market price compared to hard-shell crabs.

TABLE 5
Price of hard- and soft-shell crabs at primary aggregation, farm and export markets from 2013
to 2022
Price

Hard-shell crabs Soft-shell crabs

Year
Primary mud
Export market Farm Export market
aggregation market
(t/BDT million) (t/BDT million) (t/BDT million)
(t/BDT million)
2022 1.45 1.51 1.19 1.73
2021* 0.44 0.52 1.40 1.94
2020* 0.92 0.98 1.51 2.05
2019 1.36 1.45 1.40 1.94
2018 1.39 1.44 1.84 2.27
2017 1.38 1.43 1.40 1.84
2016 1.25 1.36 1.30 1.73
2015 1.32 1.41 1.19 1.62
2014 1.25 1.33 – –
2013 1.22 1.31 – –

* Peak of COVID-19 pandemic.

MAJOR ISSUES AND CHALLENGES FACING THE INDUSTRY

• Lack of seedstocks for grow-out culture and soft-shell crab production; limited
hatchery-reared crab seed forcing the farmers to depend on wild stock. Farming of
crabs is dependent on wild stocks which have been depleted due to indiscriminate
harvesting and degradation of the natural habitat.
• Lack of technical expertise, training and extension services in crab fishery
development and management.
• Lack of data on wild stocks (e.g. population status, breeding season, breeding and
nursery grounds).
• Inadequate post-catch handling practices, including insufficient storage facilities
and suboptimal transportation systems, contribute to high mortality rates.
• Inadequate data on production quantities, markets (price and demand) and export
volume.
• Lack of appropriate policies for the sector, and inadequate coordination among
relevant government agencies and stakeholders.
• Limited domestic consumption, coupled with the absence of a standardized
grading and pricing system.
• Collaboration challenges between the Forest Department and the Department of
Fisheries regarding crab fishery management.
• Lack of artificial or commercial feeds for crab culture.
• Absence of cooperatives and social support services for crab fishers and farming
groups.

CONCLUSION
Recent increases in mud crab fisheries and aquaculture activities, coupled with
advances in technology, indicate that the industry will continue to develop within
76 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

coastal communities. However, the sustainability of the mud crab aquaculture industry
in the country remains a concern. The following key approaches can be adopted to
promote the sustainable expansion of mud crab aquaculture:
• Development of commercial-scale hatcheries: Establishing additional hatcheries
and producing crablets at a commercial scale is essential to support farmers. This
initiative requires backing from the government and other stakeholders, including
the private sector and funding agencies.
• Assessment of wild stocks: It is crucial to assess the status of wild mud crab
populations, including breeding seasons and distribution, particularly in the
Sundarbans mangrove areas. This assessment will inform the development of
appropriate conservation and management strategies for a sustainable crab industry.
• Zonation for crab farming: Identifying the most suitable areas for commercial crab
farming and expansion is necessary to optimize production.
• Training: Farmers should receive training in improved technologies and best
management practices for mud crab culture. Additionally, extension workers
should provide ongoing technical support and services.
• Dissemination of information: Information, Education and Communication
(IEC) materials are needed to effectively disseminate technology and relevant
information on crab culture. It is important to share targeted educational products
with different stakeholders.
• Formation of cooperatives: Farmers engaged in crab fattening should be organized
into cooperatives to enhance collaboration and resource sharing.
• Improved transport facilities: Enhanced transportation facilities for live crabs
should be established to minimize mortality rates during transit.
• Export markets: Identifying new export markets is essential for the steady growth
of the crab sector, as the domestic market is limited. Concurrently, promotional
activities can help expand domestic markets.

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 81

Mud crab aquaculture situation in

China

Haihui Ye
College of Fisheries, Jimei University, Xiamen, China

ABSTRACT
The mud crab, Scylla paramamosain, is the most important marine crab species in
China. In 2023, it boasted an aquaculture production of 157 012 t and a capture fisheries
production of 67 079 t, contributing to a total market value of CNY 44.7 billion
(approximately USD 6.2 billion). The most common mud crab culture method
involves polyculture in ponds with shrimps or fish. The survival rate from seed to
market-sized crab is about 10 percent. Recently, indoor factory farming systems
have begun to emerge, primarily focusing on fattening and soft-shell crab culture. In
China, there is a substantial market demand for mud crabs, with an estimated annual
import of mud crabs from Southeast Asian countries reaching 25 000 t. Most of these
imported crabs are hard-shell crabs, whereas soft-shell crabs accounted for less than
1 percent of the total. In the past, trash fish and shellfish were used to feed mud crabs,
however, recent advancements have led to the successful adoption of formulated feed.
Over the last decade, the hatchery production of crab seed has become economically
more feasible. There are at least three commercial crab hatcheries in China, each with
an annual capacity ranging from 5–15 million seeds. Under optimal conditions, the
survival rates from Z1-C1 stages range from 5–15 percent. Despite these advancements,
most crab farming activities still rely on seeds caught from the wild, with hatchery-
reared crablets accounting for <2 percent. Therefore, there is an urgent need to further
improve hatchery technology. China has initiated mud crab breeding efforts, hoping to
produce new and superior breeds in the future.

INTRODUCTION

Species of crabs
In China, the main crab species that are farmed include the mud crab (S. paramamosain),
the Asian blue crab (Portunus trituberculatus) and the Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir
sinensis). The first two species are farmed in seawater, while the latter in freshwater.
Along the coastline of China, four species of mud crabs can be found, namely
S. paramamosain, Scylla serrata, Scylla tranquebarica and Scylla olivacea. Among these
four species, S. paramamosain is the dominant species and is the only Scylla species
farmed in China.

Wild stock status

In Guangxi Province, the wild stock population of S. paramamosian is estimated at
about 140 tonnes. No data is available from other provinces.

Conservation and management of wild resources

Recently, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs issued a public call to start
the “Implementation Plan for the First National Aquaculture Germplasm Resources
Census (2021–2023)”. To assess the status of S. paramamosain in East China Sea,
82 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

300 mud crabs from Jiangsu, Zhejiang and Fujian provinces were sampled by the
East China Sea Fisheries Research Institute in 2021, while 500 wild mud crabs from
Zhejiang, Fuajian, Guangdong, Guangxi and Hainan provinces were collected by Jimei
University in 2022.
While there are no conservation and management policies dedicated specifically for
S. paramamosian, China prohibits the sale of illegally harvested catch from restricted
fishing areas and during closed seasons (April–July). As a result, mud crab capture
fishery is banned for about 4 months each year.
Over the past decade, efforts have been made to enhance S. paramamosian stocks
through the release of hatchery-reared juveniles into the East China Sea and South
China Sea. It is estimated that more than 10 million juvenile crabs have been released
during this period.

Management and regulation of mud crab aquaculture

To foster the growth of China’s mud crab industry, local governments are encouraged
to apply for a geographical indication (GI) trademark for S. paramamosain. This
initiative is designed to support sustainable resource management, preserve and protect
unique, high-quality local products, and drive the development of regionally distinctive
industries. By securing GI status, these regions can safeguard the environmental and
cultural value of their natural resources, enhancing both product reputation and market
demand.
Simultaneously, enterprises are encouraged to pursue recognition as a national famous
brand. This designation can greatly enhance market visibility, build consumer trust,
and generate significant economic returns for the companies involved. Additionally,
establishing these brands can stimulate regional economic growth, creating employment
opportunities and reinforcing the mud crab industry’s long-term sustainability.

INDUSTRY STATUS

Production status
In China, S. paramamosian is primarily farmed in coastal areas. Over the last decade,
aquaculture production of this species has remained relatively stable. In 2014,
production reached 140 738 t, rising to a peak of 160 616 t in 2019. Subsequent
years saw a slight decline followed by a modest recovery, with production reaching
157 012 t in 2023 (Figure 1). This level of production generated a total market value of
approximately CNY 30 billion (around USD 4.1 billion).

FIGURE 1
Aquaculture and capture fisheries production and farming areas of S. paramamosian in
China (2014–2023)

Aquaculture production (tonnes) Capture production (tonnes) Farming areas (hectares)

180 000 27 000

160 000 26 000
Farming areas (ha)

140 000
Production (t)

25 000
120 000
100 000 24 000
80 000 23 000
60 000
22 000
40 000
20 000 21 000

0 20 000
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

Source: China Fisheries Statistical Yearbook (2015–2024). China Agriculture Press.

Mud crab aquaculture situation in China 83

FIGURE 2
The main provinces in China with significant mud crab aquaculture activities

Aquaculture production (tonnes) Capture production (tonnes) Farming areas (hectares)

180 000 27 000

160 000
Note: Refer to the disclaimer on the copyright page for the names and boundaries used in this map. 26 000
China
Source:140 000Fisheries Statistical Yearbook (2015–2024). China Agriculture Press.
25 000
Production (t)

120 000 mud crab aquaculture is mainly distributed in five coastal provinces,
In China,
Farming areas (ha)

namely,100Zhejiang,
000 Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi and Hainan (Figure 2). 24 000

80 000 S. paramamosain is predominantly cultured in brackish water environments.

In China,
23 000
For nearly a decade, Guangdong has led the nation in the aquaculture production of
60 000
this species. In 2023, Guangdong’s output reached 64 330 t, followed by Fujian 22 000 and
Zhejiang40 000
with 39 662 t and 27 601 t, respectively. Additionally, both Guangxi and
21 000
Hainan20each
000 contributed slightly over 10 000 t (Figure 3).

0 20 000
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
FIGURE 3
Total S. paramamosain aquaculture production in five provinces in China (2014–2023)

Zhejiang Guangdong Hainan Fujian Guangxi

70 000

60 000
Aquaculture production (t)

50 000

40 000

30 000

20 000

10 000

0
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

Source: China Fisheries Statistical Yearbook (2015–2024). China Agriculture Press.

84 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

S. paramamosain capture fisheries production in China has experienced fluctuations

over the past decade. From 83 877 t in 2014, it reached its peak at 91 316 t in 2016.
Subsequently, there was a slight decline from 2017 to 2019, with production a little
over 79 000 t. However, in the last 3 years, production has decreased to less than
70 000 t (see Figure 1).
In 2023, the top three provinces in terms of capture production were Guangdong,
Fujian and Hainan, with production of 27 670 t, 11 510 t and 10 901 t, respectively. The
capture production in Guangxi was 8 233 t, while Zhejiang had only 3 113 t (Figure 4).

FIGURE 4
S. paramamosain capture fisheries production volumes in China (2014–2023)
Zhejiang Guangdong Hainan Fujian Guangxi
35 000

30 000
Capture production (t)

25 000

20 000

15 000

10 000

5 000

0
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Zhejiang Guangdong Hainan Fujian Guangxi
35 000
Source: China Fisheries Statistical Yearbook (2015–2024). China Agriculture Press.

30 000

Farming 000 areas

Zhejiang Guangdong Hainan Fujian Guangxi
(ha) production (t)

25 000
12
In the past 10 years, the farming area of mud crab has undergone great changes in
China. In 2014, the total farming area was 26 448 ha. However, in 2017, the farming
20 000
10 000
area 15reached
000
its lowest point, shrinking to 20 734 ha. Since 2019, there has been a
Capture

gradual
8 000increase, stabilizing at 24 000 ha in the past 2 years (Figure 1).
Farming areas

The provinces with larger farming area are Zhejiang, Guangdong and Fujian. In
10 000
2023,6 000
the farming areas of these three provinces were 7613 ha, 8709 ha and 4076 ha,
5 000
respectively. In contrast, the total farming area of Guangxi and Hainan was less than
4 000
2 000 ha0 (Figure 5).
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
2 000
FIGURE 5
0 S. paramamosain farming areas in China (2014–2023)
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Zhejiang Guangdong Hainan Fujian Guangxi
12 000

10 000
Farming areas (ha)

8 000

6 000

4 000

2 000

0
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023

Source: China Fisheries Statistical Yearbook (2015–2024). China Agriculture Press.

Mud crab aquaculture situation in China 85

Hatcheries, nurseries, farms

Generally, shrimp and fish hatcheries are also used for mud crab larval culture and
nursery. Currently, there are at least ten specially designed commercial mud crab
hatcheries in China, among which Ningbo Huada Haichang Aquatic Products
Co. Ltd. has an annual production capacity of 10 million juveniles (crablets), and
Guangxi Institute of Oceanography Co. Ltd. has an annual production capacity
of 15 million seeds. Under optimal conditions, the survival rate from Z1–Z5 is
30–60 percent, and the survival rate from Z5-C1 is about 10–30 percent. It is estimated
that survival is over 10 percent from hatch to C1, and the yield can reach 2 000 seeds/
m2. Although hatcheries in China can produce seeds, the national demand for crab
seeds stands at approximately 6 billion, with hatchery-reared seeds accounting for less
than 2 percent of the total. Thus, it is urgent to further improve mud crab hatchery
technology.
Pond farming is the predominant method for cultivating mud crabs. Brackish water
ponds are strategically located in inner bays along the coast or estuaries, where there is
optimal seawater exchange. In these culture ponds, the water inlet and outlet systems
are distinctly separated. The pond bottom consists of sandy mud, with a sand-to-
mud ratio of 1:8–9. The ditches within the ponds range from 0.5 to 1.0 m in depth
and 2 to 6 m in width, maintaining a ditch-to-shoal area ratio of 1:3. These ditches
are interconnected with sluice gates, and circular ditches around the bottom of pond
are also excavated. In overwintering ponds, the ditches are designed to be deeper.
To prevent crabs from escaping, various escape prevention measures, such as plastic
planks, cement slabs or polyethylene screens, are fixed along the inner sides of the
pond banks.
Land-based recirculating aquaculture
systems (RAS) are used in China FIGURE 6
primarily for mud crab fattening Crab vertical “apartments” for fattening and production of
soft-shell mud crabs
and soft-shell crab production. The
farming facility, known as a crab
apartment, is assembled with boxes
manufactured from non-toxic plastic.
Each box is equipped with a water
inlet and outlet pipe. In addition,
each box has its own door for feeding
and observation purposes. The crab
apartments can be assembled as
desired, setting the number of layers
and culture chambers in accordance
with farm needs and operational
skills (normally a unit is composed
of ten layers and ten boxes for each
layer). At present, there are more
than 12 kinds of crab apartments
©H. Ye

manufactured and used in China.

AQUACULTURE PRACTICES AND METHODS

Broodstock management
Broodstock are sourced either from the wild or from culture ponds. To ensure optimal
breeding, broodstock must be robust, with all appendages intact, weighing over 350 g,
and exhibiting nearly mature gonads that visibly fill the cephalothorax.
The broodstock pond is prepared with a 10–15 cm layer of fine sand at the bottom,
and a 3–5 m² feeding area is positioned near the water outlet. Crab shelters, constructed
86 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

from bricks, cement blocks or tiles, provide a habitat and refuge for the broodstock.
Stocking density are maintained at 2–3 ind./m2. Optimal culture parameters include
a temperature range of 25–27 °C, salinity of 25–30 ppt, and a pH of 8.0–8.5. Light
intensity should be kept below 500 lux, and minimal aeration should be supplied to
ensure sufficient oxygen levels throughout the culture period.
Maintaining clean, well-aerated water is crucial for broodstock health. A
recommended water depth of 60–70 cm should be maintained, with full water exchange
performed once daily to remove feed residue and faeces from the culture system. The
bottom sand substrate should be thoroughly cleaned every two days. As broodstock
typically spawn at night or early morning, and egg hardening requires time, it is best to
perform water exchanges after 08:00 to avoid disrupting the spawning process.
Broodstock should be fed a nutrient-rich diet consisting of clam, squid and fish.
Additionally, Nereis sp. (polychaetes) should be included in the diet, as they are highly
nutritious, promote gonad development and enhance egg quality. Feeding should be
done daily following water exchange, and the quantity should be sufficient to leave a
small amount uneaten before the next feeding session.
Natural spawning is the preferred method for broodstock. Broodstock with well-
developed gonads typically begin spawning 3–5 days after being introduced into the
pond. However, if spawning does not occur within 15 days, dry-shade stimulation
can be used to induce spawning. This technique involves draining the pond during the
daily water exchange and exposing the broodstock to air for 1–2 hours before refilling
the pond with seawater. Repeated stimulation over several cycles will usually trigger
spawning. It is critical that pond draining is performed when the water temperature
closely matches the ambient environmental temperature to minimize thermal stress on
the broodstock.
Gravid females with dense, compact egg masses are an indicator of healthy
embryonic development. During this period, water temperature should be maintained
between 27–29 °C, with salinity levels kept at 26–33 ppt. Maintaining these conditions
is essential to preserving water quality and preventing egg shedding. As the embryos
develop, the egg mass undergoes distinct colour changes, transitioning from orange to
light yellow, then to grey, dark brown and eventually black. Under optimal conditions
of 27–29 °C, eggs typically hatch after 11–13 days of incubation.

Larval rearing
Once the egg mass has turned black, the embryos can be examined under a microscope.
At this stage, the embryo should have developed into protozoea and with a heartbeat
ranging from 150–180 beats/min. The gravid crab can be transferred into a hatching
tank at this stage. The hatching tank is prepared by filling the tank to 70 percent
capacity and then adding 5 mg/L EDTA disodium salt and 3 mg/L florfenicol. The
water temperature should be maintained at 27–29 °C and salinity at 25–30 ppt.
Gravid crabs are exposed to 40–50 mg/L nystafungin in a small container for 1 hour
prior to transferring them into the hatching tanks. A broodstock weighing 350–500 g
can produce up to 1.8–2.5 million eggs. Each larval rearing pond of 30–40 m3 can
accommodate only one gravid female. Larvae typically hatch between 05:00 and 07:00
with the egg hatching process lasting generally for about 1 hour. After the larvae have
hatched, the broodstock are promptly removed from the hatching tank.
It is recommended to keep the larval stocking density between 40 000–
100 000 larvae/m3. If the stocking density exceeds 150 000 larvae/m3, the survival
rate will drop significantly. If the larvae density is high the density should be lowered
at the beginning of zoea stage.
Common live feeds used in mud crab larval culture include microalgae, rotifers and
Artemia. After hatching, unicellular algae and rotifers should be introduced immediately
as the initial feed for the first-stage zoea (Z1). Common species of unicellular algae
Mud crab aquaculture situation in China 87

used include Chrysophyta sp., Chaetoceros sp. and Pyramidomonas sp. Maintaining
an optimal microalgae density in the rearing water is important, as it results in a
light brown or greenish hue, which generally indicates suitable feeding conditions.
Microalgae not only serve as a direct food source but also play a role in promoting
larval metamorphosis and improving survival rates.
During the Z1 and Z2 stages, larvae are primarily fed live rotifers at a concentration
of 15–25 rotifers/ml. Rotifers cultured with unicellular algae can be fed directly to the
larvae, while those cultured with yeast require additional enrichment to enhance their
nutritional profile before use.
At the Z3 to Z5 stages, the larvae are given Artemia nauplii as the primary feed. Early-
stage megalopa larvae predominantly consume Artemia nauplii, with copepods and adult
Artemia supplementation. As larval development progresses, adult Artemia becomes the
main diet, with copepods serving as an additional feed source.
Throughout the larval rearing period, regardless of the type of feed used, it is
critical to adopt a feeding strategy that ensures rational feeding practices. Specifically,
the principle of “small amounts but frequent feedings” should be followed, especially
when using copepods and adult Artemia, to prevent overfeeding and maintain optimal
water quality.
At the Z1–Z2 stages, water quality is primarily maintained by adding seawater and
unicellular algae. From the Z3 stage onwards, regular water exchange is implemented.
Water exchange is typically conducted once daily, with 15–40 percent of the water
volume replaced, depending on the water quality. During the megalopa stage, water
exchange frequency increases to twice daily, with each exchange replacing 50 percent
of the total volume.
The following water parameters must be strictly controlled during larval rearing:
water temperature should be maintained between 25–29 °C, salinity at 25–30 ppt, pH
between 8.0–8.5, and dissolved oxygen levels above 5 mg/L. Aeration should be adjusted
based on the developmental stage of the larvae: minimal aeration is recommended
during the Z1–Z2 stages, moderate aeration from Z3 to Z5, and increased aeration
during the megalopa stage to meet the larvae’s oxygen demands. Additionally, larvae
should not be exposed to intense light during rearing. Illumination levels of around
1 000 lux are optimal to provide sufficient lighting while minimizing stress.

Nursery practices
Cement pond nurseries: In cement nurseries, phototactic behaviour is used to collect the
megalopae. The optimal size for a nursery pond is 20–100 m², with a stocking density
of 3 000–6 000 megalopae/m³. To provide additional habitat and shelter, netting or
oyster shells can be placed at the bottom of the pond. During the megalopa stage, adult
Artemia is the preferred feed, with a feeding rate of 100–200 percent of the crab’s body
weight. Feeding amounts should be adjusted based on the crabs’ feeding behaviour and
leftover feed. Water exchange is carried out twice daily during the nursery phase, with
50 percent of the total water volume being replaced each time. Continuous aeration at
high volumes is essential to maintain adequate oxygen levels.

Earth pond nurseries: Earth pond nurseries typically have a surface area of about
500 m². Prior to stocking, the pond must be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected to
prevent disease outbreaks and ensure optimal rearing conditions. If the pond contains
natural live feed, such as copepods, the megalopae can be stocked at a density of
1 000–2 000 megalopae/m³. Feed density should be regularly adjusted based on
the feeding activity of the crabs and the amount of leftover feed. The earthen pond
provides natural hiding places, making it ideal for megalopae and juvenile crabs. This
method is generally used for rearing crab seed beyond the third crab stage due to the
pond’s suitability for shelter and growth.
88 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Hard-shell farming
In China, hard-shell crabs are commonly cultured in ponds. Prior to stocking, it is
important to eliminate organic residues, harmful organisms and pathogens that could
negatively impact the crabs’ survival and growth. Tea seed cake can be used after each
harvest to clean the pond, ensuring a safe and suitable culture environment.
The recommended stocking density for juvenile crablets is 3–5 juveniles/m².
Before stocking, the crablets should undergo a medicated bath – either in potassium
permanganate for 15 minutes or in freshwater for 15–30 minutes – to eliminate
surface pathogens. It is important to select active crablets of uniform size with intact
appendages and no injuries. The juveniles are typically stocked at the first stage. It is
preferable to source the crablets from nearby sea areas to enhance adaptation to the
culture environment.
In terms of pond management, water exchange is essential for regulating salinity,
temperature and dissolved oxygen levels. Typically, water is exchanged every 2–3
days, though this may vary based on weather conditions. During neap tides, water
exchange should occur at least once every 7 days to maintain water quality. The pond
water depth should be maintained between 1.0–2.0 m. In colder seasons, increasing the
water depth helps mitigate temperature fluctuations, while in hotter weather or when
stocking densities are high, deeper water levels are beneficial for maintaining water
quality.
The juvenile crabs are primarily fed small shellfish and supplemented with
formulated feed. Both live and frozen feeds should be disinfected before feeding.
The use of formulated feed is encouraged, as it minimizes environmental pollution,
improves feed conversion rates, reduces dependence on fishery-derived feeds, and
lowers the risk of disease introduction.
When using trash fish or shrimp as feed, it is recommended to feed at a rate of
5–7 percent of the crabs’ body weight. If bivalves are used, the feeding rate can be
increased to 20 percent of the crabs’ body weight. Feed should be consumed within
1 hour, and feeding frequency should be carefully controlled. During the grow-out
period, feeding should occur regularly, with no gaps longer than 3 days between
feedings.
Regular pond monitoring should be conducted in the morning, at noon and in the
evening to check the condition of the crabs and pond conditions. Constant inspection
of pond banks, sluice gates and escape prevention facilities is necessary to identify any
damage. Additionally, key parameters such as water colour, temperature, dissolved
oxygen levels and water depth should be monitored. Crab behaviour should also be
observed. Preventive measures against theft and the inflow of industrial or agricultural
wastewater are essential.
After 3–4 months of cultivation, mud crabs typically reach the commercial size,
weighing about 200 g, and are ready for harvest. Common harvesting methods include
the use of trap nets, bottom cages and drop nets. Cages are usually set in the evening
and collected the next morning. Alternatively, crabs can be harvested more easily by
setting nets at the water inlet and draining the pond. In principle, larger crabs are
harvested first, while smaller ones are left to continue growing in the pond.

Soft-shell crab production

The first step in selecting juvenile crabs (50–150 g) for culture is to choose individuals
with specific desirable traits. These include crabs with a cyan coloration of the
exoskeleton, intact appendages, no visible wounds, and have vigorous response to
stimulation. Additionally, disease-free crabs can be determined by inspecting the
muscle colour beneath the joints. Healthy crabs display sky-blue muscle tissue with
strong contractile response, while diseased individuals may show yellowish-red or
white muscle with diminished elasticity.
Mud crab aquaculture situation in China 89

A fresh, live diet with high nutritional value – especially shellfish – is ideal for
promoting the moulting process. The amount of feed should be adjusted based on
culture conditions such as water temperature and water quality. The recommended
daily feeding rate is 5–7 percent of the crabs’ body weight. When fresh feed is in limited
supply, frozen feed can be used as an alternative. Feeding is typically done twice daily,
in the morning and at nightfall, with a larger portion often given in the evening. It is
crucial to remove feed residues before each feeding or water exchange to prevent water
quality degradation.

HEALTH AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT

Vibrio infection
Vibriosis in mud crabs primarily arises from poor water quality and suboptimal bottom
conditions, as well as the use of stale feed and inadequate removal of residual feed.
Signs of Vibrio infection in affected crabs include reduced activity, decreased appetite
or cessation of feeding, and pink discoloration around the joints of the appendages.
Prevention and control measures include regular pond sterilization, enhancing water
quality and substrate conditions, ensuring the use of fresh feed, and promptly removing
any leftover feed.

White blood disease

White blood disease is associated with drastic environmental changes, particularly
fluctuations in temperature and salinity, which often occur during high temperatures
and heavy rainfall. Signs of white blood disease include reduced activity, compromised
immune response, increased susceptibility to secondary bacterial infections during
moulting, whitening of muscles and body fluids, limb loss and increased mortality.
Prevention and control methods include the removal of upper layer of freshwater
in ponds after rain and readjust the pond salinity with seawater. Incorporating
oxytetracycline into crab feed can help alleviate the symptoms of white blood disease.

Ciliate infection
In conditions where water quality deteriorates, resulting in eutrophication, mud crabs
may become infested with high numbers of ciliate parasites. Infected crabs often
display signs of agitation, frequent swimming throughout the pond, decreased feeding
behaviour, and difficulty in moulting, which can ultimately lead to mortality. Effective
prevention and control strategies include increasing the frequency and volume of water
exchanges and reducing pond transparency to limit ciliate reproduction and growth.

RESEARCH AND INNOVATION

China’s efforts to advance mud crab aquaculture are reflected in the support and
implementation of various initiatives. The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs
has established specialized scientist positions focused on mud crab genetic resources,
breeding and feed development, allocating CNY 700 000 in research funding for each
position annually. Furthermore, the establishment of a well-equipped field facility
for mud crab farming enables applied research and the development and testing of
innovative farming technologies.
The ongoing development of various types of crab farming systems in China,
alongside the introduction of automated feeding equipment and crab activity
monitoring systems, highlights efforts to enhance land-based farming practices.
Additionally, research is being conducted to improve pond facilities to mitigate
cannibalism among mud crabs.
A notable achievement in mud crab aquaculture is the successful development
of formulated feed with a feed conversion ratio of 1.5. This formulated feed offers
90 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

several advantages, including a reduced reliance on marine resources and the provision
of a nutritionally balanced diet. Furthermore, the use of formulated feed leads to
decreased labour requirements, as it simplifies feeding protocols. Ongoing research
and development in feed formulation remain vital for enhancing the efficiency and
sustainability of mud crab farming operations.
Lastly, initiatives for the genetic breeding of superior strains are underway. These
collective efforts contribute to the advancement and sustainability of mud crab
aquaculture in China.

MARKET INFORMATION

Major markets for hard- and soft-shell mud crabs

Mud crab is a very popular seafood dish in the coastal provinces of China. In the
past 10 years, China’s demand for imported mud crabs has increased steadily. In the
cities of Shanghai, Guangzhou and Xiamen, the total annual volume of imported mud
crabs exceeds 30 000 t. Imports are mainly from Viet Nam, Indonesia, Philippines
and Myanmar. These imports supplement domestic production to meet the growing
demand for mud crab across various regions in China.

Product prices
The mud crab market is diverse, with distinct size and sex classes commanding
significantly different prices. Larger mud crabs are often transported to major cities
where they fetch higher prices. Ovigerous female crabs are priced substantially higher
than immature females and smaller male crabs. This premium pricing reflects the
demand for mature female crabs with late-stage ovaries, which are highly sought after
for their perceived quality and flavour.
In general, mud crabs are sold locally at around CNY 160/kg, but high-quality
crabs can command up to CNY 240/kg. However, during festive seasons, particularly
around the Lunar New Year, prices for mud crabs can exceed CNY 400/kg due to high
market demand and limited supply.

MAJOR ISSUES AND CHALLENGES OF THE INDUSTRY

The demand for crab seeds in China is approximately 6 billion units. However,
hatchery-reared seeds currently account for less than 2 percent of the total seed
supply, which is insufficient to support farming operations. To address this shortfall,
further advancements in hatchery technology are essential, particularly in broodstock
management and nursery practices.
Although polyculture systems are widely utilized for mud crabs, the survival rate
remains relatively low, at around 10 percent. This low survival rate results in reduced
production levels. In contrast, soft-shell crabs cultured in crab apartments demonstrate
impressive survival rates, often exceeding 80 percent. Despite this high survival rate,
market demand for soft-shell crabs remains limited, primarily due to consumer
preferences. Chinese consumers generally prefer purchasing live crabs over frozen
or preserved products. Consequently, the overall demand for soft-shell crabs in the
market is limited.
In the past two years, a formulated feed with a feed conversion ratio of 1.5 has
been developed, priced at approximately CNY 10 000/t (or USD 1 400/t), similar to
the price of shrimp feed. While the government encourages and supports the use of
formulated feed, several processing challenges persist, including issues related to the
small size and rapid dissolution of feed particles. These obstacles hinder the widespread
use of formulated feed by the industry. Further research is required to improve feed
efficiency and usability.
Mud crab aquaculture situation in China 91

The development of genetically superior breeds presents significant potential

for advancing mud crab aquaculture. However, China currently faces a shortage of
genetically improved breeds that exhibit superior farming performance.

CONCLUSION
Currently, the design and supporting facilities of mud crab hatcheries are not
specifically tailored to the needs of crab larvae; instead, they are primarily adapted from
shrimp and fish hatcheries. To improve survival rates and enhance seed production,
there is a pressing need to develop specialized culture ponds for megalopae and crablets
during the nursery stage.
Cannibalism is a major factor affecting the survival of mud crabs in pond culture. To
address this issue, it is crucial to improve pond design that reduces hostile behaviour
among the cultured crabs. Also, the development of feed tailored for specific crab
products or growth stages – such as soft-shell crabs, fattening, or maturation of
ovigerous females – should be prioritized by the industry.
Superior breeds are important to the growth of the aquaculture industry. Through
population-level breeding, crossbreeding and genomic selection techniques, it is
possible to develop new breeds of mud crabs that exhibit desirable traits, thereby
promoting the development of the mud crab industry.

FURTHER READING
Chen, F.Y. & Wang, K.J. 2019. Characterization of the innate immunity in the mud
crab Scylla paramamosain. Fish & Shellfish Immunology, 93: 436-448.
Cui, W.W., Guan, M.Y., Sadek, M.A., Wu, F.C., Wu, Q.Y., Tan, H.Q., Shi, X.,
Ikhwanuddin, M. & Ma, H.Y. 2021. Construction of a genetic linkage map and QTL
mapping for sex indicate the putative genetic pattern of the F1 hybrid Scylla (Scylla
serrata ♀ × S. paramamosain ♂). Aquaculture, 545: 737222.
Han, W.F., Liu, H. & Wang, Y.C. 2024. Changes of nutrient composition in the ovaries
and hepatopancreas of mud crab Scylla paramamosain broodstock and their offspring
performance at different salinities. Aquaculture, 585: 740704.
Wang, M., Geng, X.H., Li, X.R. & Ye, H.H. 2023. Regulation of CHH family in eyestalk
by A-type allatostatin in the mud crab Scylla paramamosain. Aquaculture, 568: 739349.
Wang, W., Liu, Z.Q., Wang, W.Y., Zhang, F.Y., Ma, C.Y., Zhao, M., Ma, K.Y. & Ma, L.B.
2024. Feeding rhythm of the zoea larvae of Scylla paramamosain: The dynamic feeding
rhythm is not completely synchronized with photoperiod. Heliyon, 10(8): e29826.
Ye, H.H., Tao, Y., Wang, G.Z., Lin, Q.W., Chen, X.L. & Li, S.J. 2011. Experimental nursery
culture of the mud crab Scylla paramamosain (Estampador) in China. Aquaculture
International, 9(2): 313–321.
Zheng, P.Q., Han, T., Li, X.Y., Wang, J.T., Sun, H., Xu, H.Y., Wang, Y.B. & Wang,
C.L. 2020. Dietary protein requirement of juvenile mud crab Scylla paramamosain.
Aquaculture, 518: 734852.
 93

Mud crab industry status in the

Philippines

Emilia T. Quinitio
Integrated Services for the Development of Aquaculture and Fisheries, Iloilo City, Philippines

ABSTRACT
The Philippines is one of the top producers of mud or mangrove crab in the world. The
total production of mud crab from aquaculture was estimated at 15 794 tonnes valued at
USD 113 083 in 2013 and increased gradually to 23 112 tonnes valued at USD 238 002
in 2021. Within the country, the production was highest in Northern Mindanao
(7 889 tonnes), Central Luzon (5 419 tonnes), Calabarzon (5 172 tonnes) and Western
Visayas (1 986 tonnes) in 2021. Scylla serrata, Scylla olivacea and Scylla tranquebarica
are farmed in the Philippines. The decline in all sizes of wild crab populations has been
documented. To manage and conserve the resources, several ordinances and regulations
have been enforced. Hatcheries and nurseries have also been established to sustain the
crab farming industry.
S. serrata has been the focus of hatchery and nursery culture due to the preference
for this species by crab growers. Rotifers are used to feed the early crab zoeal stage. A
few nurseries have been integrated with the hatchery or grow-out ponds. Small crabs
(carapace width < 1.5 cm) from either the hatchery or wild are nursed in net cages for
a few days prior to stocking in grow-out ponds. Many crab growers also stock crablets
directly in well-prepared ponds. Two phases of nursery culture were developed that
utilize grow-out ponds, depending on the desired crab size. Mangrove crab farming
involves the long-term culture of juvenile crabs to market size for 3–5 months, short-
term fattening of lean crabs for 15–30 days and soft-shell crab for 3–4 weeks per cycle.
Polyculture of juvenile crabs to market size with one or two fish species in the pond
is commonly practised to maximize pond use and revenue. Seaweeds (Gracilaria),
which serve as shelters, are also grown with crabs. The common diseases encountered
in the grow-out ponds are white spot syndrome virus, vibriosis and Hematodinium
(dinoflagellate parasites).
The most recent applied research activities include the domestication and selective
breeding of S. serrata. Other recent innovations include the genetic and genomic
applications in mangrove crab farming. The major issues and challenges facing the
crab industry are inadequate supply of good quality seedstock; inconsistent quality of
broodstock; cannibalism in the nursery and grow-out ponds; diseases in the hatchery
and grow-out ponds; and lack of low cost and practical diets. Selective breeding of
mangrove crab needs to be continued to have improved growth and disease-resistant
or disease-free stocks. Mangrove crabs are not difficult to breed but sufficient facilities
are required due to their cannibalistic nature. The selective breeding programme is a
multidisciplinary endeavour involving geneticists, aquaculturists and disease experts.

INTRODUCTION
Mangrove or mud crab farming has long been established in the Philippines. S. serrata,
S. olivacea and S. tranquebarica are commonly found in the country. S. serrata is the
focus in the hatcheries and is the preferred species for farming due to its fast growth,
large size (Ng, 1998) and less aggressive behaviour compared to S. tranquebarica
94 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

and S. olivacea (Meakin, 2006). These

FIGURE 1
Map showing the distribution of wild Scylla serrata (red stars), two other species are sourced from
the preferred cultured species, along the eastern seaboard of the wild at a larger size for short-term
the Philippines culture such as fattening and soft-shell
crab production. S. serrata is often
found along the eastern seaboard of the
Philippines (Pacific Ocean side) such as
Cagayan, Camarines, Albay, Sorsogon,
Catanduanes, Samar and Surigao. S.
olivacea and S. tranquebarica are the
common species along the western
seaboard (West Philippine Sea, Sulu
Sea and bodies of water between the
islands) (Figure 1).

Wild stock status

The significant decline in the wild
populations in the country has been
documented (Lebata et al., 2007;
Quinitio et al., 2017; Castrence-
Gonzales et al., 2018). A study assessed
the mangrove community structure,
relative abundance of all sizes of crabs
(catch per unit effort) in two collection
sites in Northern Samar, one of the
major sources of S. serrata. The decrease
in the population of mangrove crabs
is associated with the indiscriminate
collection of crablets and female
crabs at various stages of maturity,
degradation of habitat – specifically,
the dwindling mangrove areas – and
illegal fishing practices.
Note: Refer to the disclaimer on the copyright page for the names and boundaries
used in this map. Conservation and management of
Source: Map from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Provinces_of_the_
Philippines
wild resources
The Philippine Fisheries Code
(Republic Act 8550) provides for the development, management and conservation of
fisheries and aquatic resources in the country and the reconstitution or establishment
of fisheries institutions both at the national and local level and came into effect in July
1998. This was amended in February 2015 by Republic Act 10654, providing higher
penalties while authorizing better monitoring systems to stop illegal, unreported and
unregulated (IUU) fishing activities.
Due to the documented decrease in wild stock population and continuous rampant
and unregulated collection of various sizes of mangrove crabs from the natural habitat
in Northern Luzon, Bicol Region, Eastern Visayas, Northern Mindanao, Caraga
and Zamboanga Region, the local government with the joint effort of the Bureau
of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) have adopted regulations on mangrove
crabs. The ordinances prohibit the catching, trading and transporting of crablets
(≤ 3 cm) outside the municipality of origin, especially without permit. This has
resulted in the increased acceptability of hatchery-reared crablets by the growers. The
most recent issuance of the Fisheries Administrative Order (FAO) No. 264-2020 by
BFAR covers the national regulations on mangrove crabs. This Order regulates the
Mud crab industry status in the Philippines 95

catching, possessing, transporting, trading, and exporting of wild crablets (carapace

width ≤ 12 cm) and gravid and berried crabs, Scylla spp., except when these will be used
for research and academic purposes. Penalties shall be imposed on offenders.
Mangroves serve as the habitat of many aquatic animals including crabs. There are
several administrative decrees, orders and proclamations1 that have been promulgated to
protect the remaining mangrove areas and mitigate extensive deforestation (Primavera,
2000). Conservation of the country’s remaining 100 000 ha of mangrove forests and the
rehabilitation of degraded sites are continuously being undertaken. Mangrove-friendly
aquaculture (such as crabs, bivalves and fish aquasilviculture or integral mangrove
ponds and pens) are promoted (SEAFDEC/AQD, 1999).

Management and regulation of mangroves crab aquaculture

Under the Fisheries Administrative Order No. 264, transportation and trading of
hatchery-bred crablets are allowed, provided that the facilities are registered with the
BFAR and that a certificate has been issued by the hatchery establishment indicating
that the crablets are hatcherybred. There are also ordinances issued by some provinces
and municipalities that support crab aquaculture.

Licensing and accreditation

The transport and trading of mangrove crabs (either from hatcheries, ponds or
the wild) for aquaculture purposes is accompanied by the Local Transport Permit
(LTP) issued by the Fisheries Quarantine Officers or Provincial Fisheries Officers
of the BFAR for fish and fishery products. The LTP permits individuals to transport
aquatic wildlife, byproducts, or derivatives obtained from legal sources within the
country. This domestic movement authorization allows for the transportation of these
materials from their point of origin to their intended destination within the country.
An Auxiliary Invoice is issued by the local government or BFAR for the transport
and domestic movement of fish and aquatic products obtained from aquaculture or
conventional fishing. LTP requires the Auxiliary Invoice from the local government
unit, the Bill of Lading and a commercial invoice/pro-forma invoice. The fishery
products are presented for inspection and then the required fees are paid prior to the
issuance of the approved LTP.
There are also some requirements for the export of live food crustaceans and
fish (FAO No. 319-2009) such as: registration with BFAR and issuance of a Health
Certificate; issuance of Commodity Clearance; and border inspection and verification.
This is to strengthen the procedures for the issuance of a health certificate and for the
smooth implementation in the processing of necessary documents for the export of live
food crustaceans and fish.

INDUSTRY STATUS

Production status
In 2012, the Philippines was the largest producer of mud crab in the world (FAO, 2023)
but only the second-largest for the period 2013–2021 (Table 1). The total production
of mangrove crab from aquaculture in the country was estimated at 15 794 t valued at
USD 113 083 in 2013 and increased gradually to 23 112 t valued at USD 238 002 in
2021 (FAO, 2023) (Figure 2).

1
Such as Presidential Decree or PD 705, 1975; P.P. 2151 and 2152, 1981; P.P. 2146, 1982; Ministry of
Natural Resources (MNR) Administrative Order or AO 42, 1986; PD 1067; Department of Environment
and Natural Resources (DENR) AO 77, 1988; DENR AO 15, 1990.
96 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

TABLE 1
Aquaculture production volume of Scylla spp. of top producing countries (t)

Country 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
198
Viet Nam 13 000 13 000 49 140 54 588 64 633 65 463 36 000 80 162 81 144
729
Philippines 16 360 15 794 16 160 16 199 16 860 18 100 20 770 20 772 20 766 23 112
Indonesia 14 163 11 898 13 594 12 546 11 407 2 704 33 807 14 208 10 767 10 840
Thailand 700 700 800 800 1 000 1 100 1 773 1 561 2 556 3 479
Malaysia 65 45 81 96 79 133 82 318 269 257
Cambodia 40 40 50 50 68 70 80 90 120 100
Singapore 122 89 26 119 55 30 39 21 22 57
Taiwan Province of
122 89 26 32 21 7 6 6 12 27
China
Fiji - - 7 7 7 10 10 10 10 10
Sri Lanka 2 1 2 12 155 51 69 60 22 7
United Republic of
- 0.1 0.2 0.2 2.4 2 1.02 - - 1.39
Tanzania
Brunei Darussalam 5 - - - - - 0.5 - 1.38 1.35
Mauritius 1.2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Papua New Guinea 4 4 4 4 4 - - - 1 1

Source: FAO. 2023. FishStat: Global Aquaculture Production. Fisheries and Aquaculture. [Accessed on 05 September 2023]. In: FishstatJ.
Available at www.fao.org/fishery/en/statistics/software/fishstatj. Licence: CC-BY-4.0.

FIGURE 2
Annual crab production in volume and value from aquaculture in the Philippines from
2012 to 2021

25 000 250 000

20 000 200 000

Value (USD 1 000)

15 000 150 000

Volume (t)

10 000 100 000

5 000 50 000

0 0
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021

Volume
Source: Philippine Statistics Authority. Aquaculture: Volume Value
of production by species, region and province, 1996–2021.
Fisheries Statistics Division. Latest update 8 August 2023. Available at https://openstat.psa.gov.ph/Metadata/2E4GVAP1

Farming area
The Philippines is an archipelagic country consisting of 7 641 islands, of which about
2 000 islands are inhabited. It has the fifth-longest coastline in the world, with a
total length 36 289 km. Fisheries and aquaculture are major activities in the coastal
communities. Mud crabs are farmed in many coastal regions in the country. In 2020
and 2021 the production was highest in Northern Mindanao (7 759 t and 7 889 t),
Central Luzon (5 099 t and 5 419 t), Calabarzon (4 096 t and 5 172 t) and Western
Visayas (2 013 t and 1 986 t) (Figure 3 and Figure 4). Most of the seedstocks farmed
in these regions are S. serrata sourced from Cagayan, Bicol region, Eastern Visayas
Mud crab industry status in the Philippines 97

FIGURE 3
Mud crab production by region in the Philippines in 2020

Volume (t)
0 1 000 2 000 3 000 4 000 5 000 6 000 7 000 8 000

Ilocos Region 10
Cagayan Valley 43
Central Luzon Volume (t)
5 097
CALABARZON 0 1 000 2 000 3 000 4 000 4 0965 000 6 000 7 000 8 000
MIMAROPA
Ilocos Region 12
10
Bicol Region
Cagayan Valley 43 353
Western
CentralVisayas
Luzon 2 013 5 097
Central Visayas
CALABARZON 1 4 096
Eastern Visayas
MIMAROPA 12201
Zamboanga Peninsula
Bicol Region 353 749
Nothern
WesternMindanao
Visayas 2 013 7 759
DavaoVisayas
Central Region 116
SOCCSKSARGEN
Eastern Visayas 0 201
Caraga
Zamboanga Peninsula 301 749
BARMM
Nothern Mindanao 116 7 759
Davao Region 16
Philippine Statistics Authority. Aquaculture: Volume of production by species, region and province, 1996–2021.
Source:SOCCSKSARGEN
0
Fisheries Statistics Division. Latest update 8 August 2023. Available at https://openstat.psa.gov.ph/Metadata/2E4GVAP1
Caraga 301
BARMM 116 Volume (t)
0 1 000 2 000 3 000 4 000 5 000 6 000 7 000 8 000 9 000
FIGURE 4
Mud 9crab
Ilocos Region production by region in the Philippines in 2021
Cagayan Valley 44
Volume (t)
Central Luzon 5 419
CALABARZON 0 1 000 2 000 3 000 4 000 5 000 6 000
5 172
7 000 8 000 9 000
MIMAROPA
Ilocos Region 8
9
Bicol Region
Cagayan Valley 44 517
Western Visayas
Central Luzon 1 986 5 419
Central Visayas
CALABARZON 0 5 172
Eastern Visayas
MIMAROPA 8 827
Zamboanga Peninsula
Bicol Region 711
517
Nothern
WesternMindanao
Visayas 1 986 7 889
Davao Visayas
Central Region 7
0
SOCCSKSARGEN
Eastern Visayas 1 827
Caraga
Zamboanga Peninsula 400711
BARMM
Nothern Mindanao 122 7 889
Davao Region 7
SOCCSKSARGEN 1
Caraga 400
BARMM 122

Source: Philippine Statistics Authority. Aquaculture: Volume of production by species, region and province, 1996–2021.
Fisheries Statistics Division. Latest update 8 August 2023. Available at https://openstat.psa.gov.ph/Metadata/2E4GVAP1

and Surigao. S. olivacea and S. tranquebarica are sourced elsewhere in the country but
S. tranquebarica is found in significantly lower quantities.

Hatcheries, nurseries and grow-out farms

Compared to shrimp hatcheries, the number of crab hatcheries (Figure 5) is
significantly lower due to the much lower stocking density required for crabs (800–
1 000/ha in polyculture) compared to shrimp post-larvae (≥ 20 000/ha). This difference
in stocking density is influenced by the culture system and the cannibalistic behaviour
of crabs, which limits high-density stocking. To optimize pond space and reduce the
risk of cannibalism, mangrove crabs are cultured in polyculture systems alongside
herbivorous fish such as milkfish or siganids, and omnivorous species like saline tilapia.
98 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 5
Crab hatchery using concrete tanks
©E.T. Quinitio

Several hatcheries were operational prior to the COVID-19 pandemic; however,

the aquaculture industry, including farmers and fishers, was significantly impacted
by the pandemic due to stricter border controls and restrictions on activities aimed
at preventing disease transmission. Many farmers either suspended or scaled back
farming operations, while some hatcheries halted crablet production to mitigate the
risk of incurring additional costs. Recently, hatcheries have been gradually resuming
full operations as restrictions ease and industry conditions stabilize.
The Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic, and Natural Resources Research
and Development (PCAARRD), a sectoral council under the Department of Science
and Technology (DOST), is responsible for allocating government and external funds
for research and development, as well as generating resources to support its programs.
In response to the needs of the crab industry, PCAARRD has allocated funding for the
establishment of hatcheries through the project “Adoption of improved commercial
scale mangrove crab hatchery-nursery system” at several sites across the country,
including Quezon, Maguindanao, Capiz and Cagayan. Three of these hatcheries have
recently begun operations.
The number of crab hatcheries is expected to grow as the volume of wild crabs
declines and the demand for both farming and soft-shell crab production rises. Before
the COVID-19 pandemic, several hatcheries, including those run by private sectors,
Local Government Units (LGUs), and research institutions, were operational. Many
of these entities are also involved in marine fish seed production, having already
established rotifer production systems. Rotifers remain the preferred feed for early-
stage crab zoea due to their small size, suitable nutritional profile, ease of culture and
slow mobility. In contrast, Artemia nauplii (umbrella stage), though commonly used,
are big for early zoea and are becoming increasingly expensive.
A few nurseries have been integrated with hatcheries or grow-out ponds. Small
crabs (with a carapace width of < 1.5 cm), sourced either from hatcheries or the wild,
are sometimes temporarily held in net cages (hapas) for a few days before being released
into the pond (Figure 6). However, many crab growers prefer to stock crablets directly
into ponds, provided the ponds are well-prepared – this includes predator eradication
and the use of fine mesh nets to screen incoming water. Additionally, some shrimp
hatchery operators have diversified into crab seed production, adapting their facilities
to meet the specific needs of the crab farming sector.
In the Bicol region, megalopae collected from the wild are stocked in ponds for
a few weeks until they grow to a suitable size for pond stocking. Although still in
the larval stage, megalopae are collected to prevent them from being eaten by natural
predators. Crab instars are also gathered and either grown in dedicated nursery ponds
or sold to other nursery operators, who then sell the crabs to grow-out pond operators.
Mud crab industry status in the Philippines 99

FIGURE 6
Net cages in ponds for growing crablets in the nursery phase

©E.T. Quinitio
Grow-out farms are widely distributed across the country’s coastal regions. Current
brackish-water ponds, cover an area of approximately 239 323 hectares, used for
the culture of shrimp species (Penaeus monodon and Penaeus vannamei), milkfish,
mangrove crabs and various other marine fish species, either in monoculture or
polyculture systems. Additionally, 139 735 hectares of brackish-water swamplands
remain available for potential development for these aquaculture commodities.

AQUACULTURE PRACTICES

Hatchery
Although the hatchery technology applies to all three crab species (S. serrata,
S. tranquebarica, and S. olivacea), S. serrata has been the focus of hatchery and nursery
culture due to the preference for this species by the crab growers. S. serrata broodstock
(500–700 g) for the hatchery is commonly sourced from trading centres, commercial
ponds or from the wild, where the major criteria for selection include advance stage of
ovarian maturity, completeness of limbs and activeness of crabs (Quinitio and Parado-
Estepa, 2008).
Crabs spawn within 2–4 weeks after stocking in the maturation tanks depending
on the stage of ovarian maturity when sourced. Ovigerous crabs (berried females
or females carrying eggs attached to the abdominal flap) are retrieved, disinfected
and transferred to the spawning tanks at one female per tank until their eggs hatch.
After hatching, the larvae are examined and transferred immediately into the larval
tanks. Newly hatched zoeae are fed rotifers and then Artemia at late zoea 2 onwards.
If rotifers are not sufficient, umbrella stage Artemia or newly hatched small strain
Artemia are fed to zoea 1. Three to four-day old Artemia are fed to later zoea stages.
When megalopae start to become benthic, they are fed minced fish and molluscs until
crab instar. At present, there are several commercially available shrimp-formulated
diets with various levels of highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) and other essential
nutrients that can be fed to crab larvae.
Seawater is changed every 3–4 days and then zoea 5 are transferred to other tanks
with new seawater and held there until harvest at early crab instar (C). Survival rate
from zoea 1 to crab instar ranges from 3–10 percent (Figure 7).
100 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 7
Scylla serrata crablets produced in the hatchery for the nursery phase or grow-out ponds
©E.T. Quinitio

Nursery practices
Wild crablets for farming are often stocked directly in the grow-out ponds, however
survival is low. The nursery system was developed to culture the megalopae and crab
instars from the hatchery or wild prior to release in the grow-out ponds. The stocking
of megalopae were first introduced using net cages installed in earthen brackishwater
ponds for easy retrieval of stocks especially for short-term culture of 1–2 weeks.
Two phases of the nursery culture were developed depending on the desired size for
stocking in grow-out ponds. Phase 1 previously involved megalopae for stocking
(Rodriguez et al., 2001). However, C1–C2 is often stocked (Quinitio et al., 2009;
SEAFDEC/AQD, 2010) in the nursery because not all farmers can handle a larval
stage as delicate as the megalopa. Megalopae or C1–C2 are grown to a carapace width
of 1.5–2.0 cm. Some farmers prefer bigger crabs, hence these crablets are further grown
to 3.0–4.0 cm in phase 2 (SEAFDEC/AQD, 2010; Rodriguez, Parado-Estepa and
Quinitio, 2007). Phase 2 of the nursery is also carried out in net cages in ponds, or
in ponds with or without net enclosures around the dykes (SEAFDEC/AQD, 2010).
The net enclosures, as in cages in ponds, prevent the escape of cultured stocks and
the entry of other crab species. The culture period is 1–3 weeks. Small earthen pond
compartments are also used by collectors to nurse the megalopae or crab instars until
these are big enough to be sold to grow-out farmers.
The major problem in the nursery phase is cannibalism since the crablets moult
regularly to grow. Strips of used nets (plastic materials are discouraged), and seaweeds
(Gracilaria) are used as shelters to reduce cannibalism. Food items for the crablets
consist of minced low value fish, mollusc meat (snails, mussels, etc.) and commercially
available formulated diets used for shrimps at satiation level. Feeding crablets with a
combination of minced mollusc meat or low-value fish, and pelleted diet formulated
for crab gives better performance in the nursery. About 30–50 percent of the pond
water is changed every spring tide or when needed and a water depth of 50–80 cm is
maintained depending on the system used.

Grow-out
Mangrove crab farming typically involves either the long-term culture of juvenile crabs
to market size over 3–5 months, or the short-term fattening of lean crabs for 15–30
days. Polyculture, where juvenile crabs are cultured alongside one or two fish species
in brackish-water ponds, is commonly practiced to optimize pond space. Herbivorous
Mud crab industry status in the Philippines 101

(milkfish or siganids) or omnivorous (saline tilapia) fish species are often co-cultured
with mangrove crabs. In some cases, a combination of three species is used, but at lower
stocking densities for each.
While co-culturing shrimp (P. monodon) with crabs is generally discouraged due
to shared disease risks, such as white spot syndrome, some farmers still combine these
commodities. Stocking density of crabs is typically reduced during colder months when
disease risk is higher. A typical stocking density for mud crab juveniles is 800–1 000
ind./ha, while milkfish fingerlings or saline tilapia are stocked at 1 000–2 000 ind./ha.
In some systems, the seaweed Gracilaria is cultivated alongside crabs, providing shelter
and improving pond conditions. To prevent stock escape, bamboo or polyethylene
netting is installed, particularly in ponds where the dyke height is low.
The major food items for mangrove crabs are fish of various species, small bivalves,
golden snails, telescope snails and other molluscs, boiled corn, and formulated feeds
or whatever cheap source of protein is available in the area. Feeds are provided daily
at 10 percent of the total biomass at the start of the culture and then reduced gradually
from 8 to 3 percent as the crabs grow to market size. Feeding frequency varies from
1–2 times daily of the appropriate food ration. Water is changed during spring tide or
whenever necessary. The depth of pond water is maintained not lower than 80 cm. The
optimum water and soil conditions are maintained as far as possible.

Fattening
During harvest, 20–40 percent of crabs generally have missing limbs, unequal claw
size, or are undersized or lean which results in rejection by traders for export market
and a much lower price in the domestic market. These crabs are fattened to add more
value. In the communal fattening system, several lean or undersized crabs are stocked
together in pond compartments, pens or cages at stocking density of 1–3 ind./m2, with
lower densities and a shorter holding period for larger crabs. In the individual system,
crabs are stocked individually in improvised containers such as perforated plastic
water containers, crates, boxes, baskets or compartmentalized bamboo cages. These are
positioned in the same pond where polyculture of crabs and fish is done to maximize
the pond usage. Containers for fattening are set up in protected estuaries, sheltered
coastal waters and bays. Crabs are also stocked in boxes in indoor vertical recirculating
aquaculture system (RAS). Some RAS operators modify their setups using locally
sourced materials to reduce costs, as purchasing a complete system can be prohibitively
expensive and result in higher operational costs. Crabs are fed 1–2 times daily with
low value raw fish and molluscs at satiation level. Crabs are cultured for 1–3 weeks to
enhance their market value.

Aquasilviculture
Crabs are cultivated in enclosed areas within mangrove forests using pens.
Aquasilviculture offers a lower investment for construction and operational costs
while preserving the integrity of the mangroves, and it has been implemented in various
coastal areas across the country. However, some projects have faced challenges due
to unsuitable site conditions. A significant issue encountered has been the presence
of crab predators, including carnivorous fish such as groupers and snappers, as well
as sea snakes and competitive species like crenate and blue swimming crabs, which
often cannibalize newly moulted mangrove crabs. As a result, larger crabs are typically
stocked for short-term culture, making aquasilviculture more suitable for fattening.
In 2011, the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) launched the
Philippine National Aquasilviculture Program to rehabilitate and protect mangrove
resources, establish aquasilviculture livelihood projects, and support community-based
multi-species hatcheries.
102 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Soft-shell crab production

Commercial production of soft-shell crabs in the Philippines started in the 2008
(Quinitio and Noe Lwin, 2009). Sourcing of crablets from the natural environment is
not encouraged due to the dwindling population of mangrove crabs. It is recommended
that crablets be sourced from hatcheries, grown further in ponds for 1.5–2.0 months or
until 60–100 g is attained, and stocked in perforated plastic boxes that are positioned
in floating platforms in ponds (Quinitio et al., 2015; The Mangrove Crab Technical
Committee 2018, 2021) (Figure 8). In some cases, plastic boxes with recirculating water
system under a roofed structure is utilized (Figure 9). Crabs are harvested when they
are newly moulted and held in basins with aerated clean freshwater. Survival rate ranges
from 70–90 percent at the end of a cycle. Crabs are sorted according to size prior to
packing in food grade packaging material. Most of the crabs stocked, if sourced from
the wild, are S. olivacea. Since the local demand still exceeds the supply, soft-shell crabs
are imported into the country.

FIGURE 8
Production of soft-shell crabs in modified set-up using perforated plastic trays
©E.T. Quinitio

The final product should meet the quality characteristics (quality and sensory
attributes) of raw soft-shell crabs and should conform to existing microbiological
quality requirements. Likewise, heavy metals and veterinary drug residues should not
exceed the maximum levels specified in the Philippines National Product/Bureau of
Agriculture and Fisheries Standards No. 235-2022 on fresh/frozen soft-shell crab.

CRAB HEALTH AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT

Live crabs brought to the hatchery may carry pathogens that can cause disease.
Prophylaxis is applied or broodstock are quarantined prior to stocking in maturation
tanks. Screening of crabs for white spot syndrome virus (WSSV), infectious hypodermal
and hematopoietic necrosis virus (IHHN), Hepatopancreatic Acute Necrosis Syndrome
(AHPNS) and luminescent bacteria, among others, is sometimes carried out. Because
analysis is expensive, several crabs of the same batch are sometimes pooled for analysis.
Uneaten food in the broodstock tanks is siphoned out after 4–5 hours prior to the next
feeding.
Mud crab industry status in the Philippines 103

FIGURE 9
Recirculating aquaculture system in vertical “apartments” used for soft-shell crab production

©E.T. Quinitio
Common challenges in crab hatcheries include infections of eggs and larvae caused
by vibriosis and Lagenidium, as well as infestations by various protozoans such as
Vorticella, Epistylis and Zoothamnium. To mitigate these issues, culture seawater is
disinfected after undergoing a series of filtration processes and, in some cases, treated
with ultraviolet (UV) light or ozone before being distributed to tanks. Prophylactic
measures are implemented prior to the stocking of larvae and throughout the rearing
process to prevent disease outbreaks.
When wild crablets are introduced into grow-out ponds, they are often not screened
for bacteria or viruses. The most common diseases affecting crab culture include
white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) vibriosis, and more recently, Hematodinium, a
dinoflagellate parasite that has been associated with high mortality rates. Proper pond
preparation before stocking is crucial and should include disinfection of the pond and
elimination of unwanted organisms.

RESEARCH AND INNOVATION

Although foundational technologies have been commercially developed for all phases
of crab culture, ongoing refinements are continually implemented to enhance the
profitability and sustainability of crab production. The Science and Technology
(S&T) Road Map established by PCAARRD under the Department of Science and
Technology (DOST) is outlined in Table 2. This road map is revisited annually.
Research and development efforts accomplished over the years have been detailed
by Quinitio et al. (2017). Recent innovations in mangrove crab culture include the
following genetic and genomic applications (The Mangrove Crab Technical Committee
2018, 2021; Romana-Eguia et al., 2019):
• Crabifier: Identifying the three common Scylla species in the country poses a
challenge, particularly when wild crabs have a carapace width of less than 3 cm,
as morphological differences are not discernible at this size (Vince Cruz-Abeledo
et al., 2018). Farmers often stock crabs even smaller than 3 cm. To address this
104 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

TABLE 2
Philippines mangrove crab PCAARRD-DOST Science and Technology (S&T) Road Map from 2022–2028
R&D results Policy research Capacity building
Present situation Strategic R&D S&T goals
utilization and advocacy and governance
• Inadequate • Mangrove crab Rollout/pre- • Impact • Hatchery and • Sustainable crab
supply of genomics (Phase 2) commercialization/ assessment (IA) nursery facilities production.
broodstock and commercialization on developed enhancement/
• Enhancement of crab • Increased
seedstock. of the following: mangrove upgrading.
broodstock. survival rate
crab hatchery
• Lack of suitable • Crabifier. • Seminar/training in hatchery
• Application of technologies.
commercial diets on the ff: (> 10%),
exogenous metabolites • Mangrove crab
for broodstock • Assessment nursery (≥ 80%)
in improving soft-shell fattening. - Use of Crabifier.
and practical report of and grow-out
crab production.
diets for grow- • Establishment of the different - Crab fattening. (60–70%).
out phase. • Molecular detection of more hatcheries programs/projects
- Use of the
pathogens in mangrove and nurseries. subjected to IA
• Low production/ improved
crabs. studies.
yield due to • Development of hatchery,
low survival • Interspecific- feeds. nursery and
rates caused by hybridization and grow-out
• Probiotic-
cannibalism and triploid induction of technologies.
based hatchery
diseases. mangrove crabs for
techniques.
improved performance
traits. • Detection kit for
Hematodinium.
• Enhancement of seed
production techniques • Nanomaterials
for Scylla olivacea. from crab shells.
• Genomics application
in mangrove crab
aquaculture.
• Postharvest (utilization
of waste products).

issue, a tool combining genetic and imaging methods has been developed and is
now available for use in the field. This ensures that the species purchased or stock
are the preferred ones.
• CrabMAP: This tool generates temperature vulnerability maps for key local
areas where mangrove crabs are cultivated. The results are crucial for developing
climate-smart aquaculture practices in crab farming.
• CrabADAPT: This application provides insights into the genetic adaptability of
mangrove crab populations exposed to varying temperature ranges and anomalies.
It is based on gene expression patterns observed across populations subjected to
different thermal profiles.
• CrabMOLT: This refers to the optimal combinations of salinity and temperature
that facilitate crab moulting. These genetically-based technologies will undergo
further validation in collaboration with farmers to enhance their effectiveness and
applicability.

Selective breeding programs aimed at enhancing several beneficial traits have been
initiated by SEAFDEC/AQD, resulting in crabs that are up to the third generation
free of WSSV from three founding populations (Quinitio and Huervana, 2018). In
selective breeding, crabs may exhibit favourable responses to selection after two or
three generations, necessitating the introduction of a new batch of stock for continued
genetic improvement. While traits associated with enhanced growth can be significantly
improved through selective breeding, it is essential to ensure that selection proceeds
only to the generation where genetic diversity, as indicated by the number of alleles,
does not decline drastically. Maintaining genetic diversity is crucial for the long-term
sustainability and resilience of crab populations.
Several research efforts have been identified to deal with the issue on lack of suitable
commercial diets. The development of immunostimulants and growth promoting
feeds – which may also increase tolerance to disease and improve survival and may
eliminate the use of antibiotics – have been identified. All these efforts are towards the
Mud crab industry status in the Philippines 105

accomplishment of the S&T goals for sustainable production and increased survival in
all phases of mangrove crab culture.
Results of the various research investigations can only give meaningful outcomes
when farmers learn and apply the advances through training. This also shows the
Philippines’ strength in facilitating this, as several such trainings have been done.

MARKET INFORMATION
Market-sized crabs from culture ponds and from the wild are sold to wholesalers
(brokers/middlemen) or consolidators, who then transport them to their destinations
for export or local consumption, including restaurants and hotels (Figure 10). Crabs
that do not go through wholesalers or consolidators are sold directly to local markets,
restaurants, exporters and importers.
Large-scale pond owners typically have shorter trading routes compared to small-
scale farmers, as they possess the means and capabilities to transport their crabs
directly. This allows them to engage in direct transactions with traders and exporters.
In contrast, small-scale farmers often face longer trading routes since their products
pass through brokers and middlemen before reaching buying stations. Some brokers
sell crabs directly in local public markets, while many small-scale farmers opt to sell
their crabs directly to consumers within their communities to minimize logistics costs.
Crabs that are rejected for the export market – such as those with missing claws or
limbs, undersized crabs and lean specimens – are typically redirected to local markets
or to buyers involved in fattening practices.
Transportation, handling and import fees add to the cost of crabs as they are
transported from the farm to the consumers. Crab price is based on the species, season,
size/weight, sex, maturity, completeness of claws and limbs, and general quality of the
crabs. The crabs that pass the export quality grades are sent to or picked-up by the
exporters. Upon arrival at the exporters’ area, the crabs are purged, cleaned, and sorted
again based on the classification. The crabs are repacked in polystyrene boxes with
ventilation holes.
Live crabs are exported to several countries, including China, China Hong Kong
SAR, Taiwan Province of China, Singapore and Malaysia. Before the COVID-19
pandemic, there were at least 16 registered exporters of mangrove crabs operating in
Metro Manila (The Mangrove Crab Technical Committee 2018, 2021). The demand
for exports remains consistently high, particularly towards the end of the year leading
up to the Chinese New Year and during the summer months. During peak season, the
price for premium crabs ranges from PHP 800–1 600/kg (or about USD 14–29/kg).
The market forms of crabs are the following:
• Live crabs – most of the exported crabs are live and classified into crabs with all
body parts intact or crabs with lacking claws. Crabs without claws fetch a lower
price.
• Crab claws – claws taken from live crabs or voluntarily removed by crabs are sold
separately (Figure 11).
• Soft-shell crabs – newly moulted crabs with sizes ranging from 80–150 g each are
frozen.

The Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Standards (BAFS) of the Philippine

Department of Agriculture, in collaboration with relevant government and research
agencies, academia and stakeholders developed the Philippine National Standard
(PNS) for live, fresh chilled and fresh frozen mangrove crabs (product standard), soft-
shell crabs (product standard), chilled or frozen crabs (code of practice) and Code of
Good Aquaculture Practices for shrimps and crabs (BAFS, 2022). These PNS describe
the food safety and quality requirements for market-size mangrove crabs.
106 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 10
Market channel for mangrove crabs

Growers (ponds/collectors
(wild)

Farmers involved in Local consumers/

fattening restaurants

Wholesalers/traders
consolidators

Exporters

MAJOR ISSUES AND CHALLENGES FACING THE INDUSTRY

In addition to the issues outlined in the roadmap (Table 2), the crab industry in the
country faces several other challenges, including the following:
• Mortality at megalopa stage – The moult death syndrome or mortality of
megalopa is due to the difficulty of zoea 5 to completely moult to megalopa. High
mortalities are also observed in megalopa approaching the crab instar stage.
• Cannibalism – Cannibalism especially during the nursery phase when crabs
frequently moult is a persistent issue. Several strategies to reduce cannibalism
have been applied including the incorporation of tryptophan in the diet (Laranja
et al., 2010), removal or trimming of chelipeds (Quinitio and Estepa, 2011), use
of different types and quantities of shelters, stocking density manipulation and
different feed formulations (The Mangrove Crab Technical Committee 2018,
2021; Quinitio, Estepa and Huervana, 2018).
• Lack of commercial feed – Low cost and practical diets specifically formulated
for mangrove crabs. Pilot testing of the formulated feeds for nursery and grow-
out phase in commercial setting needs to be continued to ensure its economic
feasibility. At present, only one feed company is producing formulated feed for
growing the crabs in ponds.
• Diseases – Disease outbreaks leading to mass mortality are a significant challenge
in crab farming. During the hatchery phase, common causes of mortality in
eggs and larvae include bacterial infections such as vibriosis, fungal infections
(e.g., Lagenidium spp. and Haliphthoros spp.), and infestations by ciliates like
Zoothamnium, Epistylis and Vorticella. In the nursery phase, no serious disease
issues are currently observed. However, in the grow-out phase, crabs can become
infected with white spot syndrome virus (WSSV), luminescent bacteria, and
dinoflagellate parasites like Hematodinium, which can lead to severe mortality
events.
• Lack of standardization for classifying market size crabs – One of the major
challenges in the crab industry is the absence of a uniform standard for classifying
market-size crabs. Currently, size and quality classifications can vary between
traders, exporters, and regions, leading to inconsistencies in pricing. In some cases,
Mud crab industry status in the Philippines 107

traders or exporters intentionally

FIGURE 11
downgrade the classification of Detached mangrove crab claws sold in the market
crabs to pay crab growers less
than the actual value of their
produce. Establishing clear and
enforceable grading systems for
size and quality would help ensure
transparency, fair pricing, and
trust between farmers, traders,
and exporters.

CONCLUSION
The results of past R&D efforts
have been successfully integrated
into existing technologies, leading to
improved crab production. Notable

©E.T. Quinitio
achievements include survival rates of
over 10 percent from zoea 1 to crab
instar 1, more than 70 percent survival
in the nursery phase, and about 50 percent in the grow-out phase. These improvements
have contributed to more efficient and sustainable crab farming practices.
Recently, however, crab growers have faced significant challenges, with high
mortalities among sub-adult and adult crabs, making it difficult to harvest the
necessary volume for export. This issue has also impacted hatchery operators, who rely
on broodstock from grow-out ponds, collectors and traders. Many crab broodstock
die within a week of arrival at the hatchery, leading to poor reproductive performance,
low zoeae production, and declining hatchery success. The scarcity of mature crabs has
driven prices to unprecedented levels.
To address these challenges, it is critical to continue and expand the selective breeding
programme for mangrove crabs initiated by SEAFDEC/AQD. This programme aims
to develop high-quality, disease-free stocks with better growth rates and higher
disease tolerance, which would improve overall yields. Although mangrove crabs are
not particularly difficult to breed, their cannibalistic behaviour necessitates adequate
facilities for successful breeding.
The selective breeding programme is multidisciplinary, involving geneticists,
aquaculturists and disease experts, and requires substantial funding support from the
government and stakeholders who stand to benefit from this long-term initiative. The
programme demands larger facilities and the expertise of multiple disciplines, but the
investment would contribute to a more resilient and productive crab farming industry.

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Demayo, C.G. 2018. The fishery of the mangrove crabs, Scylla spp., in three selected
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Laranja, J.L.Q., Quinitio, E.T., Catacutan, M.R. & Coloso, R.M. 2010. Effects of dietary
L-tryptophan on the agonistic behavior, growth and survival of juvenile mud crab Scylla
serrata. Aquaculture, 310: 84–90.
Lebata, J.H.L., Le Vay, L., Primavera, J.H., Walton, M.E. & Biñas, J.B. 2007. Baseline
assessment of fisheries for three species of mud crabs (Scylla spp.) in the mangroves of
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Meakin, S. 2006. Interspecific aggression in mud crabs (Scylla spp.). Bangor, UK. University
of Wales,. Master of Science thesis.
Ng, P.K.L. 1998. Crabs. In: K.E. Carpenter & V.H. Niem, eds. The Living Marine
Resources of the Western Pacific – Volume 2. FAO, Rome.
BAFS, 2022. Fresh and frozen soft-shell crab. PNS/BAFS 235. Product National Standard,
Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Standard, Department of Agriculture. Diliman,
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Primavera, J.H. 2000. Development and conservation of Philippine mangroves: Institutional
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Quinitio, E.T. & Parado-Estepa, F.D. 2008. Biology and hatchery of mud crabs Scylla
spp. Aquaculture Extension Manual No. 34, Second Edition. Iloilo City, Philippines,
SEAFDEC/AQD.
Quinitio, E.T. & Noe Lwin, M.M. 2009. Soft-shell mud crab farming. Iloilo City,
Philippines, SEAFDEC/AQD.
Quinitio, E.T., Rodríguez, E.M. & Estepa, F.D.P. 2009. Nursery and grow-out of mud
crab. In: Training handbook on rural aquaculture. Iloilo City, Philippines, SEAFDEC/
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Quinitio, E.T. & Estepa, F.D.P. 2011. Survival and growth of mud crab Scylla serrata,
juveniles subjected to removal or trimming of chelipeds. Aquaculture, 318: 229–234.
Quinitio, E.T., Libunao, G.X.S., Parado-Estepa, F.D. & Calpe, A.T. 2015. Soft-shell crab
production using hatchery-reared mud crab. Aquaculture Extension Manual No. 61.
Iloilo City, Philippines, SEAFDEC/AQD.
Quinitio, E.T, Vista, E.B., Vista, R.C. & Lebata-Ramos M.J.H. 2017. Mangrove structure
and mud crab population in northern Samar. In: E.T. Quinitio, F.D. Parado-Estepa &
R.M. Coloso, eds. Philippines: In the Forefront of the Mud Crab Industry: Proceedings
of the 1st National Mud Crab Congress. Iloilo City, Philippines, SEAFDEC/AQD.
Quinitio, E.T. & Huervana, J.J. 2018. Sustainable Production of Mud Crab through
Selective Breeding National Mud Crab Science and Technology Program. Terminal
Report submitted to IAARD-PCAARRD DOST. Los Banos, Philippines.
Quinitio, E.T., Estepa, F.D.P & Huervana, J.J. 2018. Biology and hatchery of mud crab
Scylla spp. Aquaculture Extension Manual No. 34. Third Edition. Iloilo City, Philippines,
SEAFDEC/AQD.
Rodriguez, E.M., Quinitio, E.T., Parado-Estepa, F.D. & Millamena, O.M. 2001. Culture
of Scylla serrata megalops in brackishwater ponds. In: O.M Millamena, E.T. Quinitio &
A. Blackshaw, eds. Proceedings of the International Forum on the Culture of Portunid
Crabs. 1–4 December 1998. Asian Fisheries Science, 14(2): 185–190.
Rodriguez, E.M., Parado-Estepa, F.D. & Quinitio, E.T. 2007. Extension of nursery
culture of Scylla serrata (Forsskal) juveniles in net cages and ponds. Aquaculture
Research, 38: 1588–1592.
Romana-Eguia, M.R., Lagman, M.C.A., Basiao, Z.U. & Ikeda, M. 2019. Genetic
Research Initiatives for Sustainable Aquaculture Production in the Philippines. Journal
of Integrated Field Science, 16: 4–7.
SEAFDEC/AQD. 1999. Proceedings of the Workshop on Mangrove Friendly Aquaculture,
Iloilo City, Philippines, 11–15 Jan. 1999. Iloilo City, Philippines, SEAFDEC/AQD.
SEAFDEC /AQD, ACE, MODE/SPPI, BVFMC, ACELT, BFAR & ACIAR/CATP.
2010. Mud crab nursery in ponds. Aquaculture Extension Manual No. 47. Iloilo City,
Philippines, SEAFDEC/AQD.
The Mangrove Crab Technical Committee 2018. 2021. The Philippines recommends for
mangrove crab. Los Banos, Philippines, DOST-PCAARRD.
Vince Cruz-Abeledo, C.C., Ting, K. & Lagman, M.C.A. 2018. Identification of species
diagnostic character for instar and juvenile mud crabs (Genus Scylla). Aquaculture,
491: 205–209.
 109

Status of mud crab industry in

Myanmar

Andrew Ng Ying Hui,1, 2 Chee Weng Soh3

1
HJT Foods Sdn. Bhd., Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
2
SG Crabs World Ltd., Kyauktan Township, Yangon Region, Myanmar
3
Crab Universe Sdn. Bhd., Selekoh, Perak, Malaysia

ABSTRACT
The mud crab industry in Myanmar has undergone rapid commercialization in
the past decade, growing by about 40 percent and generating USD 77.4 million in
export revenue in the period 2020–2021. As a result, mud crabs are currently the
single most important fishery export product from Myanmar. This growth was in a
large part driven by the proliferation of soft-shell crab aquaculture and this value-
added product can be sold for up to six times the price of live mud crabs. Myanmar
also implemented several new national standards for aquaculture to conform with
international food safety requirements. These measures elevated the overall safety
and quality for exported seafood products, and supported export authorization to
several new markets, notably in the European Union (EU). Expansion of the mud
crab industry has created many new job opportunities in non-urban and economically
marginalized areas of Myanmar. Soft-shell crab farming sees a high participation rate
among women in rural communities. The mud crab industry evidently has a huge
positive impact on economic development and improving livelihoods, but has come at
the cost of overexploiting this natural resource. At present, depletion of wild stocks
due to unmitigated overfishing and loss of natural habitat poses significant risks to
the sustainability of this industry (Figure 1). Addressing this issue, technical proof-
of-concept for mud crab hatcheries is being established in Myanmar, although the
next steps will need to focus on upscaling and commercial feasibility. There are also
opportunities to expand on existing community-based conservation and resource

FIGURE 1
SWOT analysis of the mud crab industry in Myanmar

STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
 Market leadership in soft-shell crab  High mortality in soft-shell crab farming
production by volume systems
 Food safety and high product quality is  Weak domestic logistics network leads to

S W
recognized by the international market high mortality of live crabs during transport

OPPORTUNITIES
 Adopting sustainable practices
O T THREATS

 Depletion of wild stock from unmitigated

(e.g. hatchery, conservation, pelleted feed) overfishing and loss of natural habitat
 Innovations to improve farming efficiency  Climate change resulting in irregular rainfall
 Increase robustness of domestic transport or more severe natural disasters (especially
chain (e.g. temperature-controlled trucks, tropical cyclones)
better planning, improved communication)
110 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

management efforts. Additionally, improvements to industry practices are needed to

minimize crab mortality rates during transportation and aquaculture, by strengthening
the domestic supply chain and innovating in aquaculture technologies, respectively.
Overall, there is a sizeable opportunity by investing in the future of this industry,
provided there is a clear roadmap and commitment towards sustainability.

INTRODUCTION

Species of commercial crabs

Mud crabs are a commercially significant fishery resource in Myanmar, wherein the
four closely-related species, Scylla serrata, Scylla olivacea, Scylla paramamosain and
Scylla tranquebarica have been identified. Although the species are not distinguished
in the commercial setting, studies point to different mud crab populations across the
three main tracts of mangroves in Myanmar: Rakhine State, Ayeyarwady Region
and Tanintharyi Region. S. olivacea is the main species in Myanmar and, along with
S. paramamosain, are found starting from the Ayeyarwady Delta and going towards
southern Myanmar in the Tanintharyi Region (Thein et al., 2015; Segura-Garcia
et al., 2018; Salagrama and Phyo, 2020). S. serrata is less common in Myanmar but
has been reported to be abundant in northern Rakhine State (Mar, 2023) whereas
S. tranquebarica is very rare. Among the other crab species of commercial importance,
blue swimmer crabs (Portunus pelagicus) are readily available but is mostly consumed
within the domestic market. Spanner crabs (Ranina ranina) are available from October–
December and are mostly exported to Taiwan Province of China and China, with some
quantity going to Japan. Other swimming crabs – including the three-spot swimming
crab (Portunus sanguinolentus), crucifix crab (Charybdis feriatus) and marbled crab
(Charybdis variegata) – collectively contribute less than 10 percent of the crab catch
and are highly seasonal (Macintosh, 2015).

Status of wild crab resources

The wild stock of mud crabs in Myanmar has been in steady decline over the past
decades, driven by the rapid commercialization of the mud crab industry, increased
fishing pressure, mangrove deforestation, and the widespread capture of immature
and ovigerous (“berried”) females. Despite the lack of data on wild stock levels, it
is widely accepted that mud crabs are an overexploited resource, where more than
134 million crabs are collected from the wild annually (Thura Swiss, 2021). Loss
of habitat is also an important cause for declining wild stock. In a country where
most households still rely on traditional stoves for cooking, harvesting of fuelwood
from mangroves is an important driver for deforestation (Feurer, Gritten and Than,
2018). Moreover, the conversion of mangrove forests for commercial use (such as
rice fields, aquaculture ponds and salt pans) is also an important factor contributing
to its decline. Consequently, mangrove cover in Myanmar has been receding at a
rate of approximately 4 percent each year, which cumulatively led to a net decline of
52 percent between 1996 and 2016 (Alban et al., 2020). According to the most recent
Forest Resource Assessment in 2020, only 453 250 ha of mangrove area remains in
Myanmar (FAO, 2020). Additionally, mud crab populations are vulnerable to the
effects of tropical cyclones. Cyclones in Myanmar typically coincide with the mud crab
breeding season of April–May, which has historically been linked to shortages during
what otherwise should be the peak season of June–September, presumably due to the
disrupted breeding cycle. Most recently, the Category 5 tropical cyclone Mocha, which
made landfall in Rakhine during May 2023, corresponded with a sharp decline in mud
crab supply (DMG, 2023). Thus, anecdotal evidence points to the susceptibility of the
mud crab breeding cycle to natural disasters, which could become more pronounced
with climate change.
Status of mud crab industry in Myanmar 111

Conservation and management of wild crab resources

The Myanmar Department of Fisheries (DoF) under the Ministry of Agriculture,
Livestock and Irrigation (MOALI) is the government agency responsible for the
management and conservation of fishery resources. The DoF’s authority over
freshwater and brackish water bodies, including the estuaries and mudflats wherein
mud crabs are captured, is defined within the Freshwater Fisheries Law (1991).
However, decentralization under the New Constitution (2008) allows each state
or region to draft their own freshwater fisheries legislation, thereby providing the
flexibility to implement practices suited to each region and setting up opportunities
for co-management between the authorities and resource users. To date, only Rakhine
State and Ayeyarwady Region have effectively implemented new fisheries laws (Tezzo
et al., 2018). Furthermore, the Forest Law (2018) and Conservation of Biodiversity and
Protected Areas Law (2018), administrated by the Forest Department, prescribes the
management of aquatic resources categorized as wild animals, designation of Protected
Areas, and penalties for fishing in reserved forests including the mangroves. Mud crab
fishers are required to have trapping licenses and pay fees to the Forest Department for
the right to fish in the mangroves; and collectors need licenses to engage in the trading
of crabs and are subject to fees payable to the DoF township officer based on their sales
amount (Robalino, Russell and Soewarno, 2019).
To prevent the capture of immature crabs before they have had a chance to reproduce,
the DoF Directive No. 9/94 issued under the Freshwater Fisheries Law (1991), prevents
the sale, storage, and transportation of mud crabs with a carapace width of less than
8.15 cm, which is about the length of a disposable cigarette lighter as an easy guide for
fishers (Imbach, 2022). However, although there are no written directives that indicate
the size limit by weight, the DoF has on occasions implemented a minimum legal size
at 100 g. Based on limited information, it seems that this regulation is narrowly applied
to the export of live mud crabs (DoF, 2012; personal communication). This regulation
is challenging to enforce because of the economic importance of mud crab industry
and especially the fact that mud crab capture is an important livelihood activity for
many vulnerable coastal communities. For example, a recent survey of crab fishers in
Rakhine showed that 72 percent of respondents depend on mud crab capture for more
than half of their total household income (García, 2021). The mud crab industry is also
an important source of job opportunities in non-urban and economically marginalized
areas, particularly for women, who have a high level of participation on-soft-shell crab
farms engaging in feeding and post-harvest activities such as processing and marketing
(Thura Swiss, 2021).
Interestingly, the DoF had reported its activities on confiscating and releasing
undersized crabs up until 2012, but thereafter this regulation was likely relaxed by
the authorities to facilitate the growth of the mud crab industry. However, following
what seemed to be a “commercial extinction” of mud crabs with alarmingly diminished
stocks in 2018 (Hosch, Belton and Johnstone, 2021), the importance of sustainability
became more apparent to industry stakeholders. In 2019, the Myanmar Fishery
Federation (MFF), the main non-government organization representing the private
fisheries sector including the Myanmar Crab Entrepreneurs Association, pledged to
reinstate the export ban on undersized crabs less than 100 g (MBT, 2019a). At present,
it is unclear whether this restriction is still in place.
Notwithstanding the status of this regulation, there is low awareness among local
fishers with regards to the restrictions on undersized crabs (Helvetas, 2019; Imbach,
2022). Notably, in a recent survey conducted in Mon State and Bago Region (near the
Ayeyarwady Region), almost two-thirds of interviewed crab fishers responded that
they did not know of any regulations for the capture of mud crabs, and that fewer than
one in five fishers consistently release undersized crabs (Imbach, 2022). Among the
respondents who were aware of the regulation, the majority indicated that it relates to
112 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

a minimum weight instead of size, but there were significant discrepancies about the
actual legal threshold. Furthermore, an examination of sales invoices from village-level
crab collectors in the Bago Region showed that between one- and two-thirds of total
catches consist of undersized crabs (Wynn et al., 2019). The Tanintharyi Region is an
interesting exception wherein fishers routinely release undersized crabs. It is not clear
how this practice came to be adopted by the locals, but it may be a beneficial outcome
from the significant mangrove conservation activism in the region.
In addition to the limited restriction on undersized crabs, regional authorities
have put in place closed seasons that were variously reported as the month of March,
May or September (Niras Consult IP, 2018). Although industry experience over the
past 30 years together with corroborating reports collectively suggest that the main
breeding season for mud crabs in Myanmar falls in the months of April and May,
there may be regional differences. For example, in southern areas of Mon State,
berried mud crabs are said to be most abundant in March, which corresponds with
the closed season in the Ayeyarwady Delta (Imbach, 2022). In the Bago Region and
northern Mon, however, peak catches of ovigerous female crabs were reported by
fishers to be between September and November. Therefore, a regional approach to
implementing closed seasons may be more effective, though more research is needed
to better understand the local peak breeding periods. During the rest of the year, there
are no limitations to the number of crabs that the fishers can catch, including ovigerous
females (Robalino, Russell and Soewarno, 2019). Although there is some awareness of
the negative effects of catching female crabs, in practice less than 7 percent of fishers
release ovigerous females (Imbach, 2022), almost certainly because of the premium on
egg-bearing crabs in the Chinese live crab market.
Additionally, several no-catch zones for crabs have been designated by the DoF,
including 12 Protected Areas for mud crab scattered along the Myanmar coastline
comprising about 850 ha (DoF, 2017), and a 200 ha crab conservation area in Mon
State supported by the Gulf of Mottama Project (Helvetas, 2019). Several other
resource management strategies have been explored in Myanmar, although none to
date have gained widespread adoption. For example, stock enhancement programmes
through the release of hatchery-grown juveniles into the wild were attempted by the
Yangon Technical University in 2002–2003, then again by the DoF with the support
of SEAFDEC (AQD) in 2009–2010, but both were unsuccessful due to high mortality
rates in the hatchery (Marius, 2013). A “crab bank” approach to protecting mud crab
spawning has been described, whereby large ovigerous females sold or donated by
fishers to community-managed banks are kept in floating baskets until they have
released their larvae (Macintosh, 2015). However, there is no information indicating
that this practice has been widely adopted.

Management and regulation of mud crab aquaculture

The aquaculture sector in Myanmar is also managed by the DoF as defined by the
Law relating to Aquaculture (1989). Under this legislation, aquaculture activities and
the use of aquaculture lands or fishery areas are subject to the issuance of licenses
and leases granted by the DoF. However, small, single-pond aquaculture ponds
operated by families for family consumption are exempted from the need to obtain
such licenses. The DoF may also designate aquaculture lands from agricultural and
virgin lands, barring any conflicts with other land use regulations including the Land
Nationalization Act (1953) and Farmland Law (2012), and Vacant, Fallow and Virgin
(VFV) Land Management Law (2023) (Tezzo et al., 2018). To limit its environmental
impact, aquaculture facilities also need to comply with regulations set forth in the
Environmental Conservation Law (2012) and Environmental Conservation Rules
(2014), which are overseen by the Environmental Conservation Department.
Status of mud crab industry in Myanmar 113

As part of the country’s commitment to the sustainable development of its

aquaculture and fisheries sector, the DoF collaborated with the German development
agency, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), to implement
the Myanmar Sustainable Aquaculture Programme (MYSAP) in 2017, which includes
developing a National Standard on Good Aquaculture Practices (Myanmar GAqP).
The standard outlines best practices for hatchery, nursery and grow-out operations
as it relates to food safety, fish health and welfare, as well as socioeconomic and
environmental aspects. To enable a more widespread recognition and acceptance in
the international markets in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
member states, China, as well as other countries, the standard was developed to have
commonalities with the Global GAP Aquaculture Standard and the range of standards
of the Aquaculture Stewardship Council (ASC). Entities engaging in the export of
fishery products need to be GAqP certified to comply with the Directive No. 8/2018
(Technical Regulations for Export and Import Fishery Products) under the Marine
Fisheries Law (1990) (Tint, 2019). Several other directives issued under the Marine
Fisheries Law sets guidelines in ensuring food safety and quality, including hygiene
control and health requirements during food production, and restrictions on the use
of additives, pesticides and antibiotics. Furthermore, to meet EU requirements on
food safety and quality, the DoF implemented a National Residues Monitoring Plan
(NRMP) in 2014–2015, in which establishments intending to export to the EU will
need to undergo routine laboratory testing and monitoring for veterinary medical
products and environmental contaminants in their fishery products (Mar, 2018).
In 2018, regulatory approval was granted to select companies and soft-shell crab
products were exported to the EU for the first time. At present, the DoF is continuing
to promulgate GAqP and NRMP standards across the nation’s aquaculture sector.
Overall, the above highlights several key policies in Myanmar as it relates to the
operation of aquaculture facilities but is by no means an exhaustive representation of
all the regulation that may also be applicable. It is clear, however, that the country
has made strides in recent years to raise its industry standards to conform with
international food safety requirements.

MUD CRAB INDUSTRY STATUS

Production status
In Myanmar, mud crabs are available year-round, but peak catches occur generally
around the monsoon season between June to September, whereas the lowest catches
occur around the dry season from February to May. The DoF started publishing fishery
statistics for live mud crabs and soft-shell crabs since 2004 and 2006, respectively.
Whereas the export volume for live mud crabs has generally been flat over the past
decade, soft-shell crab exports saw a dramatic increase of more than 300 percent
between the start of reporting to the most recent data available (Figure 2). Notably, the
significant drop in export volume in 2008 can be attributed to cyclone Nargis, which
was one of the deadliest tropical cyclones to have ever been recorded globally. It is
evident that the live mud crab export volume consistently outstrips that of soft-shell
crabs in a roughly 80:20 ratio, and this pattern is expected to hold since soft-shell crabs
are a niche and premium seafood product. At the height of crab production around
2014 and 2015, 16 471 t of live crabs were exported from Myanmar, as compared to
3 151 t of soft-shell crabs. While it is difficult to gauge domestic consumption, an
expert estimated that about half of the soft-shell crabs produced in Myanmar are sold
to the local retail market, hotels and restaurants.
Mud crabs represent one of the most economically important fishery resources
in Myanmar, which accounted for USD 77.4 million in exports between 2020–
2021 and took the number one spot in terms of export value for fish and fishery
114 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Figure 2. Myanmar mud crab export volume between 2004 to 2020

FIGURE 2
Myanmar mud crab export volume from 2004 to 2020

Soft-shell crab Live mud crab

20 000

18 000

16 000

14 000
Export volume (t)

12 000

10 000

8 000

6 000

4 000

2 000

0
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Source: Fishery Statistics. Annual yearbooks. Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation, Department of Fisheries,
Republic of the Union of Myanmar.

products (Figure 3). For comparison, the next most exported fishery products that
year were ribbon fish (USD 55.0 million), fish meal (USD 53.1 million) and rohu
(USD 46.4 million) (DoF, 2021). The total export value for live mud crabs seems to be
on a slight downtrend in recent years, possibly as more people make the switch to soft-
shell crab farming to capitalize on better profit margins and quicker turnaround time.
Additionally, soft-shell crab farming is more accessible than ever before. For example,
the plastic baskets for soft-shell crab production used to be imported from Thailand,
which can be cost prohibitive to farmers, but now there are at least three manufacturers
in Yangon that can supply this material at more affordable prices. Even though the
export volume for soft-shell crabs is dwarfed by that of live mud crabs, soft-shell
crabs have recently been closing the gap in terms of export value. Of note, the value

Figure 3. Myanmar mud crab export value between 2013 to 2020

FIGURE 3
Myanmar mud crab export value between 2013 to 2020

Soft-shell crab Live mud crab Export value (USD millions)

60 Live mud Soft-shell Total mud

Year
crab crab crabs
50 2013 44.7 12.0 56.7
Export value (USD millions)

2014 48.9 14.7 63.6

40
2015 39.6 21.3 60.9
30 2016 45.6 25.1 70.7
2017 48.3 26.6 74.8
20
2018 36.6 33.4 70.0
10 2019 29.5 31.9 61.5
2020 45.6 31.8 77.4
0
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Source: Fishery Statistics. Annual yearbooks. Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation, Department of Fisheries,
Republic of the Union of Myanmar.
Status of mud crab industry in Myanmar 115

of soft-shell crab exports briefly surpassed that of live mud crabs in 2019 due to the
pandemic-related border closures negatively impacting China exports, which has since
rebounded. Remarkably, whereas soft-shell crabs account for only 22 percent of the
total mud crab export volume, it disproportionately contributes to 41 percent of the
export value of mud crabs. Therefore, there is a clear opportunity in shifting towards
the production of value-added soft-shell crabs to increase earning potential and create
more jobs in the aquaculture sector.

Farming areas
Based on the most current DoF fishery statistics, there are more than 900 ha of pond
area dedicated to mud crab aquaculture in Myanmar (DoF, 2021). The largest mud crab
farming areas in Myanmar are in the Yangon Region, followed by Tanintharyi Region,
Ayeyarwady Region, then Rakhine State (Figure 4). Mud crab aquaculture in Myanmar
is dominated by soft-shell production, which is carried out by large-scale operations
that can involve up to 500 workers per farm, whereas crab fattening or grow-out is
mostly practised by individual crab fishers and collectors. Since small ponds used for
subsistence purposes are not required to be registered with the DoF, the above statistic
is likely representative of aquaculture ponds used for soft-shell crab farming. The first
soft-shell crab farm was reported to have started in 2000 in Myeik – the largest city in
the Tanintharyi Region, which borders Thailand – and it is thought that the practice
was adopted from other soft-shell crab farms that were already established in Ranong
(Thailand) at the time. Currently there are at least three main farms in Myeik, the
largest of which is Kaung Kaung Aquaculture Co Ltd (established 2002) which has
89 ha in pond surface across 33 ponds, and with a maximum stocking quantity of over
1 million pieces of mud crabs. Soft-shell crab farming eventually spread to the Yangon
Region in 2008, which expanded to five farms that are all located within an aquaculture

FIGURE 4
Mud crab aquaculture pond area in Myanmar
(a) Farm area in different States; (b) Production from 2012 to 2021

a b 1 000

Kachin 900

800
Sagaing
700
Shan

Chin 600
Mandalay
Area (ha)

Rakhine 500
Magwe
Kayah
400
Bago
300
Mon
Ayeyarwady
Kayin 200
Yangon
Crab aquaculture
100
pond area (hectares)
More than 300 Tanintharyi 0
>200 to 300 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
>100 to 200
>50 to 100 Yangon Taninthayi Ayeyarwady Rakhine
0 to 50

Note: Refer to the disclaimer on the copyright page for the names and boundaries used in this map.
Source: Fishery Statistics. Annual yearbooks. Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation, Department of Fisheries,
Republic of the Union of Myanmar.
116 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

designated zone in Kyauktan Township (Figure 5). The largest and longest-standing
soft-shell crab farm in this region is SG Crabs World Ltd (established 2008), whose
aquaculture operation spans 146 ha of pond surface across 20 ponds. Observing the
commercial success of soft-shell farming in the Tanintharyi and Yangon Regions, there
was rapid proliferation of small- to mid-sized farms that are clustered in Labutta, a
town in the Ayeyarwady Region, and along the coastal areas of northern and central
Rakhine primarily in Thandwe, Sittwe, and Kyaukpyu (MITV, 2022; Thu, 2022).
In Labutta District there are at least nine soft-shell crab players including Texchem
Marine Labutta Ltd, a Malaysian joint venture company, among two other companies
and six local farmers (MBT, 2019b). Overall, soft-shell farms seem to be saturated in
the Yangon, Tanintharyi and Ayeyarwady Regions, whereas Rakhine is expected to be
the next area for expansion. Given that northern Rakhine is prone to tropical cyclones,
building resilience to natural disasters will be especially important for the future
growth of the mud crab aquaculture sector in this region.

FIGURE 5
Satellite imagery of the largest collective of soft-shell-crab aquaculture area in Myanmar
The site with 376 ha of aquaculture ponds is in Kyauktan township, about an hour’s drive
from Yangon. Five soft-shell crab companies are co located in this aquaculture zone wherein
SG Crabs World is the largest, comprising about 40 percent of this area and with a production
capacity of 60 t/month
©2023 Airbus, CNES/Airbus, Maxar Technologies

Hatcheries, nurseries and farms

There is a well-organized network facilitating the trade of mud crabs in Myanmar, either
supplying to local soft-shell crab farms or exporting live hard-shell crabs to mainly
China and Thailand. Captured crabs are transported from township-level collectors
to brokers or wholesalers in Yangon, which serves as an important hub for both the
domestic and international market (Imbach, 2022). Mud crabs destined for the China
market are usually captured in the Rakhine or Ayeyarwady regions and transported
to Mandalay, which is a major trade hub for northern and central Myanmar. There,
the crabs are inspected by agents from Chinese importing companies and repacked
Status of mud crab industry in Myanmar 117

before being loaded onto a different truck bound for Muse, a border town in Shan
State, and then into China’s Yunnan Province for further distribution (García, 2019).
There are also major crab collection centres located in Myeik where crabs are either
sold to local soft-shell crab farms in the Tanintharyi Region or transported by boats
or trucks to Thailand. Whereas most of the hard-shell crabs traded to China either
undergo fattening or are directly consumed there, a considerable amount of the live
crabs exported to Thailand support the country’s soft-shell crab farms. Due to the
long travel distance and lack of temperature-controlled transportation in Myanmar, it
is not unusual to see 10–15 percent mortality rates under regular conditions (Marius,
2013).
In comparison to the live hard-shell crab export business, the soft-shell crab value
chain has higher infrastructure and capital requirements. Given that soft-shell crabs
start to harden within hours postharvest, there is a narrow window of opportunity
to process and freeze the products. Therefore, processing facilities equipped with
clean rooms and freezers should ideally be located nearby to the soft-shell crab farms.
Larger soft-shell operations have often built processing facilities adjacent to the
farms, whereas smaller operations with less financial support will opt for rudimentary
facilities equipped with consumer-grade freezers or sell their live soft-shell crabs to
exporters that can do the processing. As a result, there is a discernable difference in the
safety standards and quality of the soft-shell crab products depending on the available
facilities. Finished products are transported by refrigerated cargo trucks to Yangon
Port, where is it finally exported by ocean freight to countries worldwide.
Despite several prior endeavours at mud crab hatcheries in Myanmar, there are
none known to be currently in operation. Some of the earliest attempts with the goal
of stock enhancement – including one by the Yangon Technological University in
2002 then again by the DoF with the support of SEAFDEC in 2009 – were terminated
due to high mortality rates between the zoea fourth stage to initial megalopa stages
(Marius, 2013). The most successful effort to date was led by Texchem with support
from MYSAP, which achieved a 20–25 percent survival rate to the crablet stage and
had produced close to 1 million crabs in the first year of operation (Fitzsimmons,
2021). Through a buyback programme, C1 crablets (around 4 mm) were supplied to
local smaller-scale farms for grow-out to 70–100 g before they are sold back to the
company for soft-shell production. The hatchery had started operating in 2019 but
was later suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic, deteriorating market conditions
and the need to cut costs. The company has since then diverted their hatchery efforts
onto barramundi (Asian seabass) with no announced plans to restart the mud crab
hatchery.

AQUACULTURE PRACTICES AND SYSTEMS

Since there are no operational mud crab hatcheries at present, the methodology
on broodstock management and larval rearing used in the Texchem and MYSAP
programme may be considered representative of the approach used in Myanmar.

Broodstock management
Gravid S. paramamosain females of approximately 300–400 g each are selected from
wild stocks. The level of gravidness may be visualized and evaluated by placing the
specimen against a bright light source. Other selection criteria applied include vigour,
complete limbs, no injury and free from shell disease manifestations. After recording
the weight and carapace width, the broodstock is disinfected using formalin prior to
stocking individually in bins or communally in tanks connected to a water recirculating
system (RAS). Stocking containers are shaded to create a darkened environment
and provided with a fine sand substrate base of at least 6 cm in depth to facilitate
proper egg mass formation during spawning. The broodstock is fed daily to satiation
118 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

with a variety of seafood including fish, squid, shrimp, clam, seaworm and cockle
until it becomes ovigerous or berried. Throughout this period, proper husbandry is
implemented to ensure hygiene and maintenance of good water quality. The berried
crab may be removed from the broodstock system and stocked separately in a bin.
Water exchange is conducted daily. At ambient temperatures, the newly spawned
orange-coloured eggs will gradually change its coloration to brown, then black and
hatch in approximately 9 days. The development of the eggs may be monitored more
closely using a microscope.

Larval rearing
Hatching of the eggs usually occur in the morning. The quality of the newly hatched
Z1 larvae are usually evaluated visually and may also be subjected to a formalin-
based stress test to determine their overall vigour. Active larvae tend to swarm at the
water surface and are highly phototactic in behaviour. Active specimens are promptly
collected using a net and consolidated in a volumetrically defined container which
will function as the “larvae stock”. Stocking of the Z1 larvae is conducted to yield a
density of 200 pieces per litre in a 500 L fiberglass tank (Figure 6a). Initial feeding is
with Artemia umbrella stage. At approximately day-10 of the culture, the Z4 larvae
are transferred into a 2 000 L fiberglass tank and powdered larval feed is included in
the feeding regime. Net substrates are added into the culture tank when megalopa are
formed. Crablets may be expected at approximately day-20 and are usually harvested
a couple of days later (Figure 6b).

FIGURE 6
Commercial mud crab hatchery in Myanmar
(a) Larval culture tanks being stocked with newly hatched Z1 larvae; (b) Hatchery-produced C1 crablets
with carapace diameters measuring about 4 mm; (c) Hard-shell crabs grown after 3 months using hatchery
grown C1 crablets

a b

c
©MYSAP

Hard-shell crab farming

Hatchery-produced C1 crablets are stocked extensively into mangrove ponds at
densities ranging from 0.1–1 piece/m2 depending on farmer’s experience, the stocking
and harvesting regime adopted, availability of feed, vegetation coverage, and shelter/
refuge for the crabs. The culture area is barricaded by bunds to create a pond with a
maximum depth of approximately 3 feet and is subjected to the natural tidal influences
Status of mud crab industry in Myanmar 119

using water gates or simple polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes. A perimeter (net) fence
may be helpful in alleviating entry of predators such as monitor lizards and otters into
the culture pond. The crablets feed on various natural feeds including clams, worms
and snails which are normally available within the culture pond. Supplementary feeding
may be applied, if necessary. C1 crablets can reach a size of approximately 150 g in a
culture period of 3–4 months, without supplementary feeding (Figure 6c). After the
initial stocking, subsequent stocking may be conducted monthly while harvesting is
conducted daily using crab nets. The claws of the harvested crabs are immobilized
by securing them with raffia or other locally available materials and are packed into
rectangular plastic baskets to facilitate transport to the soft-shell shedding farms.

Soft-shell crab production

On arriving at the soft-shell shedding farm, the plastic baskets containing the hard-
shell crabs are submerged in a well-aerated brackish water flow through tank setup for
approximately 30 minutes in order to help remove possible accumulated nitrogenous
waste. After the “recovery” treatment, the crabs are sorted according to sizes and
vigour. Undersized and inactive specimens are rejected and the selected crabs are sent
to designated shedding ponds for stocking individually into boxes which are suspended
on floating rafts (Figure 7a). The crabs are fed once every two days with sardines at
a rate of approximately 10 percent of body weight until they moult naturally, usually
within 45 days of stocking (Figure 7b and 7c). Harvesting of soft-shell crabs is
conducted every three hours throughout the day or night. Harvested soft-shell crabs
are placed into freshwater and are consolidated at a collection centre prior to delivery
to the processing factory.

FIGURE 7
Soft-shell crab farming in Myanmar
(a) A soft-shell crab aquaculture pond in the Tanintharyi Region with floating rafts carrying plastic baskets
that each contain individual crabs; (b) S. olivacea specimen in its hard-shell form prior to stocking into
plastic baskets for shedding compared to (c) a newly moulted crab after harvest

a b

c
©Kaung Kaung Aquaculture

MUD CRAB HEALTH AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT

During the hatchery phase, gravid females selected for broodstock should display
vigour, no injuries and a clean exoskeleton (without signs of shell diseases and
ectoparasites). Each specimen is subjected to formalin immersion at 150 ppm for
30 minutes prior to stocking into a bacterial and seaweed-based RAS broodstock
120 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

maintenance system at the hatchery. At the larval-rearing phase, culture water of 30 ppt
is reconstituted using brine and tap water at the hatchery. The “reconstituted seawater”
is normally disinfected via chlorination and/or ozonation. Water quality during larval-
rearing is maintained using a combination of green-water and water-exchange regimes.
If necessary, formalin may be applied to control fungal and ectoparasitic infestations.
At the grow-out phase, mortality starts to increase within a week if the water salinity
drops to 0 ppt. This phenomenon is especially significant at upstream shedding sites
in Myanmar during the monsoon season. Shell-fouling may also be observed during
this period. Otherwise, no disease outbreaks have been observed during soft-shell crab
production, likely because there is little time for the crabs to become infected with
new parasites and pathogens during the short holding time. Nonetheless, the impact of
viral diseases in blue crab shedding facilities has recently come into focus (Coates and
Rowley, 2022), which highlights the need for more research into potential diseases in
high-density crab farming conditions in Myanmar.

MARKET INFORMATION

Major markets for hard-shell and soft-shell mud crabs

The mud crab market is largely segmented between hard-shell and soft-shell crabs.
For hard-shells, the overwhelming majority are sold live to China and to a much lesser
extent to Thailand. According to DoF statistics, 94 percent of exported live crabs are to
China and the rest to Thailand (DoF, 2012). For soft-shell crabs, the United States of
America is the single largest market which by itself accounts for 30–40 percent of soft-
shell crab exports from Myanmar. The strong demand in the United States of America
can mostly be attributed to the popularity of soft-shell crabs in Japanese cuisine and the
general increase in the number of Japanese restaurants, which has been steadily growing
by 4–5 percent each year (IBISWorld, 2020). Asia-Pacific also represents a significant
market for soft-shell crabs, collectively accounting for 50–60 percent of exports from
Myanmar. Within this geography, demand is highest in China, Hong Kong SAR
followed by Australia, Taiwan Province of China, the Republic of Korea and Malaysia.
Because Myanmar companies only recently received EU export authorization for
aquaculture products in 2018, the European market for Myanmar soft-shell crabs is
still nascent, accounting for less than 10 percent of exports.

Product prices
According to a survey conducted in 2019, mud crabs captured by fishers can be sold for
between MMK 5 000–7 000/kg (Myanmar kyats) to crab collectors or township-level
buyers, which are then sold for around MMK 8 000/kg to traders located at the main
trade hubs such as Yangon (Figure 8a) (Robalino, Russell and Soewarno, 2019). From
here, typically the larger crabs are selected for the live mud crab market whereas the
smaller crabs would be supplied to soft-shell crab farms at around MMK 9 000/kg. It
should be noted that the price of live mud crabs can fluctuate considerably depending
on the landing quantity, which is the lowest (and most expensive) during the dry season,
or demand (e.g. high consumption in China during lunar new year). The average price
of exported live mud crabs over the past 10 years has been relatively flat, between
USD 2–4/kg (Figure 8b). In comparison, soft-shell crab prices saw tremendous growth
between 2015 to 2020, from USD 5.20 to 11.60/kg which equates to a 124 percent
increase. Due to soft-shell crabs being a highend seafood that is primarily consumed
in restaurant settings, it is a food product that is sensitive to discretionary consumer
spending. Consequently, soft-shell crab prices have recently been on the decline due to
a global market slowdown but is expected to rebound as the economy recovers. Over
the long-term, however, prices for mud crabs can be expected to gradually increase
with diminishing wild stock, unless more sustainable practices are implemented.
 Status of mud crab industry in Myanmar 121

FIGURE 8
Mud crab prices in Myanmar
(a) Reference prices for mud crabs at each step of the value chain; (b) average prices of mud
crabs exported from Myanmar between 2013 to 2020
Figure 8. Mud crab prices in Myanmar
a b

a) Producers Consumers b)
Average price of exported mud crabs
from Myanmar, 2013-2020
Crab fisher
14
5 000
Collector 12
7 000
(village-level)
10
6 000
Village / township- 1 000 Local retail market

USD/kg
8
level buyer (low quality)
8 000 6
Traders Live crab export
(Yangon, Labutta) (mainly China) 4
9 000 12 000-
2
Local soft shell crab 17 000 Local hotels and
producers restaurants
0
20 000 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Soft shell crab
Soft shell crab export
producers
Live mud crab Soft-shell crab
Note: Above prices are denoted as Myanmar Kyats (MMK) per kg.

Source:
(a) Adapted from Robalino, J.J., Russell, A.J.M. & Soewarno, N. 2019. Myanmar Ayeyarwady Delta: Bio-based value chain
analysis for sustainable mangrove restoration. Seoul, The Global Green Growth Institute.
(b) Fishery Statistics. Annual yearbooks. Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation, Department of Fisheries, Republic
of the Union of Myanmar.

MAJOR ISSUES, PROBLEMS AND CHALLENGES FACING THE MUD CRAB

INDUSTRY
Given the current state of mud crab overexploitation and loss of natural habitat, the risk
of depleting the wild stock poses the most important long-term threat to this industry.
Expansion of conservation and resource management efforts may lead to incremental
benefits, but it is especially important to raise awareness and educate stakeholders to
yield full benefit. It is apparent from the several survey studies that poor dissemination
of information is an important barrier towards adoption of sustainable practices; and
in more extreme cases, these practices are often abandoned when at odds with more
immediate needs to support basic livelihoods. Therefore, prescribing more general
restrictions on fishing activities (e.g. mandating the release of ovigerous females)
will likely not be effective. Given that the farming system for mud crabs has mostly
remained the same since its inception in Myanmar, technological innovations are long
overdue. In this regard, the advancements of the shrimp industry could be a useful case
study towards building the development roadmap for mud crab aquaculture, such as
closing off the life cycle through the development of hatcheries and transitioning to
pelleted feeds. Fortunately, the incentive is already there, as several of the main soft-
shell crab producers in Myanmar have expressed interest in mud crab hatcheries. While
the Texchem/MYSAP hatchery programme seems to have achieved technical proof-of-
concept, the cost-effectiveness of hatchery-produced crabs compared to wild-caught
crabs will be the key driver of industry adoption. One of the challenges of hatchery-
derived crabs is the immense pond area needed for grow-out to mitigate cannibalism
issues and relatively few grow-out operations in Myanmar. It is most likely that using
the ponds for low density mud crab grow-out incurs a high opportunity cost versus
engaging in high-value soft-shell crab farming or other, more intensive forms of
aquaculture. Mud crab polyculture with tilapia, for example, is a potential solution but
it is not a prevalent practice in Myanmar. Alternatively, hatchery-derived crabs could
122 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

be stocked into private leasable fishery areas or better yet, existing Community Forests
which are mangrove areas designated by legal land-use agreements and management
plans between communities and the Myanmar Forest Department (Critchley and
Kyaw, 2023). The use of natural crab feed (e.g. sardines and trash fish) could also
become a constraint on sustainability. To address this issue, pelleted feeds like those
currently used in the shrimp industry could be adapted for mud crabs. Alternatively,
guppy fish, crickets and the pupae of the black soldier fly could also be sustainable
feeds for crablets and crabs.
The high mortality rates of mud crabs incurred during transport and during
aquaculture highlights areas of unmet need for innovations to increase the robustness
of the domestic transportation network and to improve farming efficiency. At present,
around 10–15 percent of crabs are expected to perish while in transit and an additional
30 percent mortality rate can be expected during farming, which creates a tremendous
amount of wastage. Therefore, strategies to reduce crab mortality would inadvertently
reduce the fishing pressure to achieve the same level of product output. The use of
temperature-controlled or even insulated cargo trucks are obvious albeit capital-
intensive solutions, but many other aspects of modern cold chain solutions could
apply. On the aquaculture side, the causes of the mortality issues are unfortunately
still not clearly understood. One of the first steps will be to conduct a retrospective
analysis on industry mud crab aquaculture data to generate leading hypotheses on the
cause of high crab mortality. Depending on those findings, possible solutions could
include:
• integration of seaweed-based or plant-based recirculating system as a simple and
cost-effective approach to maintaining good water quality;
• novel basket designs conducive to mud crab survival; and
• incorporation of a mud substrate (likely as a source of vital minerals) to help
promote crab survival at low-salinity conditions during periods of high rainfall,
and so forth.

CONCLUSION
The mud crab industry in Myanmar has seen rapid development over the years and
notably carved out a competitive niche for soft-shell crabs in the global market. The
implementation of national standards such as the GAqP and NRMP has helped to
elevate the overall safety and quality of its exported crab products, which is currently
recognized by many international buyers. While the success of this industry was
dependent on the collective effort of the various government, industry, and non-profit
stakeholders, it is important to recognize the endowment of rich fishery resources
that has enabled this economic growth. Therefore, there is a critical need to secure the
long-term future of this industry by ensuring the sustainability of the mud crab supply.
There is still a long road towards achieving sustainability for mud crabs in Myanmar,
but the many potential solutions support an optimistic outlook.

REFERENCES
Alban, J.D.T., Jamaludin, J., de Wen, D.W., Than, M.M. & Webb, E.L. 2020. Improved
estimates of mangrove cover and change reveal catastrophic deforestation in Myanmar.
Environmental Research Letters, 15(3): 034034.
Coates, C.J. & Rowley, A.F. 2022. Emerging diseases and epizootics in crabs under
cultivation. Frontiers in Marine Science, 8: 809759.
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 125

Mud crab aquaculture industry in

Thailand

Sukree Hajisamae,1 Sofiyudin Maae,1 Siriwan Nooseng2 & Aporn Theppanich3

1
Faculty of Science and Technology, Prince of Songkla University, Pattani, Thailand
2
Nakhon Si Thammarat Aquatic Animal Genetics Research and Development Centre,
Thailand
3
Phang Nga Coastal Aquaculture Research and Development Centre, Thailand

ABSTRACT
Mud crabs have become one of the target species for aquaculture in Thailand due to
their high market demand. In 2021, the wild catch of mud crab reached 2 871 t, valued
at Thai baht (THB) 641.4 million (USD 18.0 million). The three dominant species
are Scylla olivacea, followed by Scylla paramamosain and Scylla tranquebarica. The
production of farmed mud crabs increased sharply from 1 321 t in 2018 to 3 479 t
in 2021 and 2 882 t in 2022. The values also rose accordingly, from THB 487 million
(USD 13.6 million) in 2018 to THB 1 054 million (USD 29.5 million) in 2021 and
THB 956 million (USD 26.8million) in 2022. Initially, S. olivacea was the main farmed
species when farmers were still relying on wild seeds, but there is now increased focus
on stocking farmed seeds of S. paramamosain. Recent success in the development of
systems and techniques for the consistent production of broodstock in captivity has
overcome the bottlenecks of insufficient and low-quality seed supply in Thailand.
Regular seed production by hatcheries, coupled with strong government policies,
have encouraged more farmers to be involved in mud crab aquaculture. Two common
methods of grow-out farms are monoculture and polyculture systems. In 2022, there
were 5 266 registered farms covering an area of 51 726 rai or (8 276 ha), with the largest
area located in the middle region of the Gulf of Thailand. Major challenges facing
the Thai mud crab aquaculture industry include quality broodstock; inadequate seed
supply and high price; suitable farming systems and low survival rate; feed and feeding;
and seasonal price fluctuations. However, it is believed that creating and connecting
sustainable supply chains, promoting strategic research and development, consistent
support from the government, as well as involving more farmers and stakeholders are
the key success factors for the sustainable expansion and development of mud crab
aquaculture in Thailand.

INTRODUCTION
With a coastal area spanning 2 614 km along the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea,
marine crabs are essential fishery and aquaculture commodities with high market
demand. Two main groups of marine crabs are highly valued: mud crabs (Scylla spp.)
and blue swimmer crabs (Portunus pelagicus). Four mud crab species are reported,
namely S. paramamosain, S. tranquebarica, S. olivacea and S. serrata. The natural
mud crab populations in Thailand’s mangrove ecosystem are largely dominated
by S. olivacea (Pradissan, 2006; Sodsuk, 2006), followed by S. paramamosain and
S. tranquebarica. However, S. serrata is seldom found in Thai waters.
The total production of all crab species, including both wild catch and farm output,
in 2021 was 49 043 t valued at THB 9 145 million or USD 256 million (DoF, 2022). Of
this, 45 561 t or THB 8 090 million (USD 226.5 million) were from capture fisheries,
126 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

TABLE 1
Total crab production and value from capture fisheries and aquaculture in Thailand (2012–2022)
Total crab catch
Crab species (1 000 t)
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Blue swimmer crab 33.5 25.7 23.9 22.4 31.2 28.9 26.4 40.0 35.9 36.2
Mud crab spp. 2.9 2.2 1.6 1.5 0.5 0.4 1.6 3.0 3.1 6.4
Other crab spp. 4.2 3.4 2.8 3.0 4.4 6.6 6.0 9.6 8.3 6.4
Total 40.6 31.3 28.3 26.9 36.1 35.9 43.0 52.6 47.3 49.0

Total value
(THB million*)
Blue swimmer crab 4 185 3 562 3 671 3 793 5 453 4 980 5 398 8 034 7 769 6 762
Mud crab spp. 424 323 267 221 107 74 551 949 1 538 1 697
Other crab spp. 183 146 120 226 389 652 827 1 035 1 125 685
Total 4 792 4 030 4 059 4 241 5 949 5 707 6 777 10 019 9 893 9 145

* THB 1 = USD 0.028

Source: DoF, 2013–2022. Fishery statistics of Thailand. Bangkok, Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.

while 3 482 t or THB 1 055 million (USD 29.5 million) were from aquaculture (Table 1).
Most of the production of blue swimmer crab (P. pelagicus) came from wild catch due
to the lack of commercial farms (Suppapan et al., 2023), except for a few farms in the
eastern region of Thailand, such as Samut Sakorn province. They are either consumed
in local market or exported as crab meat to other countries. The catch of P. pelagicus
increased from 33 464 t in 2012 (DoF, 2014) to 36 245 t in 2021 or 1.97 percent of
total fish landings in Thailand, valued at THB 6 763 million or USD 189.4 million
(DoF, 2022). The catch of mud crabs (Scylla spp.) from the wild population in
Thailand has slightly decreased from 2 905 t in 2012 (DoF, 2014) to 2 871 t in 2021,
accounting for 0.35 percent of the total fish landings and valued at THB 641 million or
USD 18.0 million (DoF, 2022).
Mud crab (Puu Tha Le or Puu Dam in Thai language) has been cultured in Thailand
for many decades, using the traditional culture method of collecting small crabs from
the wild and keeping them in the ponds for fattening purposes. The first module of
mud crab culture was introduced at the Faculty of Science and Technology, Prince of
Songkla University (PSU), Thailand, in 1988. In recent years, mud crabs have emerged
as a promising aquaculture species in Thailand, driven by high demand, economic
viability, and strong potential for aquaculture development, particularly in the
numerous abandoned shrimp farms. The Department of Fisheries (DoF) developed a
strategy to support mud crab aquaculture, by targeting mud crab production of 5 000 t
in 2023. Remarkably, production exceeded expectations in 2021, reaching over 6 000 t
or 3 400 t from aquaculture and 2 800 t from wild catch. More than six research centres
under the DoF are actively developing farming techniques and producing crablets to
meet the demand from crab farmers. The government policy, known as “Kaset Plaeng
Yai” or large agriculture plot, includes mud crab farming as one of the target species.
Moreover, the Department of Marine and Coastal Resources (DMCR) has supported
the culture of mud crab in some degraded community mangrove forests, silviculture,
to increase productivity and support livelihoods of fisherfolks (Sakapan and Temram,
2011; Sermthong, 2012).

STATUS AND MANAGEMENT OF WILD RESOURCES

Although the wild catch of mud crab has been reported for many years, biological
information of the wild stock is scarse in Thailand. Several measures have
been introduced to manage mud crab fisheries and aquaculture, especially to
Mud crab aquaculture industry in Thailand 127

meet international obligations regarding their conservation and management. The

implementation of the Royal Ordinance on Fisheries BE 2558 (2015) has led to changes
in the management practices of Thai laws and regulations regarding fisheries activities.
This includes the prohibition of certain destructive fishing gears that are harmful to fish
fingerlings and crabs, such as foldable traps or elongated collapsible traps (Ai Ngo), set
bag nets (Rua Sai Man), bamboo traps, push nets and trawlers.
Increasing mud crab populations in their natural habitat by releasing crablets
is an important objective of the Department of Fisheries, and this activity is being
conducted regularly in many coastal provinces. Additionally, several measures for
the conservation of mangrove habitats in the country indirectly contribute to the
conservation management of mud crab resources.

MANAGEMENT AND REGULATION OF MUD CRAB AQUACULTURE

All aquaculture practices, including mud crab farming, must be carried out within
designated aquaculture zones, as outlined by the Provincial Fisheries Committee
under Section 77 of the Royal Ordinance on Fisheries BE 2558 (2015). Farmers are
required to meet several conditions, including notifying the relevant authorities about
their aquaculture activities, providing details on the origins of the aquatic animals
stocked, using approved feeds and chemicals, and adhering to guidelines for managing
effluent water and solid waste. They must also implement procedures to prevent water
leaks from aquaculture areas and take any further measures necessary to protect the
environment, consumer safety, or neighbouring enterprises.

INDUSTRY STATUS

Wild catch landings

The wild catch production of mud crab has fluctuated since 2012, starting at 2 905 t,
declining to only 282 t in 2018, and rising again to 2 871 t in 2021 (Table 2). The values
ranged from THB 424.1 million (USD 11.9 million) in 2012 to THB 64.2 million
(USD 180 million) in 2018 and THB 641.4 million (USD 18.0 million) in 2021. The crabs
were caught from both the Gulf of Thailand and Andaman Sea, with some variation in
catch between these two areas. Although not directly recorded, it is estimated, based
on personal observations from various markets, that more than 90 percent of mud
crabs caught were S. olivacea, with some contributions from S. paramamosain and
S. tranquebarica.

TABLE 2
Wild catch landings and value of mud crabs in Thailand from 2012–2021
Total Gulf of Andaman
Thailand Sea
Year
Catch Value Catch Value Catch Value
(t) (THB 1 000)* (t) (THB 1 000) (t) (THB 1 000)
2012 2 905 424 166 2 185 344 123 720 80 043
2013 2 152 322 671 921 178 326 1 231 144 345
2014 1 633 267 099 657 106 670 976 160 429
2015 1 495 221 650 820 135 584 675 86 066
2016 539 107 059 230 44 354 309 62 705
2017 413 74 876 163 29 182 250 45 694
2018 282 64 231 145 32 078 137 32 153
2019 1 332 333 013 949 237 195 383 95 818
2020 484 121 361 203 51 126 281 70 235
2021 2 871 641 412 1 289 353 139 1 582 288 273

*THB 1 = USD 0.028

Source: DoF, 2013–2022. Fishery statistics of Thailand. Bangkok, Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.
128 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Farming areas
For fisheries management purposes, the coastal area of Thailand is divided into
five zones, covering all coastal regions of the country. In 2022, a total of 5 266 mud
crab farms were registered in Thailand, covering an area of 51 726 rai or 8 276 ha
(Table 3). The largest number of registered mud crab farms is 3 546, in coastal zone 4,
the middle region of the Gulf of Thailand (Table 4). Nakhon Si Thammarat province,
situated in this zone, is the major crab farming province with 3 453 registered farms.
The area, once a major shrimp producing area, has since been converted to mud
crab farms. Coastal zone 2 is the second largest mud crab farming area, with a total
of 946 registered farms. The provinces of Samut Songkhram and Samut Prakarn are
the second- and third-largest provinces for mud crab farming in Thailand. However,
the second-largest production and value of mud crabs were from Ranong province,
situated on the Andaman coast.

TABLE 3
Production of farmed mud crabs in Thailand from 2018–2022
Year
Mud crab
2018 2019 2020 2021 2022

No. of farms 2 879 3 211 4 854 5 551 5 266

Farming areas (rai) 21 119 26 185 44 738 51 326 51 726
Production (t) 1 321 1 712 2 555 3 479 2 882
Production value (THB million)* 487 616 876 1 054 956
Average price (THB/kg) 369 359 342 303 336

*THB 1 = USD 0.028

Source: DoF, 2019–2023. Fishery statistics of Thailand. Bangkok, Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives.

TABLE 4
Production area of mud crab farming in Thailand in 2022
Area Production Value
Area/province No. of farm
(rai*) (t) (THB 1 000)
Coastal Zone 1 107 826.9 67.9 23 661

Trat 21 220.2 19.4 7 312

Chantaburi 83 597.2 46.9 15 789
Rayong 2 9.5 1.6 560
Coastal Zone 2 946 30 832 347.9 124 341

Chachoengsao 12 259.5 6.1 2 550

Samut Prakarn 246 5 603.2 112.9 41 758
Bangkok 24 584.9 5.2 1 935
Samut Sakhon 251 6 553.7 88.5 22 181
Samut Songkhram 284 13 445.5 127.4 53 520
Phetchaburi 129 4 389.2 7.8 2 396
Coastal Zone 3 449 3 435.6 162.7 60 225

Prachuap Khiri Khan 213 2 062.2 51.6 20 020

Chumphon 25 175.2 13.1 5 202
Surat Thani 211 1 198.1 98.0 35 002
Coastal Zone 4 3 546 16 091.7 1 395 493 788

Nakhon Si Thammarat 3 453 15 663.8 1 357.8 478 949

Songkhla 85 366.2 31.1 12 515
Pattani 8 61.7 6.4 2 324
Mud crab aquaculture industry in Thailand 129

TABLE 4 (CONTINUED)

Area Production Value

Area/province No. of farm
(rai*) (t) (THB 1 000)
Coastal Zone 5 218 539.9 908.1 253 714

Ranong 67 222.0 811.4 226 367

Phangnga 12 12.4 14.7 4 070
Krabi 25 53.5 10.1 2 672
Trang 29 81.7 10.5 2 938
Satun 85 170.2 61.5 17 666
Total 5 266 51 726 2 882 955 731

*1 rai = 0.16 ha
Source: DoF. 2023. Statistics of sea crabs culture survey 2022. Report No. 11/2023. Bangkok, Fisheries Development and
Planning Division, Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.

Currently, only two private hatcheries, located in the provinces of Nakhon Si

Thammarat and Satun, are in operation. One additional hatchery in Krabi province
intermittently switches between shrimp and crab farming. Most farmers currently
rely on government hatchery and farms for their seed supply. There are at least
five government hatcheries producing crablets to serve crab farmers. It is expected that
more shrimp hatcheries and farms will be converted to meet the growing demand for
crablets.

AQUACULTURE PRACTICES AND METHODS

Broodstock management
The scarcity of berried female crabs for hatchery operations has long posed a significant
challenge to the growth of Thailand’s mud crab industry (Nooseng, 2015). Despite
various efforts to produce broodstock, the spawning success rate remains critically
low. To supplement domestic production, importing broodstock – particularly
S. paramamosain – from neighbouring countries has emerged as an alternative for seed
production. However, this comes at a considerable cost, ranging from THB 5 000 to
8 000 (USD 140–224) per broodstock. Factors contributing to the low broodstock
success include failed fertilization, nutritional deficiencies, microbial infections, heavy
fouling organism infestations, and environmental stressors.
Recently, the Faculty of Science and Technology at PSU successfully developed
an innovative system and technique for producing gravid female crabs in recirculated
systems without the need for eyestalk ablation (Figure 1). This advancement has
significantly improved the consistency of high-quality broodstock supply within
the country. As a result, the University now serves as a key broodstock provider to
numerous government and private hatcheries. The system, developed by Hajisamae
et al. (2022), has achieved an egg extrusion success rate of 70–80 percent within 30 days
of housing. This new method is being transferred to selected government and private
hatcheries and is expected to alleviate a major bottleneck in the mud crab aquaculture
supply chain. With more accessible broodstock, hatcheries will be better equipped to
refine nursing techniques and boost seed production for mud crab farming.
Most broodstock used in Thailand are sourced from either the wild or from
farms, with wild-caught broodstock generally preferred for their higher-yield seed
production. Healthy female crabs weighing 300–400 g bearing eggs at maturation
stage 3 or 4 are selected and transported to the broodstock development units. These
crabs are housed in various types of tanks or incubation buckets and maintained at the
desired environmental conditions. Their diet primarily consists of bivalves, such as
blood cockles, green mussels, or mangrove clams, as well as polychaetes.
130 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 1
Mud crab broodstock spawning system (a) and a berried female with intact eyestalks (b) at Prince of
Songkla University, Thailand

a b

©S. Maae
Broodstock that show no signs of spawning after 45 days are removed from the
system. Berried females are transferred to separate tanks or buckets for egg incubation,
which lasts around 9–12 days, depending on the size of the crab and ambient
conditions. Water is exchanged daily at a rate of 50–70 percent, and the fertilization
and development of the eggs attached to the pleopods are closely monitored under
a microscope. Live food for the zoea stage is prepared in advance, timed with the
anticipated hatching date, determined by observing the stages of egg development.
Hatching generally occurs after midnight and continues into the early morning. Once
hatching is complete, all the zoea are collected the following morning for further
cultivation.

Larval rearing and nursing

In Thailand, the production of S. paramamosain crablets is primarily conducted by
government hatcheries under the Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture
and Cooperatives (e.g. the Thung Talae Forest Royal Development Study and Crab
Conservation Centre in Krabi province) and by several Coastal Aquaculture Research
and Development Centres located in Pattani, Songkhla, Krabi, Trang and Surat Thani
provinces. Currently, only two private hatcheries, adapted from shrimp hatcheries,
consistently produce crablets. Most of the mud crab nursing process occurs within
these hatcheries, raising crabs from zoea 1 (Z1) to crablet 2 or 3 (C2–C3) stages before
transferring them to grow-out farms. Among the government hatcheries, the Thung
Talae Forest Royal Development Study and Crab Conservation Center in Krabi
province, along with Wasina Farm, a private hatchery in Satun province, and the
nursery centre at PSU (Figure 2), have pioneered the use of outdoor nursery ponds for
rearing megalopa or crablet C1 to C2. This practice, commonly used in Viet Nam, is
expected to gain broader adoption in Thailand in the near future.
More entrepreneurs are expressing their interest in mud crab hatchery business
due to increasing demand for crablets in the country and the availability of farmed
broodstocks. The survival rate of mud crab larvae from Z1 to C2 is about 1–15 percent.
In Thailand, two methods of larval rearing are employed for mud crabs: the two-
phase method and the three-phase method.
• In the two-phase method, larvae are reared in a single tank until they reach the
Z5 stage, after which they are transferred to another tank and nursed until they
develop into crablets, ready for transfer to grow-out farms.
Mud crab aquaculture industry in Thailand 131

FIGURE 2
The mud crab hatchery operated by the Faculty of Science and Technology, Prince of Songkla
University, Thailand
(a) The entrance of the hatchery at PSU; (b) mud crab larvae culture tanks; and (c) mud crab larvae
culture tanks

b c

©S. Hajisamae

• The three-phase method begins by rearing larvae in an initial culture tank until
Z3. If high larval density is observed, the larvae are moved to a second tank and
nursed until they reach Z5. At the Z5 stage, they are transferred to a third tank,
where they are grown until they reach the crablet stage.

Zoea stage 1 (Z1) larvae are typically reared in concrete tanks with capacities of
5–10 m3 at a density of 50 000–100 000 zoea/m3 (Nooseng, 2015). During the first
zoea stage (zoea 1), rotifers (Brachionus sp.) at a density of 10–15 ind./ml remain the
preferred feed. However, some research stations have replaced rotifers with Artemia
umbrella (8-hour hatched Artemia) to feed zoea 1 through zoea 3. For zoea 4, Artemia
instar or nauplii are provided at a density of 3–5 ind./ml. At this stage, formulated feeds
and vitamins are also introduced.
Water management includes a 30–50 percent water change on days 3–4 of nursing,
followed by alternating 20–30 percent water changes every other day. During the
megalopa stage, the crabs are fed with adult or frozen Artemia alongside formulated
feeds. Nets are introduced into the tanks to provide shelter and to reduce cannibalism
among the megalopa. Calcium and magnesium are added to maintain alkalinity levels
between 110–150 ppm.
132 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Crablets are typically sold or distributed to crab farmers when they reach crablet
stage C2–C3, with a carapace width of 0.5–0.9 cm, at THB 3.00–5.00 per crablet.
In addition to crablet production, some farms are involved in nursing crablets to
juvenile crabs, typically reaching a size of 6–7 cm in carapace width. These juvenile
crabs are reared in earthen ponds for a period of 30–45 days before being sold to
nearby grow-out farms. This intermediate nursing stage has gained increasing attention
from both nursery operators and grow-out farms, as it helps to accelerate the overall
crab farming process. By supplying more developed juveniles, farms can reduce the
time needed to reach market size, improving efficiency and profitability in mud crab
production.

Hard-shell crab farming

Two commonly practised methods for mud crab grow-out farming in Thailand are
monoculture and polyculture, or multitrophic culture systems. Monoculture involves
farming only mud crab in ponds, typically earthen ponds modified from abandoned
shrimp farms. Sizes of the pond are about 2–10 rai (0.32–1 ha) with a depth of around
1 m and salinity of 10–30 ppt (Figure 3). The two predominantly farmed species are
S. olivacea and S. paramamosain, with S. olivacea being the major farmed species if
the juveniles are sourced from the wild. Nevertheless, some farmers may stock very
low proportion of S. tranquebarica and S. paramamosain together with S. olivacea in
the same pond as they often release all species into the pond based on the availability
of small-sized mud crabs or juveniles. Many farmers have begun stocking hatchery-
produced S. paramamosain crablets, typically ranging in size from 0.5–1 cm (C2 to
C3 stages), at a density of 0.5–2 crablets/m² in ponds. When stocking larger juveniles,
farmers often purchase wild-caught crabs from fishers, usually around 50–100 g/crab.
However, due to the decreasing availability of wild juveniles, an increasing number of

FIGURE 3
Grow-out mud crab farms in (a) Nong Cik, Pattani; (b) Prince of Songkla University, Pattani; and
(c) Kuiburi, Prachap Khiri Khan

a c

b
©S. Hajisamae/V. Oniam
Mud crab aquaculture industry in Thailand 133

farmers now prefer using hatchery-reared S. paramamosain juveniles, which offer a

more consistent and reliable supply for stocking.
Juvenile crabs are typically fed trash fish or mussels for 2–3 months when stocked
as juveniles, and for 4–5 months when stocked as crablets, to reach marketable sizes of
3–5 crabs/kg.
Two harvesting methods are commonly practiced: partial or selective harvesting and
total harvesting (Nooseng, 2015).
• Partial or selective harvesting involves using collapsible traps or common crab
traps to regularly capture crabs that have reached marketable size, depending on
availability and market demand. In some cases, farmers may restock crablets or
juvenile crabs for the next cycle while still completing the harvest of the current crop.
• Total harvesting is conducted by draining the pond and using rakes, hooks and
scoop nets to collect crabs that have burrowed into the mud.

An alternative mud crab farming method, aquasilviculture, is promoted by the

Department of Marine and Coastal Resources under the policy of “people living
together with the forest.” This approach integrates mud crab culture within protected
mangrove forests, as seen in Pattani and Krabi provinces. While the primary focus is on
mangrove conservation through community engagement, mud crab farming is practiced
on a smaller scale. Typically, about 1–3 rai (0.16–0.48 ha) of mangrove area is allocated
to 10–15 village members. Around 300–500 crabs, each weighing 50–100 g, are farmed
in these designated areas and fed with trash fish for 2–4 months before being harvested.
In polyculture or multitrophic culture systems, farmers stock prawns (e.g. Pacific
white or tiger shrimp) or seaweeds (especially Gracilaria) in their mud crab ponds. The
density of the shrimp varies between 10 000–20 000 shrimp post-larvae/rai (62 500–
125 000 post-larvae/ha). Crabs and shrimps are normally fed with trash fish or mussel
as in monoculture systems, but sometimes additional shrimp pellets are provided.
Shrimps can be harvested after 2 months of culture, depending on size and market
demand. Seaweeds can be harvested anytime once they have grown enough to be sold.
Additionally, some farmers in Chachengsao province stock mud crabs in paddy farms
during the summer season while shift to rice farming in the rainy season.

Fattening farm
During harvesting, post-moult crabs and female crabs exhibiting early ovarian
development stages (Stages 1 and 2) that are not ready for market are sorted and either
restocked in the same pond or transferred to a separate fattening pond. Some farms
specialize exclusively in fattening crabs, as this approach can yield prices that are two
to three times higher than those of market-ready crabs. Currently, several fattening
methods are employed, including earthen pond systems, concrete ponds, and condo-
based or vertical fattening systems (Figure 4).
The earthen pond system for fattening crabs operates similarly to conventional
earthen pond culture, with the key difference being the stocking of underweight
males or females with early ovarian development stages (Stages 1 and 2). The crabs are
typically fattened for 1–2 months until they reach the market weight for males or full
ovarian development for females (Stages 3 and 4). Additionally, some farmers utilize
floating plastic baskets within the pond to individually fatten crabs. The condo-based
or vertical fattening system, which employs recirculating water, is a newer practice
that has garnered significant interest from farmers. In this system, crabs are cultured
in separate units and are generally fed once a day with low-cost fresh fish or mussels.
The survival rate of crabs in this system ranges from 60–80 percent, with a production
weight gain of approximately 20–30 percent. Some farmers prefer using concrete ponds
for fattening, particularly for crabs that require a very short culture period and are
nearly ready for sale.
134 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 4
Different types of mud crab fattening systems practiced in Thailand
(a) Indoor fattening system; (b) Indoor raceway fattening system; (c) Concrete pond fattening system;
and (d) Outdoor fattening system

a b

c d

©S. Hajisamae
Soft-shell crab production
Soft-shell crab production has been a profitable business for many years, especially
in the provinces of Ranong, Satul and Chumporn. Farmers typically rely on wild-
caught crabs, usually consisting of 10–20 crabs/kg, as their raw material. The crabs,
sometimes declawed, are stocked individually in plastic boxes placed on PVC pipe rafts
until they moult and can be harvested (Figure 5). Newly moulted crabs are collected,
placed under a 3–4 hour monitoring program, then placed in freshwater for 30 minutes
to reduce the salt content, and then packed, frozen and sold. The main challenges for
soft-shell crab production include a shortage of small crabs as raw material, labour cost
(as it is a very labour-intensive business), and maintenance of the water quality in the
ponds. Efforts are currently underway to address these challenges and improve soft-
shell crab production. These efforts include exploring the use of farmed crabs instead
of wild-caught crabs, adopting digital technology to monitor crab metamorphosis, and
experimenting with vertical farming systems.

HEALTH AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT

Several diseases have been identified in mud crab farming, including incomplete
moulting, bacterial shell disease, shell discoloration, limb loss, and parasitic infections.
1. Incomplete moulting, a condition that leads to high mortality rates, is most common
in fattening farms, particularly those using the condo-based or vertical system.
This problem is believed to stem from poor water quality, low temperatures and
nutritional deficiencies.
Mud crab aquaculture industry in Thailand 135

FIGURE 5
View of a typical soft-shell-mud crab farm and market-ready product
(a) An example of soft-shell mud crab culture in earthen pond; and (b) Soft-shell crab products

a b

©W. Rungruang
2. Bacterial shell disease is marked by significant shell damage, including necrosis,
erosion and perforation. This not only diminishes the crab’s market value but also
heightens the risk of secondary infections, which can lead to death.
3. Shell discoloration presents as yellowish-brown to reddish-brown deposits on the
shell. Although it may not damage the shell’s structure, it can negatively impact
other organs, such as the gills and eyes.
4. Gill discoloration is characterized by grey, brown or black discoloration of the gill
arches, often caused by poor pond preparation resulting in a high organic load.
This can clog the gills, causing respiratory stress and leading to death.
5. Limb loss involves the loss of major appendages, which can severely affect the
crab’s ability to feed, mate and defend itself.
6. Parasitic infection by stalked barnacles (Octolasmis spp.), particularly on the
gills, may cause mortality. Barnacles may also be found around the carapace, near
the inhalant aperture, at the base of the cheliped, and on the second and third
maxillipeds. When present in large numbers, they compete for oxygen, especially
if they cover most of the crab’s respiratory surfaces (Lavilla-Pitogo and de la Peña,
2004).

RESEARCH AND INNOVATION

1. Broodstock development: The successful and consistent production of berried
female crabs has played a crucial role in advancing the mud crab aquaculture
supply chain in Thailand. This successful method has been transferred to both
government hatcheries and private entrepreneurs. Furthermore, ongoing efforts
are directed towards the development of improved strains of broodstock and the
exploration of various factors influencing broodstock development.
2. Hatchery and nursing systems: With the growing availability of berried female
broodstock, hatcheries can further optimize their expertise in crab nursery culture.
Key factors for enhancing crablet survival rates include improving larval health,
providing optimal environmental conditions, and ensuring the use of high-quality,
nutritionally balanced feeds. A significant improvement in feeding strategies is
the replacement of rotifers with Artemia umbrella or Artemia instar, which has
shown promise in promoting better growth and survival during the early stages of
development.
3. Grow-out farm: Grow-out farms aim to maximize profits and optimize pond
usage for farmers, often incorporating polyculture with other aquatic species or
136 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

integrating crab farming into rice fields. Key strategies to improve crab survival
rates include minimizing cannibalism, preventing pond escapes, controlling
predation, maintaining water quality and pond substrate, and optimizing feeding
practices. Farmers have also experimented with integrated multitrophic aquaculture
(IMTA), combining crabs with seaweeds, fish or prawns in polyculture systems.
Stocking crab seeds at sizes of 2.5–4.0 cm in earthen ponds has shown potential to
increase survival rates and reduce the overall growing period.
4. Fattening farm: There is increasing interest in using recirculating aquaculture
systems (RAS) for fattening mud crabs in condo-based vertical farming units.
Researchers and farmers are exploring the adoption of automated devices to
streamline management and production processes. Furthermore, efforts are
underway to integrate innovative marketing strategies aimed at expanding
customer awareness and enhancing the appeal of mud crab aquaculture.
5. Soft-shell crab farm: Overcoming the challenges in soft-shell crab production,
such as the shortage of small-sized crabs and the need for skilled labour, requires
the establishment of a local supply chain to provide farmed crabs for soft-shell
crab farming. Additionally, the development of relevant technology to reduce the
labour required during operations is considered crucial for this type of mud crab
aquaculture.

MARKET INFORMATION

Major markets for hard- and soft-shell mud crabs

Although some exports have been reported, Thailand is predominantly considered
a mud crab-importing country due to high domestic demand and insufficient
local supply (Kaewsai, 2004). Crabs from Myanmar, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh are
imported to meet this demand. The Thai mud crab industry experiences fluctuations,
particularly during the period between Christmas and Chinese Lunar New Year,
driven by increased demand from China. This surge in international demand can
influence the domestic market, occasionally leading to exports. Despite strong global
demand for mud crabs, local production remains insufficient. Additionally, there are
instances of crab imports followed by re-exports to other countries. In the case of
soft-shell crabs, nearly all production is consumed domestically. Average prices of
crab products, from the megalopa stage to adult crabs, based on data from various
markets across the country, are presented in Table 5 (DoF, 2022) and Table 6 (based
on authors’ estimates).

TABLE 5
Thai Department of Fisheries standard price of mud crab megalopae and crablets
Price
Mud crab life stage and size
(THB/ind.) *
Megalopae 1.0
Crablet C1 1.5
Crablet C2 (0.5–0.9 cm) 3.0
Crablet (1.0–1.5 cm) 5.0
Juvenile crab (6.0–7.0 cm) 18.0–20.0

* Average market price.

THB 1 = USD 0.028
Source: DoF. 2022. Fishery statistics of Thailand 2020. Report No. 4/2022. Bangkok, Department of Fisheries, Ministry
of Agriculture and Cooperatives.
Mud crab aquaculture industry in Thailand 137

TABLE 6
Average price of mud crab in Thailand in 2023
Price
(THB/kg*)
Characteristics of crab
Low demand High demand
season season
Buffet crab (mixed crab) 140–170 160–180
Water crab or post-moult male crab (< 4 crab/kg) 160–180 180–200
Firm meat male crab (2 crab/kg) 330–400 370–420
Firm meat male crab (3 crab/kg) 280–350 300–370
Firm meat male crab (4–5 crab/kg) 200–250 230–290
Firm meat male crab (6–7 crab/kg) 150–170 170–200
Stages 1 and 2 ovarian development (3–7 crab/kg) 200–250 200–250
Full ovarian maturity (6–8 crab/kg) 350–450 400–530
Full ovarian maturity (4–5 crab/kg) 480–600 550–650
Full ovarian maturity (2–3 crab/kg) 600–700 650–800
Soft-shell crab (8–10 crab/kg) 220–240 230–270
* THB 1 = USD 0.028

MAJOR ISSUES AND CHALLENGES OF THE INDUSTRY

The mud crab aquaculture industry faces several challenges, including limited access
to quality broodstock, insufficient seed supply, low survival rates during both grow-
out and fattening due to cannibalism and disease outbreaks, a lack of commercially
formulated feed, and seasonal price fluctuations. To address these issues, further applied
research is required to produce high-quality broodstock, and ensuring the consistent
production of healthy crablets. Likewise research should focus on broodstock
domestication through selective breeding or a genetic improvement programme.
The high cost of crablets increases grow-out farm production expenses, reducing
profitability. Expanding the number of private hatcheries is essential to enhance
competition, improve crablet quality, and lower prices, which could encourage more
farmers to invest in mud crab farming.
Furthermore, low survival rates during the grow-out phase diminish returns on
investment, posing a major constraint for farmers. Many potential mud crab farmers
are former shrimp farmers accustomed to higher returns, making it difficult to shift to
mud crab farming without improved profitability. Integrating multitrophic systems
or polyculture offers an opportunity to increase income by diversifying production.
Establishing nursing farms to raise crab seeds from C2 to C5–C6 (3.0–7.0 cm) for
stocking in earthen ponds is also necessary to strengthen the supply chain.
The absence of commercial feeds specifically formulated for mud crabs and the
fluctuating availability and cost of fresh feed contribute to operational uncertainty.
Seasonal price fluctuations also create uncertainty for new farmers considering entry
into the market. As Thailand remains a net importer of mud crabs, local production
has yet to meet domestic demand. Establishing a stable supply chain remains the most
critical challenge for Thailand’s mud crab aquaculture industry.

CONCLUSION
The future sustainable expansion and success of the mud crab aquaculture industry
hinges on several key factors, including the creation and connection of a sustainable
supply chain, strategic research and development, robust government policy support,
and the active participation of farmers and entrepreneurs. Breaking through the
bottlenecks in sustainable broodstock production, successful seed production, and the
establishment of private hatcheries will play a pivotal role in bridging the domestic
138 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

supply chain. As more crablets become available, there is greater potential for the
development of improved farming techniques, leading to higher profits from marketing
hard-shell and soft-shell crabs, and potential additional income from polyculture.
The contribution of strategic research and development programmes is believed to be
crucial in addressing gaps in knowledge within the mud crab supply chain.

REFERENCES
DoF. 2014. Fishery statistics of Thailand 2012. Report No. 9/2014. Bangkok, Department of
Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.
DoF. 2015. Fishery statistics of Thailand 2013. Report No. 7/2015. Bangkok, Department of
Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.
DoF. 2016. Fishery statistics of Thailand 2014. Report No. 11/2016. Bangkok, Department
of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.
DoF. 2017. Fishery statistics of Thailand 2015. Report No. 12/2017. Bangkok, Department
of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.
DoF. 2018. Fishery statistics of Thailand 2016. Report No. 12/2018. Bangkok, Department
of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.
DoF. 2018. Statistics of sea crabs culture survey 2018. Report No. 9/2020. Bangkok,
Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.
DoF. 2019. Fishery statistics of Thailand 2017. Report No. 9/2019. Bangkok, Department of
Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.
DoF. 2019. Statistics of sea crabs culture survey 2019. Report No. 15/2020. Bangkok,
Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.
DoF. 2020. Fishery statistics of Thailand 2018. Report No. 10/2020. Bangkok, Department
of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.
DoF. 2020. Statistics of sea crabs culture survey 2019. Report No. 7/2021. Bangkok,
Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.
DoF. 2021. Fishery statistics of Thailand 2019. Report No. 2/2021. Bangkok, Department of
Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.
DoF. 2021. Statistics of sea crabs culture survey 2019. Report No. 6/2022. Bangkok,
Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.
DoF. 2022. Fishery statistics of Thailand 2021. Report No. 14/2022. Bangkok, Department
of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.
DoF. 2022. Fishery statistics of Thailand 2020. Report No. 4/2022. Bangkok, Department of
Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.
DoF. 2023. Department of Fisheries released 1.3 million crablets to support rehabilitation
of fishery resources in the sea of Prachuab Kirikhan province. In: Fisheries Department,
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. Thailand.
DoF. 2023. Statistics of sea crabs culture survey 2022. Report No. 11/2023. Bangkok,
Fisheries Development and Planning Division, DoF, Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives.
Hajisamae, S., Suwanmala, J., Khongphuang, S., Yeesin, P., Thongwan, A., Pitagsalee,
C., La-ongsiriwong, L., Polrat, T., Oniam, W. & Theppanich, A. 2022. Research for
advancement of completed aquaculture system for mud crab (Scylla spp.) to be a new
economic species by means of participation for area development mechanism in Pattani
Province. Prince of Songkla University, Pattani, Thailand. Technical Research Report.
Kaewsai, P. 2004. The study on the control of imported serrated mud crab, Scylla serrata,
at Tak Province fish inspection office. Technical paper No. 5/2004. Tak Province Fish
Inspection Office, Thailand.
Lavilla-Pitogo, C.R. & de la Pena, L.D. 2004. Diseases in farmed mud crabs Scylla spp.:
Diagnosis, Prevention, and Control. Iloilo City, Philippines, SEAFDEC.
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Nitiratsuwan, T., Tanyaros, S. & Panwanitdumrong, K. 2013. Distribution of berried

female blue swimmer crabs (Portunus pelagicus Linneaus, 1758) in the coastal waters
of Trang province, southern Thailand. Maejo International Journal of Science and
Technology, 7 (Special Issue): 52–59.
Nooseng, S. 2015. Status of mud crab industry in Thailand. In: E. T. Quinitio, F.D.
Parado–Estepa, Y.C. Thampi Sam Raj & A. Mandal, eds. Proceedings of the International
Seminar-Workshop on Mud Crab Aquaculture and Fisheries Management, 10-12 April
2013, Tamil Nadu. Tamil Nadu, India, Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Aquaculture (MPEDA).
Pradissan, N. 2006. An identification and stock assessment of mud crab in Klong Ngao
mangrove forest, Ranong Province. Newsletter Aquatic Animals, 8: 30–31.
Sakapan, L. & Temram, M. 2011. Mixed culture of mud crab in mangrove forest at Baan
Lamg Da, Talingchan, Nua Khlong, Krabi province. Bangkok, Department of Marine
and Coastal Resources. Research Report.
Sermthong, B. 2012. Raising serrated mud crab (Scylla serrata Forsskall) in degraded
mangrove forest areas. Technical Paper No. 8/2012. Bangkok, Department of Marine and
Coastal Resources.
Sodsuk, P. 2006. Genetic diversity study of the blue swimming crab (Portunus pelagicus)
and mud crabs (Scylla spp.) populations of Thailand. Newsletter Aquatic Animals,
8: 24–25.
Suppapan, J., Songrak, A., Meesook, W. & Supmee, V. 2023. Population genetic structure
of the blue swimming crab (Portunus pelagicus) along the Andaman Sea Coast of
Thailand. Sains Malaysiana, 52(2): 369–380.
 141

Status of mud crab aquaculture in

Singapore

Diana Chan
Aquaculture Innovation Centre, Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore

ABSTRACT
Singapore is neither an agriculture nor aquaculture country. Being a small country of
about 735 km2 in size, the country has less than 1 percent arable land for agriculture.
At least 90 percent of its food, consumed by close to 6 million people, is imported from
more than 115 countries. Mud crab is one of the seafood items regularly imported as it
is part of the local iconic “Singapore Chilli Crab” dish. The local demand for the crab
far outweighs the supply that it could get from overseas imports. About 10 t of crabs,
particularly Scylla serrata of between 650 g and 1.5 kg/crab, are consumed daily.
The mud crab aquaculture industry is very nascent with no local commercial
hatcheries or mud crab farms. Due to the decline in mud crab imports into Singapore
over the years, there have been a few mud crab fattening or soft-shell crab farms set
up since 2009, but none have been successful in meeting the strong local demand
for the crustacean so far. However, there has been ongoing mud crab R&D activity
since 2020 at a research facility set up by the Aquaculture Innovation Centre (AIC)
(Figure 1). The AIC was established as a national centre in July 2019 by Enterprise
Singapore under the Ministry of Trade and Industry to serve the farming needs of the
local aquaculture industry. Research into mud crab spawning, hatchery and nursery
as well as customized diet development for different stages of growth and health
management of the species has been the focus at the AIC research farm since late
2020. The processes and technology development for mud crab aquaculture would be
licensed to commercial companies interested in mud crab production be it hard-shell
or soft-shell crab farming or fattening either locally or overseas. That could be a way
of cultivating some self-sustenance to cope with the declining imports of mud crabs
for local consumption.

FIGURE 1
Mud crab research and culture facilities at the Aquaculture Innovation Center
Experimental (a) and concrete culture (b) tanks

a b
©Apollo Aquaculture Group/AIC
142 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

INTRODUCTION
Green mud crab (Scylla paramamosain), orange mud crab (Scylla olivacea) and purple
mud crab (Scylla tranquebarica) are found locally, while the giant mud crab (S. serrata)
– popularly consumed locally – is imported mainly from Sri Lanka and other overseas
countries.
There is a huge demand for mud crabs particularly S. serrata due to its large size
compared to the other species. There are no local commercial mud crab hatcheries or
producing farms but at least 3–6 t of mud crabs are imported daily.

Mud crab imports

Volza’s Singapore Import data indicates an average of 3 300 t of mud crab, both live
and chilled, are imported by Singapore annually – or approximately 10 tonnes daily.
Singapore is the second-largest importer of mud crabs in the world after China. About
18 150 shipments of imported crabs arrive each year, coming from India, Viet Nam and
Sri Lanka. Based on Volza’s Singapore Live Mud Crab Buyers & Importers directory,
there are 188 active live mud crab importers in Singapore, importing from 122 suppliers
in 77 countries (https://www.volza.com/global-trade-data/singapore-import-trade-
data). On average, imports of crabs into Singapore are projected to decrease by
3.7 percent year-on-year over the same period, reaching 455 850 kg in 2026. This is a
9.7 percent decrease since 1994. In 2021, Singapore was twenty-second in the world
rankings for imports, with 567 140 kg annually. Sweden topped the rankings, followed
by the Republic of Korea, China and Japan.

INDUSTRY STATUS

Production status
Singapore is not an aquaculture country, but it has about 110 coastal farms with less
than 20 land-based farms. As the emphasis on food security is to encourage local
farmers to ramp up production of vegetables, fish and eggs to meet 30 percent of the
total nutritional needs by 2030 (to reduce reliance on foreign food imports), food fish
farming is viewed favourably and preferred over other species such as shrimps and
crabs.
Between 2009 and 2016, there were a handful of local mud crab fattening farms
using trash seafood as feed for the mud crabs. However, quite a few either ceased
operation due to high production cost or relocated their operations outside Singapore.
In 2021, a local start-up company started its mud crab hatchery business in Indonesia
due to cheaper land and labour cost and has been successful in producing crablets for
sale. Another local company is partnering with AIC to set up mud crab farming in
selected mangrove site in Brunei Darussalam in 2025 with the objective of exporting
mud crabs to Singapore in the future. In 2023, a local mud crab importer set up a mud
crab recirculating aquaculture system for fattening “water crabs” found in the batches
of imported crabs.

RESEARCH AND INNOVATION

Presently, AIC is the only centre that has been doing in-depth mud crab research
(Figure 2 and Figure 3) targeting nutrition, feed and feeding, disease management,
hatchery and larviculture, as well as development of smart integrated culture
systems for mud crab production. Prophylactic treatment of the mud crabs using
environmentally friendly sodium percarbonate and veterinary chemical has shown far
better reduction in bacteria count over conventional formalin- or antibiotic-treated
crabs. Spawning condition has been developed through a customized diet using pellet
feeds and has been successful without the need for eye stalk ablation – a practice
commonly used for induction of spawning in mud crab hatcheries. The Centre will
Status of mud crab aquaculture in Singapore 143

FIGURE 2
Feed preparation and feeding trial facilities

©AIC
! FIGURE 3
!! Mud crab pathogen screening for parasites and bacteria

!!

©AIC
144 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

continue to develop technologies for improving the health and growth performance of
crablets and adult crab spawning ability, so that these could be licensed to commercial
companies or farms for production. Hopefully, there will be more farmers willing to
grow and produce mud crabs for commercialization or to work with agencies in mud
crab conservation.
AIC’s mud crab hatchery and crablet technology other than the capabilities built up
in feed and feeding, health and disease management and integrated culture system, were
supported by Enterprise Singapore under the Technology Adoption Programme from
2020 to 2022. An Invention Disclosure Form has been filed for the mud crab hatchery
and crablet technologies. Currently, AIC is working with a local S&M enterprise to
bring mud crab farming to Brunei Darussalam with the objective of exporting adult
mud crabs or soft-shell crabs back to Singapore, thus providing some resilience in mud
crab supply for local consumption.

MAJOR ISSUES AND CHALLENGES FACING THE INDUSTRY

Due to land and skilled manpower constraints, as well as high utility cost in Singapore,
other than ensuring environmental sustainability and food safety, the challenges
faced by the nascent aquaculture industry may be insurmountable. Innovation and
technology development based on the “grow-more-with-less” concept, together
with financial assistance and support, would be important to drive the aquaculture
industry forward (https://www.sfa.gov.sg/singaporefoodstory/grow-local). Vertical
farming systems with technologies that support energy efficiency as well as waste and
wastewater management for intensive crab production (be it for soft-shell crab or crab
fattening) may be able to pave the way for the development of the mud crab farming
industry in Singapore.

CONCLUSION
It is challenging for Singapore to be a mud crab producing country as such propagation
would require extensive land, skilled manpower and resources. However, Singapore
through AIC can be the R&D hub for mud crab innovation and technology
development. The technologies once developed could be licensed to companies
interested in mud crab farming overseas or those willing to commercialize technologies
or products such as diagnostic kits or vaccines developed from the mud crab R&D.
Singapore could also continue to develop technologies in mud crab hatchery with
the objective of providing a sustainable supply of crablets to local farms, and extension
services could be provided to them through AIC. Likewise, the establishment of a
national quality mud crab broodstock and seedstock is key for the development of
local mud crab industry, to enhance self-reliance on local production and reduce
foreign imported mud crabs for local consumption needs.
 145

Status of mud crab industry in

Malaysia

Hanafiah Fazhan, Khor Waiho & Mhd Ikhwanuddin

Institute of Tropical Aquaculture and Fisheries, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala
Nerus, Terengganu, Malaysia

ABSTRACT
Malaysia’s coastal waters host a diverse array of Portunidae crab species, including
Portunus pelagicus, Charybdis feriatus, Charybdis miles, Charybdis natator,
Podophthalmus vigil and Scylla spp. Notably, all species of mud crabs from the genus
Scylla, except for S. serrata, can be found in Malaysian waters. Fish landings (captured
fisheries) in Malaysia from 1990 to 2022 ranged from 0.9 to 1.3 million t, generating
estimated revenues of MYR 2.6–15.3 billion (USD 0.58–3.4 billion). Over the same
period, crab landings (inclusive of all harvested crab species) increased from 7 793 t
in 1990 to 13 890 t in 2015 and decreased slightly to 9 475 t in 2022. All crab landing
data from 1990 to 2000 are grouped together without distinguishing between species.
Starting from the year 2005 to 2022, mud crab data became available, although initially
categorized under “stone crab” and later as both “stone crab” and “mud crab” starting
from the year 2020. Mud crab landings increased from 1 836 t in 2005 to 3 470 t in
2010, decreased slightly to 1 868 t in 2020, and increased exponentially to 8 507 t in
2022. Mud crab aquaculture production rose from 190 t in 1990 to 335 t in 2022, with
revenue peaking at MYR 16 million in 2022. Despite the promising growth, mud crab
aquaculture contributes only 0.07 percent of the total national mariculture production
in 2022. Major challenges include the decline of wild stocks, limited aquaculture
investment, and competition from imported crabs. Conservation efforts are hampered
by the lack of specific policies for mud crabs, although mangrove forest protection
indirectly benefits mud crabs. Restocking programmes led by local universities and
governmental bodies face limitations. Enhanced research, policy development, and
targeted management strategies are required to sustain Malaysia’s mud crab resources
and addressing the challenges effectively.

INTRODUCTION

Crab species
A variety of commercially important crab species from the family Portunidae,
including Portunus pelagicus (Blue swimming crab), Charybdis feriatus (Crucifix
crab), Charybdis miles (Soldier swimming crab), Charybdis natator (Ridged swimming
crab), Podophthalmus vigil (Sentinel crab) and Scylla spp. inhabit the coastal waters of
Malaysia. Among these, mud crabs of the genus Scylla hold the highest commercial
value, with market prices reaching up to USD 50/kg, and are in high demand both
domestically and internationally. The decline in wild catches due to overfishing and
habitat destruction further heightened their importance in aquaculture. Mud crabs
are found across the Western Indo-Pacific region and are classified into four species:
S. serrata, S. olivacea, S. tranquebarica and S. paramamosain, as detailed by Keenan,
Davie and Mann (1998) and Fazhan et al. (2021). The morphological differences among
these species are important for identification purposes by farmers and fishers. All
146 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

four species of Scylla are highly prized for their meat, making them important resources
in both fisheries and aquaculture. Over the past decade, global capture production has
exceeded 20 000 t while aquaculture production has surpassed 100 000 t (FAO, 2018).
Each Scylla species varies significantly in size and morphology. In general, S. serrata
is the largest, followed by S. tranquebarica and S. paramamosain, with S. olivacea
being the smallest (Ogawa et al., 2012; Waiho, Fazhan and Ikhwanuddin, 2016; Fazhan
et al., 2017b). Despite its smaller size, S. olivacea is known for its endurance due to its
adaptability to low-salinity habitats and exposure to intertidal tides. Three of the Scylla
species, namely S. olivacea, S. tranquebarica and S. paramamosain are prevalent along
the coastal zones of Malaysia (Waiho, Fazhan and Ikhwanuddin, 2016). While a report
by Kosuge (2001) suggested the presence of S. serrata in the Matang Mangrove Forest
Reserve, subsequent studies by Fazhan, Waiho and Ikhwanuddin (2017a) found only
two escaped specimens, indicating no viable population of this species exist in Malaysia.
Natural hybrids among Scylla species have been reported by Imai and Takeda (2005)
in their natural habitats in Japan. Recently, Fazhan et al. (2021), identified four types of
possible hybrids from the Sulu Sea, Malaysia, which displayed distinct morphological
and morphometric variations compared to the pure species. Although hybridization
trials in captivity have been successful, demonstrating that crossbreeding among all
species of mud crabs is feasible (Fazhan et al., 2017c), the presumed hybrids found in
the wild exhibited negative heterosis, being smaller than the pure species (Fazhan et al.,
2020b). The three Scylla species found in Malaysia coexist in sympatry. In the Strait of
Malacca and the South China Sea of Peninsular Malaysia S. olivacea is the predominant
species, while S. paramamosain is more common in the Sulu Sea in East Malaysia.
Seasonal shifts in species abundance have been observed, with S. tranquebarica being
more abundant from October to February, while S. paramamosain from May to
October (Fazhan et al., 2017b).

Wild stock status

Crabs, alongside fish and other marine products, hold significant importance in
Malaysian fisheries. The mud crab aquaculture sector in Malaysia primarily depends
on wild stock resources. Based on the available yearly capture statistics recorded by
the Department of Fisheries Malaysia, total crab landings from captured fisheries from
7 793 t in 1990 to 13 890 t in 2015 and slightly decreased to 9 475 t in 2022 (Figure 1).
However, it is important to note that most data before 2020, including data on landing
volume, did not specifically distinguish mud crabs at the genus level. Mud crabs were

FIGURE 1
Malaysia total fisheries and total crab landings from 1990 to 2022 (t)

1 600 000 Crab landing (all captured species)

Total landing without crab landing
1 400 000

1 200 000
Fisheries landing (t)

1 000 000

800 000
1 416 377
1 368 188 1 369 183
1 273 057 1 312 301 1 292 866
600 000 1 130 632
1 055 388
943 514
400 000

200 000

7 793 10 197 12 639 11 582 12 504 13 890 12 947 13 674 9 475

0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2021 2022
Year

Source: Department of Fisheries Malaysia (1990, 1995, 2000, 2006, 2010, 2015, 2020, 2021, 2022).
Status of mud crab industry in Malaysia 147

FIGURE 2
Malaysia crab landing according to species from 1990 to 2022 (t)
16 000 Crab landing (all captured species)
Marine crab landing
Blue swimming crab landing 2 066
14 000 Stone crab landing
1 169 565
Mud crab landing
2 235 699 6 074
12 000

1 836 3 470
10 000 6 286
Crab landing (t)

5 760
5 436
2 433
8 000 3 786
3 746

12 639
6 000
10 197

4 000 7 793 6 589

6 488 6 823
5 960 6 219
5 288
2 000

453
0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2021 2022
Year

Note: All crabs were designated only as “crab” in 1990 to 2000. Both “stone crab” and “mud crab” were used to represent
Scylla spp. since 2005 and 2020, respectively, as data were collected based on states and different local names of mud crabs
exists for Scylla spp.
Source: Department of Fisheries Malaysia (1990, 1995, 2000, 2006, 2010, 2015, 2020, 2021, 2022).

categorized, together with other captured crab species as “crab” from 1990 to 2000, as
“stone crab” (“ketam batu”) from 2005 to 2015, and as both “stone crab” and “mud
crab” (“ketam nipah”) from 2020 to 2022. According to Figure 2, the first recorded
mud crab landing in 2005 was 1 836 t. By 2010, the landing increased to 3 470 t before
decreasing to 2 235 t in 2015. A further decline was recorded in 2020, with landings
dropping to 1 868 t, when both “stone crab” and “mud crab” categories referred to
the mud crab genus Scylla. However, in 2022, the demand for mud crabs in Malaysia
rebounded, leading to an increase in mud crab landings to 8 507 t. While this indicates
a positive trend for mud crab fisheries in recent years, there is currently no reliable data
to comprehensively assess the status of wild mud crab stocks in Malaysia. Therefore,
there is a need for in-depth studies and targeted management strategies to ensure the
sustainability of wild mud crab populations in Malaysian waters.

Conservation and management of wild resources

Mud crab fisheries not only play a crucial role in supporting coastal communities that
depend on these resources for their livelihoods, but also contribute to the small-scale
aquaculture industry, especially in the production of soft-shell crabs, hard-shell crabs,
and berried female crabs. Despite the importance of mud crabs, there is currently no
specific governmental policy focused solely on the conservation and management of
wild mud crab resources. However, existing regulations related to mangrove forests,
which are crucial habitats for mud crabs, indirectly support the sustainability of these
resources. Mangrove forest reserves in Malaysia are generally managed under different
regulations depending on the region. In Peninsular Malaysia, forest management
is governed by the National Forestry Act 1984 (Amendment 1993) in line with the
Peninsular Malaysia Forestry Policy 2020. In East Malaysia, the forest is governed
by the two states, Sabah and Sarawak. Sabah Forestry Department oversees forest
management, harvest control, and royalty payments, guided by the Forest Enactment
1968, Forest Rules 1969, Forest (Timber) Enactment 2015, and the Sabah Forest Policy
2018. Meanwhile, in Sarawak, the Sarawak Forestry Department is responsible for
forest administration and resource management, operating under the Forest Ordinance
2015, Forest Regulations, and the Sarawak Forest Policy 2019.
148 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Malaysia has a total of 668 967 ha of mangrove forests, with 378 175 ha in Sabah,
173 792 ha in Sarawak, and 117 000 ha in Peninsular Malaysia. Of these mangrove
forests, 70 percent are designated as protected areas. The mangrove reserves in Malaysia
are spread across several states, namely Johor state – Tanjung Piai National Park; Kedah
state – Sungai Merbok Mangrove Forest Reserve; Perak state – Matang Mangrove
Forest Reserve; Sabah state – Kudat Mangrove Reserve, Teluk Marudu Mangrove
Reserve, Kuala Maruap Forest Reserve; and Sarawak state – Sarawak Mangrove Forest
Reserves. These protected areas are important habitats of mud crab. Mangrove forests
offer critical ecosystem aspects that support the life cycle of mud crabs, including
nursery grounds, feeding habitats and shelter.
However, to further support mud crab fisheries and aquaculture in Malaysia, there is
a need for policies specific to mud crabs that would ensure their long-term exploitation
and promote aquaculture development. Some examples include regulations and policies
regarding minimum landing size, sex-based trading, seasonal fishery regulation, and
refugia. At present, conservation and management of the wild resources are mainly
driven by local universities, with frequent restocking programmes carried out by the
Universiti Malaysia Terengganu in Peninsular Malaysia and the Universiti Malaysia
Sabah in East Malaysia. By building on the nation-wide mangrove management
programme, Malaysia can ensure the continued viability and sustainability of mud crab
resources for future generations.

INDUSTRY STATUS

Aquaculture production status

Malaysia, rich in aquatic resources such as fish, shrimp, crabs and shellfish, recorded an
increasing aquaculture (inclusive of freshwater, brackish, and marine cultures) revenue
from MYR 155 million to MYR 5 billion from 1990 to 2022 (Figure 3) (Department
of Fisheries Malaysia, 1990, 1995, 2000, 2006, 2010, 2015, 2020, 2021, 2022). The total
mariculture (only brackish and marine cultures) revenue followed the same trend,
peaked at MYR 3.8 billion in 2022, representing approximately 73 percent of the total
aquaculture revenue (Figure 3). The increase in total aquaculture and mariculture

FIGURE 3
Total aquaculture (fresh, brackish and marine), mariculture (only brackish and marine), and
mud crab production revenues from 1990 to 2022 (MYR billion)

6 000 18
Total aquaculture revenue
Total mariculture revenue 15.98 16
Total mud crab revenue 5 123.34
5 000
Million (MYR) – Total aquaculture & mariculture

14

3 754.68
4 000 12
Million (MYR) – Mud crab

10
3 000
8

2 000 6

4
1 000
2
0.94
154.74 86.83
0 0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2021 2022
Year

Source: Department of Fisheries Malaysia (1990, 1995, 2000, 2006, 2010, 2015, 2020, 2021, 2022).
Status of mud crab industry in Malaysia 149

revenues reflects the exponential growth in production volumes. A nearly 1,000 percent
increase in production volume for both aquaculture and mariculture was recorded in
2022 compared to 1990 (Table 1).
Comparatively, mud crab production in Malaysia has fluctuated over the years,
starting at 190 t in 1990, peaking at 623 t in 1995, and dropping to its lowest point of
12 t in 2010 before gradually recovering to 334 t in 2022 (Table 1). Nonetheless, due to
the increase in market prices, total mud crab revenue grew from MYR 936 thousand
in 1990 to MYR 4 million in 1995, when production was at its highest, and peaked at
around MYR 16 million in 2022 (Figure 3).

TABLE 1
Total aquaculture, mariculture and mud crab production in Malaysia from 1990 to 2022 (t)
Year Total aquaculture production Total mariculture production Mud crab production
(t) (t) (t)
1990 52 303 42 614 190
1995 132 742 114 249 623
2000 167 894 117 206 211
2005 207 220 145 213 222
2010 580 778 425 380 12
2015 506 276 394 320 61
2020 400 018 302 807 210
2021 417 188 311 284 206
2022 573 683 457 814 335
Source: Department of Fisheries Malaysia (1990, 1995, 2000, 2006, 2010, 2015, 2020, 2021, 2022).

The farming of mud crabs is often associated with brackish water culture systems,
either in ponds, cages, or tanks. Based on Figure 4, the usage of freshwater ponds rose
relatively at a slower rate compared to the usage of brackish water ponds and cages,
and freshwater cages in supporting Malaysia’s aquaculture production. Specifically,
the number of ponds rose from 27 195 freshwater ponds in 1990 to 36 216 freshwater
ponds in 2022, a mere 33 percent increase in the number of ponds in a span of 32 years.
Comparatively, within the same time span, the number of brackish cages, brackish

FIGURE 4
Number of freshwater and brackish water ponds and cages used for aquaculture practices
in Malaysia from 1990 to 2022

120 000
Freshwater pond 117 608
108 573
Freshwater cage 110 378
Brackish pond 99 904
104 146
100 000 Brackish cage
95 326
88.832 96.086
Number of ponds and cages (n)

82 577
80 000

68 403
64 351
60 000 64 262
59 167
43 901
36 763
36 534 35 331
40 000 36 937
27 174 36 216
38 687

27 195 27 681
20 000 12 004 13 497 12 322
17 364 11 859
10 698
1 649 5 002 3 669 11 917
2 059
7 423 11 580
0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2021 2022
Year

Source: Department of Fisheries Malaysia (1990, 1995, 2000, 2006, 2010, 2015, 2020, 2021, 2022).
150 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

ponds, and freshwater cages recorded exponential increases of 251 percent, 479 percent,
and 6 594 percent (Figure 4).
Based on data from the Department of Fisheries Malaysia (1990, 1995, 2000, 2006,
2010, 2015, 2020, 2021, 2022), significant growth in the use of brackish and freshwater
aquaculture ponds and cages area (ha) from 1990 to 2022 was recorded. Brackish pond
areas increased from 1 552 ha in 1990 to 7 858 ha in 2022, while brackish cage areas
grew substantially from about 24 ha in 1990 to 10 620 ha by 2022, especially after
2010. Freshwater pond areas also expanded, from 5 089 ha in 1990 to 7 226 ha in 2022,
while freshwater cage areas rose from 2.14 ha in 1990 to 1 280 ha in 2022, with notable
increases after 2005. These trends reflect the growing scale of aquaculture operations,
with both pond and cage areas increasing over time to accommodate higher production
capacities.
In general, the average size of brackish and freshwater ponds are consistently larger
than the average size of brackish and freshwater cages throughout 1990 to 2022, with
the exception of brackish cages being averagely slightly larger than the average size of
freshwater ponds (Figure 5). Averagely, among freshwater and brackish ponds and
cages, brackish ponds are the most favored culture systems among farmers in Malaysia,
with a consistent range of 0.572 to 0.963 ha/pond. Among cage culture systems,
brackish cage culture increased in average size starting from 2015, ranging from 0.089
to 0.199 ha/cage during 2020 to 2022.

FIGURE 5
Average size of ponds and cages used in aquaculture in Malaysia from 1990 to 2022
1.20
Freshwater pond
Freshwater cage
Brackish pond
1.00 0.963
Brackish cage
Average size of pond and cage (ha)

0.754
0.80
0.702 0.652
0.631 0.611 0.659
0.715
0.572
0.60

0.40

0.236
0.187 0.183 0.191 0.189 0.200
0.20 0.174 0.164 0.134
0.111
0.199 0.089
0.002 0.002 0.019
0.001 0.001 0.003 0.019
0.001 0.001 0.001 0.007 0.002 0.012 0.010
0.012
0.00
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2021 2022
Year

Note: The average size of ponds and cages is calculated by dividing the total size (ha) by the total number of ponds or
cages in a specific year.
Source: Department of Fisheries Malaysia (1990, 1995, 2000, 2006, 2010, 2015, 2020, 2021, 2022).

The trend of mud crab production in Malaysia shows substantial fluctuations over
the period 1990–2022 (Figure 6; Table 1). In 1990, a moderate production of 190 t was
recorded, with outputs from brackish pond and brackish cage cultures of 104 t and
86 t, respectively. In 1995, mud crab production spiked to 623 t, driven largely by a
significant increase in cage production. This was followed by a decline in 2000, with
total production falling to 225 t due to a sharp drop in both pond and cage production.
Notably, berried crabs were first reported to be cultured in brackish cages in 2000.
From 2005 to 2010, production remained relatively low. In 2005, production was 222 t,
then decreased further to 12 t in 2010, with a marked reduction in both pond and cage
systems, and small-scale berried crab production. However, from 2015 onward, there
Status of mud crab industry in Malaysia 151

FIGURE 6
Total aquaculture production of mud crabs in ponds, cages and tanks in Malaysia from
1990 to 2022 (t)
600 580.1
Brackish ponds
Brackish cages
Brackish cages (berried crabs)
500
Brackish tanks
Brackish tanks (soft-shell crabs)

400
Mud crab production (t)

323.8

300

191.5 191.0
200
168.2
156.1
104.3
85.6
100
43.2 60.3 6.0 15.2
35.3
19.1 4.0 0.7 19.1 36.6
14.8 2.0 9.7
5.6 0.2 10.8
1.1
0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2021 2022

Year

Source: Department of Fisheries Malaysia (1990, 1995, 2000, 2006, 2010, 2015, 2020, 2021, 2022).

was a noticeable change. In 2015, total production rose to 61 t, supported partially

by the production of soft-shell crabs (35 t) and normal crab fattening (10 t) in tanks.
The upward trend continued in 2020, with mud crab production increasing to 210 t,
slightly decreasing to 206 t in 2021, and peaking at 335 t in 2022. Interestingly, there
was an obvious shift in primary mud crab production methods. Brackish pond culture
declined rapidly from 191 t in 2020 to only 11 t in 2022, while brackish tank culture
gained preference, increasing from 19 t in 2020 to 324 t in 2022 (Figure 6).

AQUACULTURE PRACTICES AND METHODS

Mud crab aquaculture in Malaysia remains a relatively small industry compared to
other cultured marine species such as shrimps, owing to the abundance of wild stock
populations and competitive prices of imported mud crabs. The primary culture
activities involve crab fattening and soft-shell crab production, both are often carried
out by small-scale farmers as supplementary income sources rather than as full-scale
commercial ventures. Consequently, there is a noticeable absence of comprehensive
and reliable data on the industry’s overall size and economic impact.

Broodstock management
Broodstock are sourced either from the wild or from farms. In general, the essential
characteristics of broodstock includes physically active, absence of any external
parasites, possess intact appendages, weigh 300–350 g, and have nearly mature ovaries.
These broodstock are housed in one tonne tanks, supplied with a bottom layer of
fine sand (< 70 μm), approximately 10–15 cm deep, and the addition of shelter in the
form of PVC pipes (Fazhan et al., 2022). The stocking density for the broodstock
is maintained at 2–3 ind./m2. The water in the tanks is carefully regulated at a
temperature range of 28–32 °C, salinity range of 30–35 ppt, and a pH maintained at
8.0–8.5. Continuous aeration is crucial during the culture period to ensure the water
remains oxygenated.
Maintaining the highest level of water quality is essential during broodstock culture.
The water level in the tank should be maintained at 30–40 cm, and a complete or
partial (50%) water exchange performed daily to remove any feed residue or faeces.
Alternatively, recirculating aquaculture system (RAS) can be applied to reduce
the frequency of water exchanges. The fine sand at the bottom of the tank is also
152 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

thoroughly cleaned every 3 days to ensure a healthy environment for the broodstock.
Since broodstock typically spawn at night or in the early morning, and the eggs need
time to harden, it is advised that water exchanges be conducted after 08:00 to avoid
disrupting the spawning process. Broodstock are fed a nutrient-rich diet consisting of
clams, blood cockles, squid and fish to help promote gonad development and improve
egg quality (Azra & Ikhwanuddin, 2016). Feeding is carried out daily after the water
exchange.
Broodstock with well-developed gonads will naturally begin to spawn within
2–3 weeks after being introduced into the pond or tank. If spawning does not occur
within one month, the broodstock should be replaced. Although eyestalk ablation can
induce gonadal maturation and hasten the egg extrusion process, it is not recommended
and not practised in most hatcheries in Malaysia due to ethical concerns. After
spawning, females are transferred to individual holding tanks to allow better control
of the water quality and minimize stress. These tanks, with a capacity of 1 t, are set
up two days prior to the transfer. The tank is filled to 70 percent of its capacity with
treated water, which is chlorinated and then dechlorinated using sodium thiosulfate.
Additionally, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) is added at a concentration
of 0.02 g/L to further treat the water, and the alkalinity is adjusted to 120–140 ppm
using sodium bicarbonate before the female crab is introduced. Healthy embryonic
development is indicated by berried females carrying dense egg masses. During this
period, it is important to maintain a water temperature of 28–32 °C and salinity of
30–35 ppt to prevent shedding of the egg and ensure proper development. As the
embryos develop, the colour of the egg mass changes progressively, starting from
orange and transitioning to light yellow, then grey, dark brown and finally black.
Under optimal conditions of 28–32 °C, the eggs typically hatch after 10–12 days of
incubation.

Larval rearing
Once the larvae hatch, they are transferred immediately. The larvae are disinfected
by immersing them in a 200-ppm formalin solution for 10 seconds, after which they
are placed in tanks of 1–2 t at a density of 50 000–100 000 larvae per tank. The larvae
remain in these tanks throughout the nursery phase until they reach the crablet stage
(C1–C5) and can be sold to commercial crab nurseries or released back to the wild for
restocking.
The feeding schedule for crab larvae is carefully planned to meet their nutritional
needs at each stage of their development. During the Zoea 1 (Z1) stage, the larvae are
initially fed microalgae or Artemia instar, supplemented with formulated feed. As
they advance to the Z2, Z3 and Z4 stages, their diet shifts to include Artemia nauplii,
along with formulated feeds provided at various times throughout the day. By the
time the larvae reach the Z5 stage, their diet is diversified to incorporate both Artemia
biomass and formulated feed, ensuring they receive a well-balanced nutrition. This
dietary regimen continues into the megalopa stage. Finally, during the crablet C1 to
C4 stages, the larvae’s diet is further enriched by adding chopped fish or squid along
with the formulated feed, providing a more varied and nutrient-rich diet. The feeding
routine is structured to occur three times daily in early morning, midday, and early
evening across all stages – except during the C1 to C4 stages, where the midday feeding
is omitted. This organized feeding plan is vital for promoting the larvae’s growth,
optimizing their health, and ensuring their survival as they progress through various
developmental stages (Waiho et al., 2018).

RESEARCH AND INNOVATION

Mud crab aquaculture development and innovation are critical research areas in
Malaysia, driven by the country’s commitment to enhancing food security and
Status of mud crab industry in Malaysia 153

supporting the aquaculture industry. At the national level, numerous research grants
support ongoing mud crab projects. Key areas of focus include optimizing broodstock
rearing processes to ensure a higher yield of healthy mud crabs that are capable of
producing high quality larvae in huge quantity. Additionally, universities and the
Department of Fisheries Malaysia are working to improve larvae rearing techniques
to enhance larvae survival rates through better nutrition, environmental control
and disease management. Periodic assessments of wild mud crab populations by the
Department of Fisheries Malaysia and universities in various regions further ensure the
sustainable exploitation of mud crab resources in Malaysia.
The role of marine species, including mud crabs, as a viable protein source is
highlighted in the Malaysian Government’s latest food security policy (MAFS, 2023),
as well as the National Agrofood Policy 2021–2030 (MAFS, 2021) in both fisheries
and aquaculture. Additionally, to emphasize the importance of sustainable aquaculture
and the role of crustaceans in national food security, especially high-value species such
as mud crabs, the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia designated the Institute of
Tropical Aquaculture and Fisheries (AKUATROP) at Universiti Malaysia Terengganu
as a Higher Institution Center of Excellence for shellfish research, focusing primarily
on sustainable production of mud crabs and tiger shrimps to cater for the nation’s
development needs. This designation underscores the government’s commitment to
advancing research and development in mud crab aquaculture.

MARKET INFORMATION

Major markets for hard- and soft-shell mud crabs

Mud crabs are highly priced crustaceans, with berried female mud crabs and large
males fetching the highest price in the market. Due to the high demand for mud
crabs in Malaysia, mud crabs are increasingly being imported from other countries,
particularly from Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Viet Nam. While most imports are for local
consumption, some are transited for export to China, Hong Kong SAR, Singapore and
Taiwan Province of China.
In Malaysia, local mud crabs are categorized by size and grade: AA (≥ 500 g/crab,
priced at MYR 55–250/kg), A (250–499 g/crab, MYR 45–55/kg), B (200–249 g/crab,
MYR 25–45/kg), C (100–199 g/crab, MYR 20–35/kg) and D (< 100 g/crab, MYR 10–25/kg).
The price of mud crabs is also dependent on the availability of supply in the specific
geographical location. The mud crab market is diverse, with distinct size and sex classes
commanding different prices. Large mud crabs often fetch higher prices in larger cities,
with ovigerous female crabs commanding premium prices due to their perceived quality
and taste. Generally, in restaurants, ordinary mud crabs are priced at MYR 160/kg while
good quality crabs are about MYR 250/kg. However, during festive seasons like Eid Fitri,
Eid Adha, Lunar Chinese New Year and Christmas, prices can exceed MYR 250/kg due
to limited supply and heightened consumer demand.
Recently, there is a growing demand for soft-shell crabs in Malaysia due to their
high price range (MYR 60–80 per kg). Consequently, some crab fishermen would
temporarily culture juvenile-sized crabs and harvest them immediately after moulting.
These small-scale soft-shell crab industries, however, are often temporary as they
depend fully on the availability of (1) juvenile crabs from the wild, and (2) space and
equipment for soft-shell crab culture.

MAJOR ISSUES AND CHALLENGES FACING THE INDUSTRY

Mud crab production in Malaysia is still relying on wild-caught and imported mud
crab resources. While fattening and hard-shell farming were once popular, both culture
activities have declined, according to the data from the Department of Fisheries,
Malaysia. Mud crab nurseries capable of producing crablets are still in trial phase,
154 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

primarily led by universities and a few private aquaculture companies. However, owing
to the abundance of mud crab resources, the low prices of imported crabs, and the
complex skills and knowledge needed to culture mud crabs, aquaculture companies are
reluctant to invest in large-scale mud crab farming in Malaysia.
In the aquaculture industry, crabs are known carriers of diseases that could also
affect shrimps, making them unsuitable for polyculture with shrimps. Additionally,
consumer perception is also a significant factor impeding the expansion of mud
crab aquaculture in Malaysia, as most Malaysians prefer marine crabs such as blue
swimmer crabs, over mud crabs. Some Muslims avoid mud crabs because they live
both in water and on land, which conflicts with the concept of halal. Additionally,
the presence of sacculinid parasites – specifically rhizocephalan Sacculina beauforti
in East Malaysia (Waiho et al., 2017) – poses a significant threat to the culture of the
mud crab S. olivacea (Fazhan et al., 2018). This parasite is highly prevalent among
S. olivacea and can severely impact their health. Infected crabs experience disruptions
in their physiological processes, including the prevention of moulting and damage to
the gonads, which impedes both their growth and reproduction (Fazhan et al., 2020a).

CONCLUSION
The status of crab fisheries and aquaculture in Malaysia highlights both the importance
and the challenges of managing these crucial resources. Crabs, particularly those from
the genus Scylla, represent a significant economic contributor to the fishery sectors of
Malaysia, driven by their high market value and increasing demand. The increasing
mud crab revenue from MYR 936 000 in 1990 to MYR 16 million in 2022 demonstrates
a growing industry with substantial economic impact. Despite these positive trends,
the mud crab fishery and aquaculture sectors are facing a series of interrelated issues
that threaten their sustainability.
Firstly, the decline in wild crab populations, exacerbated by overfishing and habitat
degradation, is a pressing concern. The observed decrease in wild catches, despite the
overall increase in landings, suggests that wild stocks are being depleted faster than
they can replenish. Secondly, the aquaculture sector, although expanding, remains
underdeveloped relative to its potential. Mud crab farming constitutes a small fraction
of total mariculture production, at only 0.07 percent of the total output in 2022. The
sector’s growth is hindered by inadequate infrastructure and technical skills, limited
investment, and competition from imported crabs. The transition from traditional
fishing to a more structured aquaculture system is complicated by these constraints,
necessitating improvements in farming practices, technology and investment.
Moreover, the indirect benefits derived from policies protecting mangrove
ecosystems are crucial but insufficient. Mangroves play a vital role as nurseries and
habitats for juvenile crabs, making their conservation essential for sustaining crab
populations. However, targeted regulations and management strategies specifically
addressing crab fisheries and aquaculture are lacking.
Current efforts, including restocking programmes and research by local universities,
are important but need to be supported by comprehensive data and integrated into
broader conservation and management frameworks. While the crab fisheries sector in
Malaysia demonstrates considerable economic potential, its long-term sustainability
is threatened by overfishing, habitat degradation and underdeveloped aquaculture
practices. To ensure the viability of these resources, it is imperative to implement
effective management strategies that balance harvesting with conservation. Enhancing
aquaculture infrastructure, investing in research and innovation, and developing specific
policies for crab fisheries will be crucial for addressing these challenges. Strengthening
conservation efforts for mangrove ecosystems and supporting restocking initiatives
will further contribute to the resilience of crab populations. A holistic approach
combining sustainable practices, scientific research, and robust policy frameworks is
Status of mud crab industry in Malaysia 155

essential for securing the future of Malaysia’s crab fisheries and aquaculture industries,
ultimately benefiting local communities and ensuring food security.

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Scylla broodstock: Present research, problems and future perspective. Saudi Journal of
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Department of Fisheries Malaysia. 1990. Annual Fisheries Statistics. Volume 1. Retrieved
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Department of Fisheries Malaysia. 2020. Annual Fisheries Statistics. Volume 1. Retrieved
on September 2023, from https://www.dof.gov.my/sumber/perangkaan-perikanan-i/
Department of Fisheries Malaysia. 2021. Annual Fisheries Statistics. Volume 1. Retrieved
on September 2023, from https://www.dof.gov.my/sumber/perangkaan-perikanan-i/
Department of Fisheries Malaysia. 2022. Annual Fisheries Statistics. Volume 1. Retrieved
on September 2023, from https://www.dof.gov.my/sumber/perangkaan-perikanan-i/
FAO. 2018. Species fact sheets, Scylla serrata. In: FAO. Rome. Retrieved on 1 September
2023, https://www.fao.org/figis/pdf/fishery/species/2637/en?title=FAO%20
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Fazhan, H., Waiho, K. & Ikhwanuddin, M. 2017a. Nonindigenous giant mud crab, Scylla
serrata Forskål, 1775) (Crustacea: Brachyura: Portunidae) in Malaysian coastal waters: A
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Fazhan, H., Waiho, K., Darin Azri, M.F., Al-Hafiz, I., Wan Norfaizza, W.I., Megat, F.H.
& Ikhwanuddin, M. 2017b. Sympatric occurrence and population dynamics of Scylla
spp. in equatorial climate: Effects of rainfall, temperature and lunar phase. Estuarine,
Coastal and Shelf Science, 198: 299–310.
Fazhan, H., Waiho, K., Shu-Chien, A.C., Wang, Y., Ikhwanuddin, M., Abualreesh,
M.H., Kasan, N.A., Wu, Q., Muda, S., Sor, C.S. & Jalilah, M. 2022. Fine sand facilitates
egg extrusion and improves reproductive output in female mud crab genus Scylla. PeerJ,
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Interspecies mating among mud crab genus Scylla in captivity. Aquaculture, 471: 49–54.
Fazhan, H., Waiho, K., Wee, H.B., Surzanne, M.A., Ma, H. & Ikhwanuddin, M. 2018.
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Fazhan, H., Waiho, K., Al-Hafiz, I., Kasan, N.A., Ishak, S.D., Afiqah-Aleng, N. &
Ikhwanuddin, M. 2021. Composition, size distribution, length-weight relationship of
sympatric mud crab species (Scylla) and the case of presumed hybrids. Estuarine, Coastal
and Shelf Science, 250: 107154.
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Japan. Journal of Crustacean Biology, 25(4): 620–624.
Keenan, C.P., Davie, P. & Mann, D. 1998. A revision of the genus Scylla de Haan, 1833
(Crustacea: Decapoda: Brachyura: Portunidae). Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, 46: 217–245.
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Safeguarding the future of national food security. Putrajaya, Ministry of Agriculture and
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security policy action plan 2021–2025). Putrajaya, Ministry of Agriculture and Food
Security.
Ogawa, C.Y., Hamasaki, K., Dan, S., Obata, Y. & Kitada, S. 2012. Species composition,
reproduction, and body size of mud crabs, Scylla spp., caught in Urado Bay, Japan.
Journal of Crustacean Biology, 32(5): 762–768.
Kosuge, T. 2001. Brief assessment of stock of mud crabs Scylla spp. in Matang Mangrove
Forest, Malaysia and proposal for resources management, Japan Agricultural Research
Quarterly, 35(2): 145–148.
Waiho, K., Fazhan, H., Glenner, H. & Ikhwanuddin, M. 2017. Infestation of parasitic
rhizocephalan barnacles Sacculina beauforti (Cirripedia, Rhizocephala) in edible mud
crab, Scylla olivacea. PeerJ, 5: e3419.
Waiho, K., Fazhan, H. & Ikhwanuddin, M. 2016. Size distribution, length-weight
relationship and size at the onset of sexual maturity of the orange mud crab, Scylla
olivacea, in Malaysian waters. Marine Biology Research, 12(7): 726–738.
Waiho, K., Fazhan, H., Quinitio, Q.T., Baylon, J.C., Fujaya, Y., Azmie, G., Wu, Q., Shi,
X., Ikhwanuddin, M. & Ma, H. 2018. Larval rearing of mud crab (Scylla): What lies
ahead. Aquaculture, 493: 37–50.
 157

Mud crab aquaculture situation in

Japan

Tetsuya Sanda
Aquaculture Research Department, Fisheries Technology Institute, Okinawa, Japan

ABSTRACT
Three mud crab species – Scylla paramamosain, Scylla serrata and Scylla olivacea –
are distributed along the shores of Japan. S. paramamosain is dominant in temperate
zones, S. serrata in subtropical regions, while S. olivacea is a less common species.
The Fisheries Research and Education Agency (FRA) has played a central role in
the development of seed production techniques adapted from those developed for
the Japanese swimming crab, Portunus trituberculatus. Large-scale release trials have
been conducted in the past. However, large-scale stocking initiatives by the FRA were
discontinued in 2014, leaving only small-scale stocking efforts currently managed by
local fisheries authorities. Comprehensive data on mud crab fishery in Japan is still
scarce, and systematic stock assessment is lacking. Although there are no regulations
specific to the harvesting of mud crabs, the Fisheries Act and several laws prohibit the
use of crab traps by unlicensed persons, particularly within protected areas such as
Ishigaki Island. In addition, the Food Hygiene Act prohibits the use of formalin or
antimicrobials in the production of seed intended for human consumption. Mud crab
is considered a luxury seafood product in Japan. Imported soft-shell and live crabs
are often served in restaurants in Tokyo, highlighting the inadequacy of the domestic
production in meeting the local demand. Large-scale aquaculture is considered
challenging in Japan due to the high costs associated with electricity, labour and feed, as
well as the limited availability of suitable land. As a result, FRA has shifted its research
focus to small-scale aquaculture as a more practical and sustainable approach to address
these economic and environmental constraints.

INTRODUCTION

Crab species
Three crab species, S. paramamosain, S. serrata and S. olivacea, are distributed along
the coast of Japan (Figure 1) (Oshiro, 1988; Oshiro and Imai, 2003; Sakaji and Fuseya,
2015). S. paramamosain is typically found in inner bays within temperate zones, with
the primary fishing areas being Lake Hamana and Urado Bay (Yamakawa, 1978;
Hamasaki and Kitada, 2008; Hamasaki et al., 2011). Notably, this species has also been
found in colder regions, including the Sea of Japan (Motoh and Nagasawa, 2007) and
Matsushima Bay (Yagura, 2021). S. serrata is mainly found in the subtropical regions of
the Ryukyu Archipelago (Oshiro, 1988). S. olivacea is less common in Japan (Ogawa
et al., 2011, 2012). As a result, both S. paramamosain and S. serrata are important local
fisheries, supporting regional economies and livelihoods (Obata et al., 2006; Hamasaki
et al., 2011).
Previous research on seed production and release of mud crabs in Japan has primarily
focused on S. paramamosain and S. serrata. Other important crab species include the
Japanese swimming crab (P. trituberculatus), blue swimmer crab (Portunus pelagicus),
Japanese mitten crab (Eriocheir japonica), snow crab (Chionoecetes opilio), horsehair
158 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 1
Distribution of the mud crab species in Japan
The distribution of Scylla paramamosain extends south of Chiba Prefecture (CH) along
the Pacific coast and south of the Ariake Sea (AR) in the East China Sea. Notable localities
for this species include Hamamatsu City (HM) and Kochi City (KC). Scylla serrata is
predominantly found around the islands of Okinawa (OK) and Ishigaki (IS). The rarer
S. paramamosain is primarily detected in Matsushima City (MS) and Kaga City (KG).

45ºN

40ºN

35ºN

30ºN

25ºN

125ºE 130ºE 135ºE 140ºE 145ºE 150ºE 155ºE

Note: Refer to the disclaimer on the copyright page for the names and boundaries used in this map.

FIGURE 2 crab (Erimacrus isenbeckii) and red

Numbers of hatchery-raised Scylla spp. crablets released king crab (Paralithodes camtschaticus).
in Japan Seed production methods have
The Japan Sea Farming Association (JSFA) developed been developed for these species,
mud crab seed production technology and conducted with release programmes conducted
restocking activities until 2014. Currently, the Shizuoka
for P. trituberculatus, P. pelagicus
Prefectural Research Institute of Fishery is the sole
organization conducting small-scale release trials of Scylla and E. isenbeckii. The production
paramamosain. techniques for mud crabs in Japan
250 have been adapted from methods
originally developed for cultivating the
Japanese swimming crab. However, it
200 S. paramamosain
is important to note that FRA’s large-
S. serrata scale stocking efforts were discontinued
No./ind. released

in 2014 (Figure 2). Currently, stocking

(10 000 ind.)

150
operations are minimal, with annual
releases limited to tens of thousands of
100 S. paramamosain.

Wild stock status

50
Comprehensive catch data for mud
crabs are limited, highlighting the
0 localized and restricted nature of their
80 984 988 992 996 000 004 008 012 016 020 populations. This lack of information
19 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2
is further compounded by the absence
Mud crab aquaculture situation in Japan 159

of systematic stock assessments, which

FIGURE 3
are crucial for understanding the Landing volumes of all crab species in Japan from
health of the mud crab stocks and 2011–2023
sustainability of the fishery. In Shizuoka, catches are predominantly Scylla
paramamosain. In Kochi and Okinawa, data combine
CONSERVATION AND Portunus trituberculatus and Portunus pelagicus, with the
latter species being dominant, while Scylla spp. are less
MANAGEMENT OF WILD
abundant in both regions.
RESOURCES
Currently, there are no specific 10
10
regulations in Japan governing the

(t) (t)
fishery of mud crabs. The Fisheries 88

of catch
Act (Japan Fishery Act, 1949) imposes
restrictions on the use of crab traps and 66

Total catch
gill nets in various regions, particularly Shizuoka
Shizuoka
Total amount
44
for individuals without a valid fishing Okinawa
Okinawa
license. Kochi
Kochi
22
A notable example is Ishigaki Island,
recognized as a vital habitat for mud 00
crabs. This island features a protected
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

21
22
18
19
20
16
17
13
14
15
11
12

marine area that underscores the 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20

20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20

significance of conserving its aquatic

ecosystems. Within this protected zone, fishing of certain aquatic species is strictly
prohibited to maintain the delicate balance of the ecosystem and safeguard the habitats
of mud crabs and other marine organisms. Strengthening regulations and management
measures in such critical areas could further enhance the protection of these species and
their environments.

INDUSTRY STATUS

Production status
Currently, comprehensive data and information on aquaculture production for
mud crabs in Japan are lacking (Figure 3). However, small-scale aquaculture efforts
are ongoing, primarily in Okinawa Prefecture. In Lake Hamana, the catch of wild
S. paramamosain is estimated at approximately 6 t/year. In Kochi Prefecture, the
combined annual catch of P. trituberculatus and P. pelagicus is about 8 t, with
P. pelagicus being the dominant species. In Okinawa Prefecture, S. serrata is classified
as a portunid crab, and the combined catch with P. pelagicus is approximately 7 t/year
(Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 2015–2022).

Farming areas
Small-scale aquaculture is currently being conducted on Irabu Island, part of Miyakojima
City in Okinawa Prefecture. In addition to this, aquaculture trials have been attempted
in Tamano City (Okayama Prefecture), Nakatane City (Kagoshima Prefecture) and Lake
Hamana in Hamamatsu City (Shizuoka Prefecture). Unfortunately, these trials have not
yielded positive results (Figure 4). The challenges faced in these regions highlight the
need for further research and development to optimize aquaculture practices for mud
crabs, potentially leading to more sustainable and productive operations in the future.

Hatcheries, nurseries and farms

For S. paramamosain, the seed supply was previously provided by the FRA’s Tamano
Station, which ceased operations in 2017. However, the Shizuoka Prefectural Research
Institute of Fishery continues to play a vital role in seed production, annually producing
tens of thousands of S. paramamosain crablets and releasing them into Lake Hamana.
160 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 4
Locations of mud crab seed production facilities and aquaculture trials in Japan
Seed production for Scylla serrata took place at the Yaeyama Station, Ishigaki Island (IS).
Scylla paramamosain is currently produced at the Shizuoka Prefectural Research Institute
of Fishery, Hamamatsu City (HM), following the closure of the Tamano Station (TM).
Small-scale farming of natural S. serrata seedlings is done on Irabu Islands (IR). Past efforts
to culture imported Scylla olivacea in Nakatane City (NT) were unsuccessful. Release
experiments for S. paramamosain took place in Hamamatsu (HM) and Kochi City (KC), while
S. serrata was trialed in Ishigaki City (IS) and Iriomote Island.

45ºN

40ºN

35ºN

30ºN

25ºN

125ºE 130ºE 135ºE 140ºE 145ºE 150ºE 155ºE

Note: Refer to the disclaimer on the copyright page for the names and boundaries used in this map.

The FRA’s Yaeyama Station successfully developed seed production technology

for S. serrata. However, efforts to implement mass production were constrained by
recurrent disease outbreaks. Although the Fisheries Research and Education Agency
has since ceased large-scale seedling releases, the Yaeyama Station continues to produce
a limited number of seedlings for small-scale aquaculture research on S. serrata
(Figure 4).
Additionally, the Food Sanitation Act (Japan Food Sanitation Act, 1947) prohibits
the use of formalin or unauthorized antimicrobials in the seed production of any
aquatic species intended for human consumption.

AQUACULTURE PRACTICE AND METHODS

Broodstock management
Non-ovigerous female crabs are procured and maintained in tanks with continuous
water flow and a sandy substratum. Typically, these tanks are double-bottomed,
segregating the feeding area to avert sand contamination and inhibit the formation of
a reduction layer. The primary diet consists of Asari clams (Ruditapes philippinarum)
and Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba). After spawning, the crabs are moved to tanks
without sand while maintaining continuous water flow. One day prior to hatching,
the crabs are transferred to incubation tanks, where the development of the eggs is
meticulously monitored.
Mud crab aquaculture situation in Japan 161

Larval rearing
Larvae stocking densities ranged between 10–50 ind./L in tanks with capacities of
50–200 m3. At the Yaeyama Station, mud crab zoea are cultivated in 500 L tanks
with a density of 20 ind./L. During the early zoea stages, nutritionally enriched
S-type rotifers are provided at concentrations of 20–40 ind./ml. From the Z2 stage
onward, enriched Artemia is introduced and densities of 0.5–2.0 ind./ml. Additionally,
phytoplankton species, including Nannochloropsis and diatoms, are added daily as a
dietary supplement.

HEALTH AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT

Mass mortality due to necrosis: When producing S. serrata crablets bacterial necrotic
diseases are commonly observed. A systematic survey has identified several causative
organisms, with Aquimarina hainanensis being notable (Midorikawa et al., 2020).
While treatment with sodium nifurstyrenate can prevent the disease, its application in
aquaculture seedlings is restricted by law. Consequently, research has shifted towards
biological control methods (Dan and Hamasaki, 2015).

Moult death syndrome: This phenomenon is observed during the metamorphosis

from Z5 to megalopa, leading to moulting failure and subsequent mortality (Dan and
Hamasaki, 2011).

Bacterial shell disease: This condition is predominantly observed in older crab specimen,
and to date, no preventive measures exist (Lavilla-Pitogo and de la Peña, 2004).

RESEARCH AND INNOVATION

Research on the thermal adaptation of Japanese mud crab populations has revealed that
S. paramamosain exhibits remarkable adaptability to lower water temperatures typical
of temperate regions in Japan. This species demonstrates a greater tolerance to these
cooler conditions compared to S. serrata, allowing it to thrive in environments where
the latter species may struggle.
As global warming leads to rising sea temperatures, changes in the species
composition and geographical distribution of mud crabs in Japan are anticipated. The
increasing temperatures may favour the expansion of S. paramamosain into areas that
were previously too cool for optimal growth, while S. serrata, being less adaptable
to temperature fluctuations, may experience population declines or shifts in its
distribution range. This shift could have implications on local ecosystems, fisheries,
and on the overall biodiversity of marine habitats.
Moreover, the adaptability of S. paramamosain to varying thermal conditions may
open new opportunities for aquaculture in Japan. As traditional species face challenges
associated with climate change, S. paramamosain could become a more viable option
for sustainable fisheries and aquaculture practices.
Understanding the adaptive mechanisms of these species is essential for the
development of effective management strategies. Ongoing research is necessary to
monitor the impacts of climate change on mud crab populations and to implement
measures that ensure the sustainability of both aquaculture and wild fisheries in the
face of shifting environmental conditions (Sanda et al., 2022).

MARKET INFORMATION

Product prices
Within its catchment area, S. paramamosain is considered a premium local delicacy,
with market prices occasionally reaching JPY 6 500/kg (approximately USD 43/kg)
(Okinawa Prefectural Federation of Fisheries Cooperatives, 2024). This high value
162 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

TABLE 1
Changes in average landing prices for Scylla serrata and the more abundant, lower-priced
Portunus pelagicus at major fish markets in Okinawa over the past decade
Year 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
Price
10.3 13.8 14.9 16.62 15.8 16.3 12.8 17.1 21.2
(USD/kg)
Amount
3 858 5 102 5 187 4 564 3 450 3 316 2 591 3 570 4 605
(kg)

Source: Okinawa Prefectural Federation of Fisheries Cooperatives. 2024. Shikyoujouho: Okinawa Uminchu Uoichiba.
(Market information 2011–2021). [Accessed on 20 November 2024]. https://www.okinawa-fish.jp/. ©沖縄県漁業協同組
合連合会 All Rights Reserved.

reflects both its culinary significance and the growing demand for fresh, locally sourced
crabs.
In metropolitan areas, particularly Tokyo, some restaurants offer imported soft-shell
crabs, catering to the growing consumer demand. Additionally, high-end restaurants
also procure and serve imported live crabs, which are priced significantly higher due to
their perceived superior quality and freshness.
Despite the popularity of mud crabs, the domestic catch in Japan is insufficient
to meet the local market demand. As a result, Japan relies on imports to supplement
local supplies. Landing prices in major fishing markets on Okinawa-Jima Island have
increased in recent years, indicating a rising demand for crabs (Table 1) (Okinawa
Prefectural Federation of Fisheries Cooperatives, 2024). However, it is important to note
that the data does not differentiate between S. serrata and P. pelagicus. The latter species
is typically harvested in greater quantities and is associated with a lower market price.
This discrepancy highlights the need for accurate data collection and market analysis
to better understand the dynamics of crab fisheries in Japan. Improved knowledge of
species-specific trends could help stakeholders adapt to changing market demands and
enhance the sustainability of crab fisheries, ensuring that both local and imported crabs
can coexist in the marketplace while meeting consumer preferences.

MAJOR ISSUES AND CHALLENGES FACING THE INDUSTRY

In the Japanese context, the costs associated with feed, electricity and labour are
significantly higher than in many other countries. Additionally, there is a shortage of
areas suitable for aquaculture development. The accessibility of hatchery-produced
mud crablets is limited, and reliance on natural seed resources poses challenges
regarding both sustainability and catchability.
As a result, implementing large-scale aquaculture remains a challenge, prompting
the Fisheries Research and Education Agency to prioritize research on small-scale
aquaculture initiatives.
Moreover, the limited availability of facilities for artificial crablet production is
compounded by a notable shortage of trained and skilled technicians in seed production.
This gap underscores the urgent need to transfer seed production techniques and train
the next generation of technicians. Addressing these issues will be critical for enhancing
aquaculture sustainability and productivity in Japan.

CONCLUSION
In Japan, there is a growing demand for premium local aquatic food products among
both domestic consumers and tourists. Although large-scale aquaculture production
faces challenges related to technological limitations and high production costs, small-
scale land-based aquaculture presents a promising opportunity that necessitates
ongoing technological advancements. Additionally, the effects of global warming are
expected to drive mud crabs northward, potentially expanding their distribution within
Japan and enhancing their market presence.
Mud crab aquaculture situation in Japan 163

However, it is a general concern that the number of skilled technicians in mud crab
seed production, particularly within organizations like the FRA, is currently declining.
Urgent action is required to address this issue, especially through the training and
development of new professionals in the field. Ensuring a steady pipeline of skilled
technicians is crucial for maintaining sustainable aquaculture practices and meeting the
increasing demand for high-quality aquatic products.

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fatty acids on survival, development, and morphogenesis of larvae of mud crab Scylla
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areas. Tokyo, Midorishobo.
Oshiro, N. & Imai, H. 2003. Portunidae. In: M. Nishida, N. Shikatani & S. Shokita, eds.
The Flora and Fauna of Inland Waters in the Ryukyu Islands. Tokyo, Tokai University
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Sakaji, H. & Fuseya, R. 2015. Chronological change of the species name and corresponding
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Sanda, T., Shimizu, T., Iwasaki, T., Dan, S. & Hamasaki, K. 2022. Effect of temperature
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paramamosain and Scylla serrata (Decapoda: Brachyura: Portunidae), under laboratory
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Yagura, A. 2021. Confirmation of Scylla paramamosain in Matsushima Bay. Miyagi
Prefectural Report of Fisheries Science, 21: 19–21. (In Japanese).
Yamakawa, H. 1978. Ecology of the crab Scylla serrata in Lake Hamana. Plankton and
Benthos Research, 15–16: 41–46. (In Japanese).
 165

Domestication and selective

breeding of mud crabs

Maria Rowena Romana-Eguia1 & Emilia T. Quinitio2

1
Practical Genomics Laboratory, Center for Natural Science and Environmental Research
De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines
2
Integrated Services for the Development of Aquaculture and Fisheries, Iloilo, Philippines

ABSTRACT
Mud crabs or mangrove crabs, Scylla spp., are among the top ten commercially
important aquaculture commodities in the Philippines. However, commercial mud
crab production remains dependent on wild-sourced seedstock which may soon
be depleted if conservation and adequate management schemes are not strictly
implemented and technologies for hatchery-based seed production are not applied.
As such, there is a need to promote and adopt science-based technologies in crab
domestication, as well as traditional and advanced selective breeding methods, to
ensure the continuous propagation of quality seedstock that can supply the increasing
demand of the crab industry. This technical paper discusses some of the updates in
Scylla serrata domestication, broodstock development and selective breeding research
in the Philippines.

INTRODUCTION
In 2020, world aquaculture production of mud crabs S. serrata and Scylla
paramamosain registered at 248 800 t and 159 400 t, respectively. Production of
these two species jointly contributed only 3.6 percent to the total global aquaculture
production of eight major crustacean species (FAO, 2022). In the Philippines,
aquaculture production of mud crabs (Scylla spp.) was reported at 23 112 t in 2021 –
a slight increase of 11.3 percent from the previous year. This commodity, farmed
in brackish water ponds, marine fish pens and cages, ranked sixth among the top
ten aquaculture commodities produced in that year according to the Philippine
Statistics Authority (DA-BFAR, 2021).
A lack of crab seedstock for aquaculture has been addressed partly by the local
promotion of crab breeding and hatchery technology by the Philippine Council for
Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources, Research and Development (PCAARRD),
under the Department of Science and Technology (DOST). Funds were allocated
for the establishment of hatcheries under the project on “Adoption of improved
commercial-scale mangrove crab hatchery-nursery system” in several parts of the
country to encourage artificial production of seedstock. In addition to this, nursery
rearing areas have been set up by the Department of Agriculture-Bureau of Fisheries
and Aquatic Resources (DA-BFAR) in key collection sites in the Philippines. This
programme started in 2022 when DA-BFAR turned over 12 mangrove crab nursery
sites to fishers in the province of Catanduanes which has long been known as the crab
capital of the Philippines (DA-BFAR, 2024).
Basic technologies on the broodstock management and seed production of
Scylla spp. were first developed in the late 1990s (Quinitio, Parado-Estepa and Alava,
1999; Quinitio et al., 2001). Since 2011, following advancements in breeding and seed
production technologies and the successful domestication of captive S. serrata crab
166 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

broodstock, hatchery-reared seedstock has been utilized, albeit in limited quantities

(Quinitio et al., 2011).

MUD CRAB AS FARMED SPECIES

Mud crabs are considered an economically important portunid species in small-scale
coastal fisheries and aquaculture (Liew, Yong and Lim, 2024). Although local mud
crab production has been steadily increasing, the need to further boost farm output
is a response to the increasing commercial demand for this species for both domestic
consumption and international trade. Three mud crab species, S. serrata, Scylla olivacea
and Scylla tranquebarica, have been traded locally, but the preferred species is S. serrata
as it is larger, less aggressive and has a wide natural distribution in the Western Indo-
Pacific region (Quinitio et al., 2015).
Apart from the establishment of crab hatcheries, the local government units in
areas where crablets are naturally sourced are implementing municipal ordinance that
prohibits the collection and trading of ≤ 3 cm crablets outside the municipality of origin
(Quinitio et al., 2015). In 2020, Fisheries Administrative Order No. 264, was issued
by DA-BFAR (2020) that regulates the catching, possession, transport and trading
of crablets, juveniles and gravid Scylla spp. for nationwide implementation. This
ordinance has indirectly helped promote the expansion and use of hatchery-produced
crab seedstock.
The Philippine mud crab aquaculture industry has significant growth potential,
contingent on a reliable supply of hatchery-produced seedstock. Addressing this gap
is challenging; however, with strict enforcement of crab-catching regulations, the
establishment of additional hatcheries that maintain high-quality broodstock for larval
production, and the adoption of optimal breeding and seed production technologies,
the demand for local crab seedstock could be sustainably met.

BROODSTOCK DEVELOPMENT
When initiating a domestication program, several key information elements are
essential: the source and quality of broodstock; an understanding of the optimal
conditions for broodstock maturation; production and grow-out of crablets (hatchery
and nursery); and comprehensive requirements for nutrition, health and environmental
management, including water quality standards. These aspects were thoroughly defined
when initiatives for the domestication, broodstock development, and management of
S. serrata were undertaken in 2011, drawing on years of prior research and technological
validation (Quinitio et al., 2001; Quinitio and Parado-Estepa, 2008).
The technologies have been further refined and field-tested beyond the domestication
research. With these improvements it has been easier to maintain the domesticated crab
stocks as hatchery-produced seedstock are being continually produced. One of several
important mud crab research projects is the development of a technique for evaluating
the quality of newly hatched mud crab larvae based on survivability from stress tests
(Quinitio, de la Cruz-Huervana and Parado-Estepa, 2018; Quinitio, Parado-Estepa
and de la Cruz-Huervana, 2018). This trait, along with an assessment of the stock’s
genetic background, could be valuable for screening high-quality broodstock. Such a
screening protocol is important, as studies have shown that the quality of crab larvae
may positively correlate with performance at later stages, such as the megalopa and
early juvenile phases (Quinitio, de la Cruz-Huervana and Parado-Estepa, 2018).
Breeders are normally sourced from the wild. However, should a facility rear
potential crab broodstock from wild-sourced crab juveniles, one concern is knowing
if the seedstock is the preferred species. Many fishers who collect crabs use traditional
identification methods such as those based on morphological traits. Differentiation
of the three species, especially in the early crab stages, using a dichotomous key
remains challenging given some ambiguous morphological characteristics. Vince Cruz-
Domestication and the future of genetically improved mud crabs 167

Abeledo, (2016) attributes these to morphological aberrations and has studied the use
of both image analysis comparing frontal lobe spine shapes using a software called
SHAPE (Vince Cruz-Abeledo, Ting and Lagman, 2018) and validating species identity
using molecular markers such as ITS-1 and 16S rDNA markers with 97.8 percent
accuracy. This method of identifying species at the crab instar and juvenile stages in the
wild is especially valuable for ensuring that the correct species of seedstock are reared
in nursery and grow-out enclosures for commercial production. Additionally, it aids
in selecting suitable individuals for broodstock development.
In addition to the genetic quality of crab broodstock, a critical factor in their
development and management is a well-defined nutritional regimen. Nutritional
interventions are primarily focused on dietary enhancements to support maturation
and optimize reproductive performance, as nutrition significantly influences ovarian
development in crabs. Beyond improving the quality of berried females, feeding
breeders with optimized diets also enhances larval quality, contributing to overall
seedstock viability (Pattiasina et al., 2016).
Azra and Ikhwanuddin (2015) have done an extensive review of available literatures
on maturation diets in Scylla broodstock. Crab broodstock diets were developed based
on their requirement for high amounts of lipids, fatty acids and protein as these are
needed for the maturation and breeding processes. Such nutrients are best provided
for by a mix of natural diet or feed and artificial diets from fish meal and other feed
ingredients. On the other hand, it has been proven that feeding broodstock natural
diets, composed of mussel meat, squid and low value fish, can improve the quality
of the eggs and larvae (Millamena and Quinitio, 2000). The major concern in using
natural diets in maintaining broodstock is proper water quality management since
excessive use of the feeds may pollute and cause the deterioration of the rearing water
in broodstock tanks (Azra and Ikhwanuddin, 2015).
An essential aspect of broodstock development and management, particularly
when crab breeders are ready for spawning, is the preparation of spawning tanks with
specific provisions. These include appropriate substrates, such as a base layer of gravel
or pebbles topped with sand, sand-filtered water, sufficient aeration, and artificial
shelters to minimize aggression among breeders within the same tank (Azra and
Ikhwanuddin, 2015).
A study on the “Optimization of temperature for S. serrata broodstock in a
recirculating system with a polychaete-
assisted biofilter” (Mercedes Pates,
FIGURE 1
personal communication, 2023) is Recirculating water system with the use of polychaetae
being implemented in Mindanao assisted sand biofilters for mud crab broodstock
State University, Iligan Institute of maintenance
Technology, to enhance broodstock
performance in captivity. The setup
features a recirculating aquaculture
system (RAS) incorporating adult
polychaetes, supported by sand biofilters
at a density of 200 g/m² (Figure 1).
Additionally, the reproductive
performance of broodstock held at
temperatures of 27, 30 and 33°C in
the RAS will be evaluated for stress
response using molecular markers.
Findings on the optimal temperature
achieved with the polychaete-assisted
©E.T. Quinitio

sand filter system can then be readily

adopted by hatchery operators.
168 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

DOMESTICATION AND SELECTIVE BREEDING

Domestication
To successfully produce seedstock from captive crab breeders, it is essential to
comprehend the species’ life cycle, reproductive biology, and the husbandry technologies
needed at each developmental phase—from zoea to crab instar to juvenile and ultimately
to adulthood. This involves controlling the life cycle, manipulating breeding processes,
and completing the life cycle while managing each stage of development under captive
conditions. Once commercial quantities of the crabs are produced, one can then claim
that domestication has been achieved. The Aquaculture Department of the Southeast
Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC/AQD) was able to close the life
cycle of the three Scylla species (S. serrata, S. tranquebarica, and S. olivacea). S. serrata,
as the priority species of interest at SEAFDEC/AQD, was intensively studied as its life
cycle in captivity was completed after 9 months (Quinitio et al., 2001; 2011).
Domestication refers to the process of breeding, caring for, and feeding wild
species under controlled management, with the primary goal of food production,
as exemplified by the domestication of various aquatic species (Duarte, Marba and
Holmer, 2007; Hedgecock, 2012). Before breeding and rearing crabs in captivity,
the caught individuals undergo health checks for pathogens and receive treatment as
necessary during a quarantine period. Domestication is broadly defined as the process
by which a population of animals adapts to captive conditions through genetic changes
that occur over generations and environmentally induced developmental events that
recur within each generation (Price, 1984; Price, 2002). Liao and Huang (2000) further
define domestication in aquaculture as the complete control of an organism’s life cycle
and the manipulation of breeding in captivity, including the organism’s readiness
to spawn once domesticated. In the context of domestication as a prerequisite for
selective breeding, Friedman et al. (2022) define domestication in aquatic species as
achieved when the species exhibits the first outcomes of selective breeding. If no such
outcomes are observed, a species is considered domesticated only after three successive
generations or reproductive cycles under controlled conditions. However, Teletchea
(2021) noted that this criterion of three successive cycles is somewhat arbitrary and that
domestication can be interpreted in various ways by different scientists.
Quinitio et al. (2011) reported the successful domestication of S. serrata at
SEAFDEC/AQD, having produced three successive generations of disease-free captive
mud crab stocks. In this study, founder stocks were sourced from four locations:
Cagayan, Camarines, Samar, and Surigao (Figure 2). To facilitate domestication, the
genetic quality of each stock was assessed and compared using molecular markers
to analyse genetic diversity indices. This genetic analysis is essential when resources
for DNA-based assessments are available and is highly recommended for planning a
selective breeding programme.
During the domestication process, evaluation of the four stocks with microsatellite
DNA markers revealed no significant differences in genetic variability, with mean
expected heterozygosity ranging from 0.812 to 0.860 (Romana Eguia et al., 2009;
Quinitio et al., 2011). However, only three of the original five microsatellite DNA
markers yielded interpretable results via GeneScan at the time of analysis. Understanding
the levels of genetic diversity is crucial for determining suitability for domestication
and subsequent selective breeding. Low heterozygosity levels would indicate a risk of
inbreeding, regardless of whether the stocks were sourced from natural habitats.
If the breeding programme advances towards selective breeding with a structured
artificial selection scheme, it is important to continuously monitor the genetic diversity
of the stocks used in breeding crosses over generations. This monitoring helps assess
any declines in genetic variability, which may later necessitate a reassessment of the
selection scheme, a replacement of stocks for further domestication, or the adoption
Domestication and the future of genetically improved mud crabs 169

of more advanced selection strategies,

FIGURE 2
such as genomic selection. Map of the Philippines showing the sources of Scylla serrata in
Given the increasing affordability Cagayan (brown star), Camarines Norte (blue star), Samar (gray
and accessibility of DNA analysis star) and Surigao (red star) as founder populations
and gene sequencing services,
incorporating genetic marker systems
for pedigree analysis in selective
breeding programmes can significantly
enhance the efficiency and profitability
of the aquaculture industry in general,
and the crab production industry in
particular (Friedman et al., 2022).

Selective breeding
The information obtained from the
initial studies on the domestication
programme was used as basis for
the succeeding selective breeding
programme of SEAFDEC/AQD which
aimed to evaluate the response of crabs
to selection based on desired traits
(e.g. fast growth, resistant to diseases);
evaluate the reproductive performance
of crabs that were subjected to
selection; and monitor genetic changes
and minimize inbreeding.
Adult crabs from wild stocks from
Surigao and Camarines Norte were
used as the founder stocks. After the
founder stocks (P0) from Surigao and
Camarines Norte had spawned, newly Note: Refer to the disclaimer on the copyright page for the names and boundaries
used in this map.
hatched larvae were evaluated for Source: Map from ©Dreamstime
quality. Quinitio, de la Cruz-Huervana
and Parado-Estepa (2018) developed a method to assess the quality of newly hatched
mud crab larvae by exposure to 40 mg/L formalin (37 percent) for 3 hours. The
37 percent formalin solution was used to enable hatchery operators to easily adopt
the quality assessment method. Good quality larvae could then be evaluated based
on larval survival in a post-formalin stress test. Only good quality larvae were reared
in the hatchery. Thereafter, hatchery-produced crablets (day 23–25 from zoea 1)
were reared in net cages installed in nursery ponds at the brackish water station of
SEAFDEC/AQD for 1–2 months or until they had attained a carapace width 2–6 cm.
Selection was done and the juveniles were further cultured in earthen grow-out ponds
(Figure 3). Some of the Surigao and Camarines Norte (P1) crab populations from the
founder farmed types were used for disease challenge tests (see Figure 4 for the selective
breeding scheme) while the rest of the crablets or juveniles were stocked in brackish
water ponds for the growth evaluation trials (see Figure 5 for the selection scheme).
Second-generation (F2) families from Surigao were produced after 11–12 months
from the zoea 1 stage (Figure 6). The results indicated that producing multiple
generations of mud crab in captivity is feasible, provided there are no constraints on the
availability of rearing enclosures. Throughout the breeding process, the crabs remained
free from white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) from the founder stocks to both the
F1 and F2 generations. WSSV challenge tests revealed that several farmed types from
Camarines Norte exhibited the highest resistance to the virus.
170 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 3
Brackish water ponds used for growing mud crab juveniles to market size

©J.J. Huervana
FIGURE 4
Selective breeding scheme (mass selection) for disease resistance in mangrove crab
Scylla serrata

Camarines population Surigao population

founder stock (N=30) P0 founder stock (N= 30)

Set up each population

separately for mass spawning at
1M:1F

P1

Average-sized crab juveniles; 50% of each population subjected to disease

challenge (by injection); the remaining 50% unexposed (control stocks)

Unexposed stocks for on- Survivors of exposed Survivors of exposed Unexposed stocks for
growing to broodstock stocks for on-growing stocks for on-growing on-growing to
size (presumptive disease to broodstock size to broodstock size broodstock size
resistant or DR stock) (presumptive DR stock) (presumptive disease (presumptive disease
CAMctl CAMsel DR resistant or DR stock) resistant or DR stock)
SURsel SURctl

Tagging of stocks;
separation of breeders Tagging of stocks;
for spawning en separation of breeders
masse to obtain F2s for spawning en
masse to obtain F2s

CAMctl F2 CAMctl F2 CAMsel DR CAMsel DR F2 SURsel F2 SURsel F2 SURctl DR F2 SURctl DR F2

(replicate 1) (replicate 3) F2(replicate 1) (replicate 3) (replicate 1) (replicate 3) (replicate 1) (replicate 3)

CAMctl F2 CAMsel DR F2 SAMsel F2 SURctl DR F2

(replicate 2) (replicate 2) (replicate 2) (replicate 2)

Disease challenge test using all these stocks (CRD); monitoring of disease resistance stocks (based on survival rate and
WSSV levels in survivors, etc)

Figure 4a. Selective breeding scheme (mass selection) for disease resistance in mangrove
crab Scylla serrata
Domestication and the future of genetically improved mud crabs 171

FIGURE 5
Selective breeding scheme (mass selection) for enhanced growth in mangrove crab
Scylla serrata

Camarines population Surigao population

founder stock (N=30) P0 founder stock (N=30)

Set up each population

separately for mass
spawning at 1M:1F

P1

Tag CAMctl_F1individuals; Tag CAMsel_F1 individuals; Tag SURctl_F1 Tag SURsel_F1 individuals;
average-sized crab juveniles large-sized crab juveniles individuals; average- large-sized crab juveniles
on-grown communally to on-grown communally to sized crab juveniles on- on-grown communally
broodstock size; growth broodstock size; growth grown communally to with other stocks to
monitored monitored broodstock size; broodstock size; growth
growth monitored monitored
Stocks tagged;
breeders Stocks tagged;
separated for breeders
separated for
spawning
spawning

CAM ctl F2 CAM ctl F2 CAM sel F2 CAM sel F2 SUR ctl F2 SUR ctl F2 SUR sel F2 SUR sel F2
(replicate 3) (replicate 1) (replicate 3) (replicate 1) (replicate 3) (replicate 1)
(replicate 1) (replicate 3)

CAM ctl F2 CAM sel F2 SUR ctl F2 SUR sel F2

(replicate 2) (replicate 2) (replicate 2) (replicate 2)

Growth trials using all these stocks (CRD); Growth and survival monitored

Figure 4b. Selective breeding scheme (mass selection) for enhanced growth in
mangrove crab Scylla serrata
Interestingly, there was no apparent correlation between growth and breeding
efficiency traits. While the number of zoeae per female improved up to the second
generation, no clear trend emerged regarding overall breeding traits. However, the
average duration from spawning to hatching decreased across generations. Therefore,
it is recommended that a separate selection programme be implemented specifically
targeting breeding efficiency as an
improved trait.
FIGURE 6
Crabs utilized in selective breeding
Adult mud crabs produced following a selective breeding
may respond well to selection after programme lasting 11–12 months
two or three generations; following
this, a new batch of stocks should be
introduced for genetic enhancement.
Although traits associated with good
growth may be enhanced through
a selective breeding programme,
selection should continue only until
genetic diversity levels, measured by
the number of alleles, are not drastically
reduced.
The preliminary results were
promising, demonstrating the
©E.T. Quinitio

successful production of three

generations of mud crabs free from
172 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

pathogens, such as viruses, which could be transmitted to successive generations

(Quinitio, Huervana and Eguia, 2018). Unfortunately, the initiative had to be
discontinued due to limited funding and a shortage of available experts to continue
working on the project.
Aquaculture commodities such as tilapia, salmon, and shrimp have undergone
genetic improvement through conventional quantitative genetic methods, including
mass selection, combined family selection, and within-family selection. The choice
of selection method for aquatic species depends on the heritability of the traits being
considered. For instance, economically important species like oysters have been
selectively bred using ploidy manipulation, resulting in the production of triploid
oysters that grow faster than their diploid counterparts.
Crustaceans, particularly shrimp, have been extensively studied due to the urgent
need to address viral diseases that impact growth, survival and marketability. Major
players in the shrimp industry have focused on developing genetically superior
seedstock by creating specific pathogen-free (SPF) and specific pathogen-resistant
(SPR) shrimp. This approach often involves conventional and marker-assisted
selection over multiple generations (sometimes as many as 30 generations) targeting
traits such as disease resistance, fast growth, and high fecundity (see https://www.
shrimpimprovement.com/).
In contrast, while mud crabs are also susceptible to viral pathogens, the selective
breeding and production of disease-resistant stocks have yet to be thoroughly
investigated. Currently, efforts have primarily focused on the early detection and
screening of stocks for viral pathogens, leading to the exclusion of infected individuals
from use as broodstock or seedstock.
With recent advancements in genetic technologies, developing superior quality crab
broodstock can possibly be achieved in a shorter period. Genome editing technologies
such as CRISPR/Cas9 can be readily used to edit out genes, which may then lead to
the development of quality aquaculture stocks such as those that are disease resistant,
as has been done for salmon, carp, catfish, oyster, tilapia, etc. (Gratacap et al., 2019).
With the advent of more advanced techniques such as marker-assisted selection,
routine genotyping by sequencing (Robledo et al., 2017) and genome editing,
improving the economically important traits of several aquaculture species (including
Scylla spp.) may be achieved more efficiently and in a shorter period.
To date, preliminary studies have been done to identify stocks that could possess
better traits. One example is a local study on crab stocks obtained from three known
collection sites with varying climate profiles, namely: Cagayan, Bicol and Bataan. Mud
crabs from these three sites were compared for heat stress response via transcriptome
profiling and it was noted that there was a population-specific response of S. serrata
to temperature variation and that crab stocks from Cagayan had broad heat tolerance
and high capacity for acclimation (Shrestha et al., 2021). Such results could serve as
a foundation for selecting crab stocks for use in selective breeding, particularly in
response to the increasing need for heat-tolerant crabs due to the challenges posed by
climate change. Meanwhile, another project funded by the Department of Science and
Technology (DOST) aims to generate a transcriptome profile of S. serrata in response
to WSSV infection. Once published, the findings from this study will elucidate
the molecular and genetic mechanisms underlying the resistance, or lack thereof,
of S. serrata crabs to WSSV. This information could later inform the identification
of individuals or stocks suitable for selective breeding for WSSV disease resistance
(R. Ravago Gotanco, personal communication, 2023).

CONCLUSION
In light of the above, it is crucial for current and prospective mud crab hatchery
operators and grow-out farmers to thoroughly understand the various requirements
Domestication and the future of genetically improved mud crabs 173

and protocols associated with mud crab domestication before embarking on selective
breeding schemes aimed at producing superior quality stocks. A primary consideration
is ensuring that the wild-sourced mud crabs used for breeding and rearing in captivity
are free from pathogens that could lead to diseases, ultimately jeopardizing farm yields.

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 175

Domestication and the future of

genetically improved mud crabs

Hongyu Ma,1 Yin Zhang,1 Shaopan Ye,1 Wenxiao Cui,1 Xi Shi,1 Khor Waiho2 &
Ye Yuan1
1
Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Shantou University,
Shantou, China
2
Institute of Tropical Aquaculture and Fisheries, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala
Nerus, Terengganu, Malaysia

ABSTRACT
Genetic improvement in aquaculture involves the use of genetic and molecular
principles in the selection of desirable traits. Although mud crab production is still
heavily relying on wild caught fishery, the recent advancement in its molecular
aspects have provided a basis for domestication and genetic improvement. However,
most molecular characterization research on mud crabs have revolved around
Scylla paramamosain, owing to its abundance and popularity in Asia, especially
China. To date, the chromosome-level high-quality reference genome of mud crab
(S. paramamosain) has been uncovered, revealing a total size of 1.21 giga base pairs
with contig N50 of 11.45 mega base pairs and scaffold N50 of 23.61 mega base pairs.
Also uncovered were female-specific single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers
that could be useful in sex determination and guide mud crab monosex production.
The high-density linkage maps of S. paramamosain provided valuable information on
the chromosome linkage groups, especially in the mapping of quantitative trait loci
(QTLs) related to desirable traits, including sex on chromosome 6. Meanwhile, a total
of 84 QTLs of 26 growth traits were mapped using F2 genetic map, of which 21 QTLs
were exclusively found on chromosome 6. Interestingly, the growth trait-related
SNPs and QTLs showed significant association with sex traits. The sex determination
system of mud crab, S. paramamosain, is postulated to be ZW/ZZ based on the results
of female-specific SNP loci and high-density linkage maps. Additionally, a 40K liquid
SNP chip with genotyping calling rate (97.02 percent) and polymorphic SNP rate
(89.19 percent) for S. paramamosain has been developed for genome selection and
subsequent growth trait prediction. A new strain of S. paramamosain with higher
growth rate has been developed via continuous artificial selection. Additionally, two
hybrid farmed types from cross between S. paramamosain and Scylla serrata, with
obvious advantages in growth rate and resistance to Vibrio parahaemolyticus, were
produced.

INTRODUCTION
Mud crabs primarily distributed throughout the Western Indo-Pacific region are
capable of surviving in a wide range of salinity. It has become an economically
significant mariculture species globally and a popular seafood item in Southeast Asian
countries (Le Vay, Ut and Walton, 2007). Mud crab farming has been practiced for over
100 years in China and in the past 30 years across Asia (Keenan and Blackshaw, 1999;
Williams and Primavera, 2001). However, production remains insufficient to meet
the growing demand from consumers, resulting in consistently high market prices.
Furthermore, current mud crab farming heavily relies on wild-sourced seed stock with
176 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

finite and unreliable supply, hindering expansion due to limited access to hatchery-
reared seed (Le Vay, 2001; Walton et al., 2006).
Genome sequences play a crucial role in elucidating fundamental aspects of organism
evolution and enable the identification of genes involved in various adaptations in
animals (Zhang et al., 2019; Gutekunst et al., 2018). Despite the existence of several
genome maps in shrimps and crabs (Zhang et al., 2019; Tang et al., 2020; Tang et al.,
2021; Zhao et al., 2021), the current genomic data available for Decapoda is insufficient
to facilitate comprehensive genomic studies, which impedes our understanding of
developmental processes, reproductive strategies, and nutritional intake within this
ancient yet highly successful lineage.
Sex-determination mechanisms of animals are remarkably diverse and complicated,
and they attract considerable interest in research due to their significant implication
in both theory and practice. Among crustaceans, several crab species, including
Guinusia dentipes, Eriocheir japonicus and Hemigrapsus sanguineus have an XY/XX
sex-determination system based on karyotype studies (Niiyama, 1937, 1938; Lécher,
Defaye and Noel, 1995). Importantly, studies on the genetic basis of sex-determination
mechanism are the foundation for the future development of sex manipulation
biotechnologies, including monosex population, especially in species with significant
sexual dimorphism. So far, the sex determination mechanism remains unclear in most
aquaculture crustacean species, which has obviously limited its potential application in
the aquaculture sector.
An accurate and comprehensive genetic linkage map is the cornerstone for genomic
and genetic studies, as well as the selective breeding of a species. Hitherto, due to
the capacity for quantifying the extent of recombination, linkage disequilibrium,
and chromosomal rearrangements across populations, genetic linkage mapping has
become an excellent and essential tool in genome assembly, comparative genomics, and
quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping. With the advantage of the genetic linkage map,
the QTLs related to desirable traits were identified and applied to molecular breeding
and marker-assisted selection in aquaculture. In decapod crustaceans, however, because
of their high number of chromosomes, progress on the construction of high-density
linkage maps is slow and difficult.
Furthermore, compared with other aquatic species, genetic improvement of mud
crabs is still in its infancy. Therefore, it is critical to speed up the genetic improvement
of mud crabs. Genomic selection (GS) and genome-wide association studies (GWAS)
have been widely implemented to accelerate the genetic improvement of important
economic traits. Finding efficient and reliable high-throughput genotyping tools is the
premise and basis of implementing GS and GWAS on mud crabs.

WHOLE GENOME SEQUENCING AND ASSEMBLY

To date, two reference genomes of mud crabs have been completed (Zhao et al., 2021;
Zhang et al., 2024). The latest S. paramamosain genome revealed by Hongyu Ma and
his research team has a size of 1.21 giga base pairs with contig N50 of 11.45 mega
base pairs and scaffold N50 of 23.61 mega base pairs, mapped using a combination
of Nanopore ultra-long, HiFi and Hi-C sequencing. In comparison, the N50 of the
sequences obtained here is approximately five times that achieved in the previous
genome assembly (N50 < 200 kilo base pairs) (Zhao et al., 2021), indicating a significant
improvement in the published S. paramamosain genome. The contigs were further
cut and anchored to 49 pseudochromosomes. The genome contains 206 695 simple
sequence repeats and 345 610 tandem repeats. A total of 33 662 protein-coding genes
were predicted. Compared with Chinese mitten crab and marbled crayfish (Cui et
al., 2021b; Gutekunst et al., 2018), coding genes are comparatively more abundant in
S. paramamosain. The average coding sequence length of mud crab protein-coding
genes was similar to that of Chinese mitten crab Eriocheir sinensis (Song et al., 2016)
Domestication and the future of genetically improved mud crabs 177

and shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei (Zhang et al., 2019), but longer than that of
swimming crab, Portunus trituberculatus (Tang et al., 2020). Comparisons of gene
number and protein length indicated the mud crabs had a better quality of gene models
than the other two crabs (E. sinensis and P. trituberculatus), suggesting a useful resource
for further comparative studies and a more comprehensive understanding of genomic
characteristics in mud crab.
In S. paramamosain, 1 545 gene families are expanded, while 2 671 are contracted.
The expanded genes are significantly enriched in development-related pathways,
including betalain biosynthesis, ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis, circadian entrainment,
neurotrophin signaling, adrenergic signaling in cardiomyocytes, longevity-regulating
pathways, MAPK signaling and autophagy. On the other hand, the contracted
gene families were mainly annotated for nutritional metabolism, including carbon
metabolism, propanoate metabolism, glyoxylate and dicarboxylate metabolism,
microbial metabolism in diverse environments, biosynthesis of secondary metabolites,
carbon fixation pathways in prokaryotes, methane metabolism, pyruvate metabolism,
and glycolysis and gluconeogenesis, indicating that there have been alterations in
nutrition intake during the process of evolution.

SEX DETERMINATION BASED ON SEX-SPECIFIC MARKER IDENTIFICATION,

GENETIC MAP CONSTRUCTION AND QTL MAPPING
Sex-specific markers in S. paramamosain were identified, and subsequently provide
insights into the species’ sex determination mechanism and serves as a guide to
the future establishment of sex control technology (Waiho et al., 2019). After
restriction site associated DNA sequencing and sequence comparison, 12 SNP loci
were identified being heterozygous in all females, but homozygous in all males,
indicating that the sex determination system in S. paramamosain is WZ/ZZ, with
females being heterogametic. These SNP markers were then successfully validated by
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay and sequencing using an additional 195 samples
(106 females and 89 males). Furthermore, a PCR-based genetic sex identification
method was successfully developed (Figure 1). A total of 96 specimens (48 females and
48 males) were used to determine the accuracy and precision of the PCR-based genetic
sex identification method. The results showed a 100 percent accuracy for identification
of genetic sex of S. paramamosain.

FIGURE 1
Agarose gel separation of PCR amplification products with female-specific and control
primers in 24 female and 24 male Scylla paramamosain from a full-sib family cultured in a
pond at Shantou, China
Female-specific band (320 base pairs): PCR products amplified with the female-specific
primer (SPFS); Control band (282 base pairs): PCR products amplified with control primer
(SPC); M: marker; A: the agarose gel electrophoresis results for 12 females and 12 males.
B: the agarose gel electrophoresis results for another 12 females and 12 males

Female Female
M
500 bp
Female-specific band
250 bp
500 bp
A
Control band
250 bp

Source: Shi, X., Waiho, K., Li, X., Ikhwanuddin, M., Miao, G., Lin, F., Zhang, Y., Li, S., Zheng, H., Liu, W., Aweya, J.J., Azmie,
G., Baylon, J.C., Quinitio, E.T. & Ma, H. 2018. Female-specific SNP markers provide insights into a WZ/ZZ sex determination
system for mud crabs Scylla paramamosain, S. tranquebarica and S. serrata with a rapid method for genetic sex
identification. BMC Genomics, 19: 981.
178 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

A total of four different kinds of genetic maps were published (Ma et al., 2016; Waiho
et al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2019; Cui et al., 2021a). In Waiho et al. (2019), a genetic linkage
map containing 49 linkage groups (LGs) with 16 701 markers were constructed for F1
generation with a high 99.95 percent individual integrity value (Figure 2). Quantitative
trait loci for phenotypic sex traits were exclusively found on LG32, with 516 markers
distributed in two QTL regions and covered approximately 86.72 percent of the
168.88 centimorgan (cM) LG length. After linkage analysis, a sex-averaged consensus
genetic linkage map of hybrid Scylla (S. serrata ♀ × S. paramamosain ♂) containing
49 LGs with 5 574 markers was constructed with a high 99.97 percent individual
integrity value, spanning a total distance of 4318.54 cM with an average marker interval
of 0.78 cM. The 100 markers linked to phenotypic sex were exclusively found on LG12,
which were distributed in three QTL regions and covered approximately 70.42 percent
of the 68.88 cM LG length.
A high-resolution genetic map for the F2 generation of S. paramamosain was
constructed with a total of 17 899 SNPs, clustering into 49 LGs. QTL analysis indicated
that pseudo-chromosome 6 (LG 6) was linked to phenotypic sex, in which 414 SNPs
were distributed in one QTL region and covered 98.186 cM LG length, annotated by

FIGURE 2
The genetic linkage maps of Scylla paramamosain based on F1 family

(a) Sex-averaged

Source: Waiho, K., Shi, X., Fazhan, H., Li, S., Zhang, Y., Zheng, H., Liu, W., Fang, S., Ikhwanuddin, M. & Ma, H. 2019. High-
density genetic linkage maps provide novel insights into ZW/ZZ sex determination system and growth performance in
mud crab (Scylla paramamosain). Frontiers in Genetics, 10: 298.
Domestication and the future of genetically improved mud crabs 179

717 genes. All 49 linkage groups have good collinearity with the genome chromosome.
The results showed that 84 QTLs were associated with 26 growth-related traits, of
which 21 QTLs were exclusively found on pseudo-chromosome 6 (LG 6). Additionally,
the genes and SNPs related to growth traits were found. Thirteen candidate genes were
identified from the QTLs on LG 6. Interestingly, the SNP markers and QTLs which
showed significant association with growth-related traits (body weight, carapace
length, and carapace width) were also significantly associated with sex-specific traits.
Using the univariate model, GWAS was performed for sexual phenotypes in F2
offspring and wild S. paramamosain population, respectively. Results showed that
these significant SNPs were mainly located on chromosome 6. The most significant
SNPs in F2 offspring and wild-sourced S. paramamosain population were located at
base pair 19 158 157 and base pair 35 457 053 positions of chromosome 6, respectively.
Five candidate genes associated with sexual phenotypes were identified and annotated,
including SLC28A3, AMFR, UBXN1, FRS3 and HIST1H1B. Collinearity analysis
of the sex determination region between high-density genetic linkage maps and
chromosome-level reference genome was carried out. Results showed that the
sequences of the sex-determining region (SDR) from QTL mapping were mapped to
chromosome 6 of the reference genome. The Spearman’s correlation coefficient ranged
from 0.950 to 0.985 between the SDR and chromosome 6 in purebred S. paramamosain,
which indicated high collinearity of the genetic and physical maps. But Spearman’s
correlation coefficient between the SDR and chromosome 6 was very low in hybrid
mud crabs (S. serrata ♀ × S. paramamosain ♂), which indicated that chromosome
recombination maybe exists in interspecific hybridization of mud crabs (Scylla spp.).
In general, chromosome 6 may be the sex chromosome of S. paramamosain.

GENOME SELECTION TECHNOLOGY BASED ON LIQUID CHIP

To carry out genome selection, a 40K SNP array was developed for the mud crab.
The number of SNPs range from 9 071 to 696 216 on each chromosome, with an
average SNP density of 1.74 to 21.06 SNPs/Kb. The large gap regions were mainly
in the middle or tail of the chromosomes, which may overlap with centromeric or
telomeric regions. The individual calling rate, SNP number, SNP missing rate, minor
allele frequency, and heterozygosity rate of the 40K SNP array were analyzed using
11 wild mud crabs. The results showed that the average individual calling rate was
97.02 percent, ranging from 78.41 percent to 98.15 percent. The minor allele frequency
(MAF) values of SNPs ranged from 0 to 0.5, and 92.70 percent of loci had values greater
than 0.05. The number of SNPs with a missing rate less than 0.1 was 36 240, comprising
89.81 percent of all SNPs. The number of SNPs with a heterozygosity rate less than
0.5 was 35 989, being 89.19 percent of all SNPs. All the data showed that the 40K SNP
array should be sufficient to obtain high-quality genotype data for genetic studies. The
prediction accuracy and unbiasedness values for four growth traits were evaluated by
using different GS models with the 40K SNP array in the F2 population. The results
showed that the prediction accuracies of GS for body weight (BW), body height (BH),
carapace length (CL) and carapace width (CW) were 0.218, 0.136, 0.180, and 0.202,
respectively. However, the unbiased values ranged from 0.398 to 0.804, indicating that
the genomic breeding values were biased estimates of breeding value due to the small
population sizes. In general, the 40K SNP array will be a valuable tool for genomic
selection in mud crab.

PROGRESS IN NEW VARIETY DEVELOPMENT THROUGH SELECTIVE AND

HYBRID TECHNOLOGIES
In recent years, a new farmed type of S. paramamosain named “Dongfang No. 1” was
developed by grouping breeding technology with a rapid growth rate. Meanwhile,
a new farmed type of S. paramamosain has been developed by continuous artificial
180 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

selection, which showed a faster growth rate than a natural wild specimen. In
addition, the interspecific artificial hybridization technique was established between
S. paramamosain and S. serrata, and two hybrid farmed types (S. serrata ♀ ×
S. paramamosain ♂; S. serrata ♂ × S. paramamosain ♀) were obtained. The culture
assay showed that the two hybrid farmed type crabs had significant growth advantages
than S. paramamosain and S. serrata. Further, scientists tested the effect of Vibrio
parahaemolyticus on the hybrids crabs, with the results showing that the survival rate
of the hybrids was significantly higher than that of wild S. paramamosain, indicating
that the hybrid crabs possess a stronger antibacterial capability.

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 183

Broodstock management for

mud crab

Sukree Hajisamae,1 Khor Waiho,2 Supat Khongpuang,1 Pun Yeesin,1 Saweit

Chaimongkol,1 Jitima Suwanmala,1 Hafeezee Chema1 & Thodsaphol Pholrat3
1
Faculty of Science and Technology, Prince of Songkla University, Pattani, Thailand
2
Institute of Tropical Aquaculture and Fisheries, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu,
Terengganu, Malaysia
3
Pattani Coastal Aquaculture Research and Development Centre, Thailand

ABSTRACT
Inconsistent production of good quality broodstock for hatchery is the bottleneck
of the mud crab aquaculture industry. This paper describes Scylla spp. broodstock
management, with special reference to Scylla paramamosain. The broodstock
production facilities include tanks for the initial treatment of broodstock, spawning
tanks with appropriate sand substrate and incubation tanks. For this system, water
salinity of 32–35 psu, pH of 7.5–8.5, alkalinity of 120–180 mg/L, dissolved oxygen of
4.7–5.6 mg/L, ammonia of < 0.25 mg/L and temperature of 27–29 °C are maintained.
Wild gravid female crabs of 200–400 g with mature ovaries, preferably at stage 4, are
selected as broodstock. They are fed natural diets including fish, mussel meat, squid,
bivalves and shrimps. Once spawning occurs, the crabs are immediately transferred to
the incubation tank for the incubation of fertilized eggs and the hatching of zoeae. The
average cost of production of berried broodstock for S. paramamosain is approximately
USD 45/crab. Additionally, some problems and challenges in the production of quality
broodstock are highlighted. It is expected that this report can serve as a reference for
the effective production and management of mud crab broodstock.

INTRODUCTION
The main challenges and bottlenecks in the development of the mud crab industry
are the inconsistency in broodstock performance and the unpredictability of larval
quality and survival (Waiho et al., 2018). The limited production of quality berried
females in captivity reflects the inconsistent and insufficient production of Scylla
seed worldwide, as the development of mud crab seed production is closely linked
with broodstock selection and management (Azra and Ikhwanuddin, 2016). In many
countries, mud crab hatchery technology is still in the development stage, hence few
reports on broodstock development and breeding programmes. Thus, the majority of
crab farms rely heavily on wild seed, and this puts tremendous pressure on the already
decreasing natural mud crab populations due to potential anthropogenic factors such as
overfishing and utilization of small-sized crabs (Ikhwanuddin et al., 2011; Waiho et al.,
2015; Viswanathan et al., 2019).
The lack of readily available berried females or spawners in the hatchery has greatly
affected seed production in many countries, including in Thailand (Nooseng, 2015).
There have been several efforts conducted to produce quality broodstock or ovigerous
females, but the rate of spawning success has been very low and often inconsistent.
To meet the demand for larvae in hatcheries, government agencies often resorted
to importing ovigerous females, particularly S. paramamosain, from neighbouring
countries. The import of ovigerous females was perceived as a better alternative, with
184 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

higher success rate, compared to relying on locally sourced broodstock. The

import of mud crab broodstock has been practised for many years now although
the cost is high (approximately USD 150–220/broodstock). Moreover, some farmers
directly import crablets to stock into their farms to address the shortage of domestic
seed supply. Failed fertilization, nutritional deficiency, microbial infection, heavy
infestation with fouling organisms, and environmental stress are among the major
causes preventing the successful production of ovigerous broodstock.
Generally, the production of gravid female crab as broodstock in captivity
worldwide often involves eyestalk ablation to induce ovarian maturation and shorten
spawning process (Quinitio and Parado-Estepa, 2008; Tran, 2017). However, this
technique may increase the risk of infection if it is badly managed. Recently, the Mud
Crab Learning Centre (MCLC) at Faculty of Science and Technology, Prince of Songkla
University (MCLC@PSU) in Thailand, has successfully developed a technique for
producing gravid female mud crabs, S. paramamosain, in recirculated water system
without eyestalk ablation (Hajisamae et al., 2022). Consequently, the supply of quality
broodstock in the country has become more consistent and MCLC@PSU has become
the first domestic broodstock-producing centre that supplies hatcheries in Thailand.
The success rate of egg extrusion by mature crabs sourced from the ponds or wild
is 70–80 percent after holding the adult crab for an average of 25 days in a system
developed by Hajisamae et al. (2022). This new system has been disseminated to some
government-run and private hatcheries. This recent development is expected to resolve the
bottleneck in the mud crab aquaculture supply chain in the near future.

BROODSTOCK FACILITY SETUP

Essential for successful larval production are proper nutrition and suitable water
conditions in the management of broodstock (Shelley and Lovatelli, 2011). The main
broodstock facilities include tanks for the initial treatment of incoming broodstock,
tanks for holding broodstock or spawning tanks, and incubation tanks. Temperature
control is also placed in the system to control diurnal variation of water temperature.
Precise control of temperature is required for the incubation and hatching of eggs.
Utilizing immersion heaters is possible but the devices need to be protected not to be
damaged by the crabs or placed in the treatment unit of the recirculating water system.
Maintaining mud crab broodstock in low-light conditions appears to minimize stress
levels, which in turn leads to better reproductive performance (Shelley and Lovatelli,
2011). To establish a lowlight regime, the broodstock facility for S. paramamosain at
the MCLC@PSU is equipped with a dark plastic curtain at the entrance of the building
(Figure 1). Furthermore, studies have shown that maintaining light conditions at 0.2–
5.0 lux above the water surface in spawning tanks is optimal for broodstock (Hajisamae
et al., 2022).

Spawning tank
The spawning facility should provide suitable environmental conditions to induce
normal spawning of broodstock with lower operational costs (Figure 2). At the
MCLC@PSU, 117 L circular tanks (55 cm diameter; 63 cm height) are used in a water
recirculating system (Hajisamae et al., 2022). Each tank is provided with a sand substrate
and approximately 70 L of seawater with continuous aeration. A single broodstock is
stocked in each tank. The crabs in the spawning tanks are provided with an optimum
light intensity of approximately 0.2–5.0 lux during daytime and darkness at night.
Disturbance is minimized during the operation.

Incubation tank
The incubation tank is another critical facility that supports successful broodstock
hatching. Its primary role is to incubate fertilized eggs attached to the broodstock’s
Broodstock management for mud crab 185

FIGURE 1
Broodstock housing system at the Mud Crab Learning Centre, Prince of Songkla University

©S. Hajisamae
FIGURE 2
Mud crab broodstock spawning tanks

©S. Hajisamae
186 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 3
Broodstock facilities at the Mud Crab Learning Centre, Prince of Songkla University
A 280 L mud crab broodstock circular holding tank (a); a mature female visible in the tank
(b); clean and filtered sand is placed in a tray for disinfection (c); and a mature broodstock
buried in the sand substrate placed in the incubation tank

a b

c d

©S. Hajisamae
pleopods, ensuring proper conditions for embryonic development. At the MCLC@
PSU, a 280 L circular tank (Figure 3a and Figure 3b) is employed and placed outside
the spawning house. The tank is filled with 200–250 L of treated seawater, continuously
aerated for 24 hours, and kept free of any substrate. The optimum light intensity for
this incubation tank is approximately 100 lux during daylight hours, and darkness at
night. This preparation is done a few days before the expected date of broodstock
spawning in the tank. Once the broodstock spawn, they are immediately transferred
to this incubation tank for the incubation of fertilized eggs and hatching of zoea
(Hajisamae et al., 2022).

Substrate
For most commercially valuable brachyuran crabs, sand substrate is commonly provided
in broodstock tanks. This substrate offers refuge, facilitates egg extrusion and clutch
development, and helps minimize egg loss throughout the incubation period (Ravi and
Manisseri, 2013; Fazhan et al., 2022). Female mud crab broodstock require a sandy
bottom to spawn their eggs. Crabs excavate a shallow depression in the sediment and
by extending their abdomen over it, create a chamber that allows the extruded eggs to
attach successfully to the setae of their pleopods. Failure to provide sand in broodstock
tanks will result in poor spawning that is often aborted as well as low hatching rates
(Shelley and Lovatelli, 2011). Captive-propagated Scylla serrata broodstock were
Broodstock management for mud crab 187

provided with gravel (Alava et al., 2007) or pebble substrate and topped with around
12–15 cm of sand (Millamena and Quinitio, 2000; Hamasaki, 2003) to facilitate the
egg extrusion process (Azra and Ikhwanuddin, 2016). Recently, Fazhan et al. (2022)
reported that fine sand (< 70 μm) substrate rather than coarse sand should be utilized
in Scylla broodstock rearing, especially with Scylla olivacea, to maximize reproductive
output. When using fine sand, the eggs that fall during the extrusion process remain
in proximity to the female and aggregate on the surface of the sand substrate, thereby
enabling easy recollection onto the pleopods by the female broodstock.
After experimental tests at the MCLC@PSU, it was found that using fine or
medium sand (277.8 ± 43.1 μm) at a thickness of 5 cm, placed at the bottom of the
tank, provided maximum egg extrusion and the most comfortable handling method for
S. paramamosain broodstock of 200–400 g (Figure 3c and Figure 3d) (Hajisamae et al.,
2022). Removal of large particles as well as washing and disinfecting the sand prior to
use are essential as part of biosecurity measures.

BROODSTOCK SOURCE AND SELECTION

Most of the broodstock used are either from wild catches or ponds (Quinitio and
Parado-Estepa, 2008; Tran, 2017). Currently, wild-sourced gravid female crabs are
preferred as broodstock. To obtain wild-sourced crabs, close communication with local
collectors is essential to ensure good quality crabs. Healthy adult female crabs (active
with complete limbs, absence of external parasites and no obvious abnormalities) of
200–400 g with mature ovaries, preferably stage 4, are carefully selected (Figure 4).
Females with their claws untied are preferred. Maturity of the female crab is evaluated
based on the abdominal shape and colour. Ovarian maturation stage is assessed by using
a torch light technique to detect ovarian shadow. The crabs are carefully transported to
the broodstock facility as soon as possible after collection (Hajisamae et al., 2022).

FIGURE 4
Ideal external features of a mature and healthy mud crab broodstock
Dorsal view (a); and abdominal view (b) of an adult mud crab

a b
©N. Chema

PREPARATION OF BROODSTOCK AND STOCKING IN TANK

Upon arrival, the crabs are cleaned and disinfected in 150 ppm formaldehyde for
30 minutes and subsequently subjected to a 3-day acclimatization period (Waiho et al.,
2015). Information such as crab carapace width, carapace length, body weight and date
of stocking are recorded. An identification number is marked on the carapace of each
individual using a specific marker. Acclimatized females can be held in various types of
tanks or buckets in different environmental conditions based on the technique familiar
to, or developed by, the hatchery technicians.
Upon arrival, the crabs are inspected, cleaned and stocked immediately in tanks with
a water recirculating system (Hajisamae et al., 2022). Crabs and the culture system
are monitored daily, coinciding with feeding to minimize unnecessary disturbances.
188 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Normally, the broodstock are held in a spawning tank for 20–40 days. Crabs held
for more than 40 days without any sign of spawning are discarded and replaced by
other female crabs with mature ovaries. The overall broodstock preparation process is
visually summarized in Figure 5.

FIGURE 5
Mud crab broodstock preparation for stocking
Weighing of broodstock (a); measuring the carapace width (b); and determining the
ovarian maturation stage using a flashlight (c)

a c

©N. Chema

FEEDING AND WATER MANAGEMENT

The broodstock are normally fed either a natural, artificial or mixed diet (Azra and
Ikhwanuddin, 2016). The natural diet includes fish, mussel meat, squid, bivalves
and shrimps that are high in protein, essential fatty acids and other nutrients. These
nutrients play a crucial role in the growth and maturation of mud crabs (Aaqillah-Amr
et al., 2022). However, frozen and shucked blood cockles are preferred for feeding
broodstock due to their high nutrient contents, ease of handling, and effectiveness in
supporting successful production (Figure 6a) (Hajisamae et al., 2022). Feeding on a
daily basis commences from the second day of stocking at 3–5 percent of body weight,
in the evening, until crabs begin to bury themselves in the sand. Once the crabs start to
bury themselves, the feed is reduced to approximately 1–2 percent of body weight as
the crabs require less food. Uneaten food can adversely affect water quality. A few days
before spawning, the crabs stop feeding as they prepare for spawning. After spawning,
the crabs are transferred to the incubation or hatching tanks and fed with blood cockles
at 1–2 percent of body weight.
At MCLC@PSU, the sea water is chlorinated (30 ppm) for 7 days, followed by the
addition of sodium bicarbonate (200 g/m3) before it is used in the broodstock tanks.
Water salinity of 32–35 psu, pH of 7.5–8.5, alkalinity of 120–180 mg/L, dissolved
oxygen of 4.7–5.6 mg/L, ammonia of < 0.25 mg/L, and a temperature of 27–29 °C are
Broodstock management for mud crab 189

maintained. Continuous water circulation and aeration is provided in the tank system.
Once the mud crab spawns, typically at night, it is transferred to an incubation tank
the following morning. The sand substrate is removed from the spawning tank, cleaned
with freshwater, then chlorinated and aerated for 7 days before it can be reused. The
tank is cleaned with diluted detergent and freshwater before returning the cleaned sand
substrate for the new batch of broodstock (Figure 6b and Figure 6c). Table 1 shows a
general comparison between the broodstock management strategy applied in Viet Nam
and the modifications applied in Thailand.

FIGURE 6
Mud crab broodstock feeding and water management
Blood cockles for broodstock feeding (a); water filters (b); and water filtration system (c)

a c

©N. Chema

TABLE 1
Broodstock management in Viet Nam and in Thailand
Management
Characteristics
Viet Nam Thailand
Tank 100 L, composite or cement; Housing or spawning tank: 117 L circular
recirculating or open plastic tank;
Incubating tank: 280 L circular plastic tank.
Substrate Sand bottom Sand bottom (diameter of sand particles
277.8 ± 35.7 μm).
Density 1 ind./tank of 100 L 1 ind./tank of 70 L.
Eyestalk ablation Cutting or tying one eye Not performed.
stalk
Light Darkness 0.2–5.0 lux for spawning tank and 100 lux
in incubation tank during daytime,
darkness at night.
190 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

TABLE 1 (CONTINUED)
Management
Characteristics
Viet Nam Thailand
Water quality Salinity 28–33 psu Salinity 32–35 psu, pH 7.5–8.5, alkalinity
temperature 25–30 °C 120–180 mg/L, dissolved oxygen
4.7–5.6 mg/L, ammonia < 0.25 mg/L,
temperature 27–29 °C.
Water exchange Recirculating or open Housing tank: recirculating system.
system (100% daily) Incubating tank: 50–70% daily.

Feeding Fresh feed (mollusc, polycheate, Housing tank: frozen-shucked blood cockle
marine fish, shrimp, at 5–10% at 3–5% body weight;
body weight) Incubating tank: frozen-shucked blood
cockle at 1% body weight.
Culture duration 5–30 days after eyestalk 5–40 days
ablation
Maximum duration of crab – 40 days
being housed
Incubation of berried crab Individual culture, bottom Individual culture, bottom without sand.
without sand
Incubation period 9–12 days 9–12 days
Hatching rate 62.8–96.8% 80%
Fertilization rate – 95%
Spawning rate – 70%

Sources: Tran, N.H. 2017. Principles and techniques of mud crab farming. Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam, Nha Xuat Ban
Nong Nghiep.
Hajisamae, S., Suwanmala, J., Khongphuang, S., Yeesin, P., Thongwan, A., Pitagsalee, C., Laongsiriwong, L., Polrat,
T., Oniam, W. & Theppanich, A. 2022. Research for advancement of completed aquaculture system for mud crab
(Scylla spp.) to be a new economic species by means of participation for area development mechanism in Pattani
Province. Technical Research Report. Pattani, Thailand, Prince of Songkla University.

INCUBATION MANAGEMENT
When spawning is imminent, frequently indicated when a crab buries itself in the sand
and does not eat for a few days, the incubation tanks need to be adequately prepared
(Figure 7). Once a crab has spawned (eggs attached to the abdominal flap; a female
is now referred as “berried”), it is then moved to the incubation tank until hatching,
which occurs usually in 9–12 days. The duration of incubation period depends on water
temperature, salinity and food availability. It has been observed that the incubation
period is shorter when the water temperature is higher (Hajisamae et al., 2022).
Water is exchanged at a rate of 50–70 percent daily. Feeding with blood cockle
is done daily at 1–2 percent of body weight. The egg mass is inspected regularly to
determine egg development and to check for the presence of infections and parasitic
infestations. Normally, development of fertilized eggs is clearly observed on day 5 of
incubation. Formaldehyde (150 ppm) is used to soak the crab for 30 minutes on

FIGURE 7
Broodstock behaviour during housing in the system
General behaviour of broodstock prior spawning (a); burrowing behaviour prior to spawning (b); and
spawning (c)

a b c
©N. Chema
Broodstock management for mud crab 191

days 3–5 of incubation after observing the development of eggs. Feeding is stopped on
day 8–9 of the incubation period, when the egg mass has turned dark brown or grey
and is ready to hatch. Regular food provision during the incubation period at MCLC@
PSU is similar to the practice reported by Quinitio and Parado-Estepa (2008) but
differs from those reported by Shelley and Lovatelli (2011) and Azra and Ikhwanuddin
(2016) – who indicate that crabs do not require feeding during the incubation period.
After egg hatching, the zoeae are fed either umbrella stage Artemia or rotifers,
and this live feed must be prepared based on the estimated date of hatching. Pre-
hatching normally occurs at 20:00–21:00 and complete hatching happens in the early
morning, usually between 04:00–06:00. Collection of zoeae is done after the eggs
have fully hatched in the morning. The berried crab and its corresponding embryonic
development stage are shown in Figure 8.

FIGURE 8
Spawned eggs of S. paramamosain and the corresponding embryonic development

©N. Chema

COST OF BROODSTOCK PRODUCTION

Chema et al. (2023) report an average production cost of USD 46/ind. for berried
female of S. paramamosain at the Marine Crab Learning Centre, Prince of Songkla
University, Thailand (Table 2). This total cost includes USD 29 allocated to fixed
costs, such as infrastructure and equipment, and USD 17 to variable costs, which cover
expenses like feed and maintenance (Chema et al., 2023).
192 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

TABLE 2
Production cost for a single mud crab broodstock at the Mud Crab Learning Centre, Prince of
Songkla University
Cost/ind. Cost/ind.
Items
(THB) (USD)
Fixed cost 1 028 29
Variable cost 598 17
Total cost 1 626 46
Source: Chema, N., Khongpuang, S. & Hajisamae, S. 2023. Cost-return analysis of a small-scale berried female mud crab
(Scylla paramamosain) production using a water recirculation system. Technical Report. Pattani, Thailand, Prince of
Songkla University.

PROBLEMS AND CHALLENGES

In the field of crustacean aquaculture, maintaining a high-quality broodstock supply
is critical for reliable hatchery operations. However, the challenges associated with
sourcing, managing, and optimizing broodstock quality pose significant obstacles.
High-quality broodstock is essential to support the production of robust larvae,
but issues such as limited supply, disease management, and optimizing nutrition
and environmental conditions remain. To address these concerns, a combination
of improved sourcing practices, biosecurity measures, nutritional advancements,
and environmental controls is essential for advancing broodstock management and
enhancing overall hatchery success.
• Broodstock sourcing: Currently, the primary source of high-quality broodstock
remains limited to wild populations. While captive-propagated broodstock are
available, they often lack the quality seen in their wild-sourced counterparts. This
quality gap is attributed to the absence of selective breeding practices in pond-
reared crabs, which would allow for the enhancement of beneficial heritable traits.
Therefore, domestication of broodstock is crucial to consistently produce quality
larvae that support hatchery operations.
• Disease management: Mortality and health issues in broodstock, often due to
shell diseases, bacterial infections, viral pathogens and parasites, represent key
challenges in broodstock management. To mitigate these issues, strict biosecurity
protocols in broodstock facilities are essential to prevent disease outbreaks and
ensure the overall health of the stock.
• Nutritional requirements: Broodstock production relies heavily on natural food
sources that provide the necessary nutrients for embryonic and larval development.
Feeding broodstock with highly nutritious, palatable, and easily handled foods
that minimize water contamination can enhance broodstock performance. Such
nutritional improvements can help reduce egg incubation time and increase both
the quality and quantity of larvae produced.
• Environmental management: Maintaining optimal environmental conditions,
particularly for spawning and egg incubation, is crucial for producing high-
quality broodstock. Attention to factors such as water quality, temperature, and
aeration can significantly influence broodstock health and reproductive success.

CONCLUSION
The current limited production of berried females in captivity reflects the inconsistent
and insufficient production of mud crab seed, thereby impacting the development of
the mud crab aquaculture industry worldwide. Several efforts in different countries
have been conducted to achieve regular production of broodstock for all four mud
crab species. Scientific and technological knowledge related to broodstock production
is well-established, covering areas such as the design and management of broodstock
housing systems, spawning and incubation tanks, and the use of sand substrates
and specialized facilities. Moreover, careful consideration is required for water and
Broodstock management for mud crab 193

food management, as well as light and temperature control. The selection of quality
broodstock from different sources is crucial for the success of spawning, hatching,
and providing quality seed. The successful development of broodstock production
technology in Thailand could support the growth of mud crab supply chain aquaculture
in many countries.

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F.S.J., Mat Noordin, N., Muyassar, H.A., Teoh, H.P., Hongyu, M. & Ikhwanuddin, M.
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 195

Mud crab hatchery and nursery

systems in Viet Nam

Tran Nguyen Duy Khoa & Vu Ngoc Ut

College of Aquaculture and Fisheries, Can Tho University, Can Tho City, Viet Nam

ABSTRACT
The common mud crab species in Viet Nam are Scylla paramamosain and Scylla olivacea,
found particularly in the Mekong Delta region. Mud crab production plays a significant
role in the economy of the aquaculture industry in Viet Nam. Due to the lack of wild
seedstock, several hatcheries were established in the country. The full cycle of hatchery
operation includes broodstock management, spawning and hatching, larval rearing and
nursery rearing. For larval rearing, tanks with a darker background with sufficient light
source are utilized. Rotifers and Artemia are used as feeds for the zoeal stages. The
duration of culture from zoea 1 to crab instar ranges from 23 to 30 days. Thereafter, the
crab instars (crablets) are further reared in nursery tanks or shallow ponds until the size
is desirable for transfer in grow-out ponds, where they are grown to adult size. A survival
rate of 5–11 percent from zoea 1 to crab instar can be obtained. The major constraints in
the hatchery operation of mud crab are the following: inconsistent broodstock quality,
cannibalism, diseases, and lack of artificial feeds specifically formulated for mud crab.
Although cannibalism can be somewhat managed by providing shelters and size grading
of crabs, better strategies are needed. Research priorities need to focus on disease
management that involves the prevention and control of the pathogens and alternatives
to antibiotics. Likewise, the development of commercial diets for both broodstock and
larvae as substitute to live feeds should be addressed.

INTRODUCTION
The common mud crab species in Viet Nam are S. paramamosain and S. olivacea.
Mud crab breeding and culture in the country were initiated in the late 1990s. Crabs
of various sizes, large enough to be sold, have been excessively harvested in all the
fishing communities along the coast where the crabs are found. Due to the lack of
wild seedstocks, hatcheries have been established particularly in the Mekong Delta
region, mainly focusing on S. paramamosain. Shrimp hatcheries were converted to
produce mud crab seeds as a full cycle operation or to alternately produce crab and
shrimp based on demand. As of now, there are approximately 523 mud crab hatcheries
in the Mekong Delta, some of which only operate seasonally. A single hatchery on
average can produce annually between 700 000–10 000 000 crablets with a survival rate
of 5–11 percent. Nurseries are operated to culture megalopae and crab instars to the
juvenile stage in shallow and lined ponds or net cages within 2–3 weeks before stocking
in grow-out ponds.

HATCHERY OPERATION
The size of the mud crab hatchery depends on the desired production and the financial
capability of the investor (The Mangrove Crab Technical Committee 2018, 2021)
(Figure 1). Areas for broodstock, hatching, larval rearing and live food culture need
to be treated as separate units to minimize the risk of spreading potential pathogens
as a biosecurity measure (Figure 2). Mud crab hatchery operation requires a relatively
196 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

high level of biosecurity to obtain consistently high larval survival and production of
crablets for the nursery phase.

FIGURE 1
Mud crab hatchery rearing tanks (a) and circular hatchery tanks illuminated with LED
light (b) in the Mekong Delta

a b

©T.N.D. Khoa
FIGURE 2
Biosecurity measures in the hatchery include foot baths (a), hand disinfection with alcohol (b), and
technicians wearing proper attire (c)

a b c

©T.N.D. Khoa

Broodstock culture
Mature female crabs with dark orange ovaries obtained from either brackish water
ponds or mangrove forests are held in tanks until the eggs are spawned. Unilateral
eyestalk ablation of immature females is sometimes performed to induce maturation.
Ablation is carried out after the crabs have recovered from handling and transportation
stress (usually 2–3 days).
Keeping crabs healthy in captivity is essential for successful larval production. Crab
broodstock can be held together in large tanks (≥ 10 m3 capacity; 80–100 cm height)
at 1.5 ind./m2, or individually in smaller containers for several weeks (Figure 3). It has
been found that keeping crab broodstock in low light conditions appears to minimize
stress levels, resulting in better reproductive performance (Shelley and Lovatelli, 2011).
Therefore, crab broodstock are housed in facilities where light level is low, or the
existing facilities use shading material to maintain a low light intensity. Water quality
parameters are maintained within acceptable levels (temperature 25–30 °C, salinity
30 ppt, dissolved oxygen > 5 mg/L, alkalinity 80–120 mg CaCO3/L. The inclusion of
shelters in the tank provides refuge for the crabs and may minimize fighting among
them. Female crabs require access to a sandy bottom in the tank to spawn their eggs
Mud crab hatchery and nursery systems in Viet Nam 197

FIGURE 3
Recirculating unit of the rearing system (a) and broodstock tank filled with sand (b)

a b

©T.N.D. Khoa
successfully. Failure to provide sand will result in poor (often aborted) spawning, or
low hatching rates.
Broodstock specimens are fed natural food such as bivalves (clam, blood cockle,
etc.), fish, squid or marine worms, and are fed twice a day (usually at 07:00 and
17:00). The diet may be supplemented with artificial feed. Crabs are fed 2–8 percent
of their body weight or until satiation. Uneaten feed and waste materials are regularly
removed. Large volumes of water need to be exchanged regularly in order to maintain
good water quality conditions in the tank.
Once spawning occurs (with the egg mass appearing under the abdominal flap,
“berried”), the female crab is transferred to an incubation tank where the water quality
and other environmental parameters are monitored and controlled. A single crab is
placed in each hatching tank to allow for individual monitoring of larvae from each
female (Figure 4). During the egg incubation period, the berried crabs are not fed to
reduce waste and minimize water deterioration.
Some hatchery operators purchase berried crabs from nearby broodstock facilities
instead of maintaining broodstock in their hatchery (Figure 5). These are stocked
individually in buckets or small tanks with clean seawater and aeration until their eggs
hatch.

Larval rearing
Hatchery tanks made of concrete, fiberglass, or marine plywood lined with high density
plastic or canvas material are used (Figure 6). Rearing tanks can vary in design, including
circular tanks with conical bases, hemispherical and/or rectangular. The internal

FIGURE 4
Berried female (b) stocked individually in a container with clean seawater and aeration (b)

a b
©T.N.D. Khoa
 198 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 5
colour of rearing tanks is a key factor
A berried crab from a broodstock rearing facility sold to influencing larval performance and has
! hatchery operators been shown to significantly impact
survival rates. Larvae grown in black
tanks or with a darker background have
higher survival rates than other colours
(blue, red and orange) (Alimuddin et al.,
2019).
The rearing of crab larvae requires
sufficient light, but direct strong sunlight
should be avoided. Improved survival is
generally achieved with a 12–hour light/
dark cycle; natural light is the primary
light source for the larval rearing area.
Recently, the application of LED
bulbs has been observed to increase
larval activity (such as moulting rate
and food intake) (Figure 7), with Khoa
©T.N.D. Khoa

et al. (2023) reporting a 20–30 percent

improvement in larval survival.

FIGURE 6
Hatchery tanks made of concrete (a), fiberglass (b), marine plywood lined with high density
plastic (c) and canvas material (d)

a b

c d
©T.N.D. Khoa

Rotifers and Artemia are both fed to the crab larvae at different densities (Figure 8).
The rotifer density in the rearing tanks is maintained at approximately 20 ind./ml
(Table 1). Umbrella stage Artemia are given from zoea 1 to 2 alone or in addition to
rotifers. Newly hatched Artemia are fed to zoea 3–4 at 1–2 ind./ml, while Artemia
biomass is fed to zoea 5 and megalopa. When available, minced Acetes are given to
later-stage megalopae. Formulated feed developed for shrimp larvae is also fed to
Mud crab hatchery and nursery systems in Viet Nam 199

FIGURE 7
Experimental setup using LED bulbs in crab larval rearing

©T.N.D. Khoa
FIGURE 8
Rotifers (a), shrimp formulated diet* (b), and Artemia* (cysts in can [c]; umbrella stage [d];
newly hatched [e]), serve as feed for mud crab larvae

a b*

c* d e
©T.N.D. Khoa

* The products shown are not preferred or endorsed over other similar products available on the market.

crab larvae. Prebiotics and probiotics are sometimes utilized to enhance the health
conditions of the larvae. Recent studies have shown that probiotics can also improve
growth and digestion, enhance immune responses and help control diseases in mud
crab larvae (Khoa, 2018).
Microalgae are added to larval rearing tanks at 0.5–5.0 × 104 cells/ml as feed for the
rotifers. Microalgae are also considered as a water conditioner. The microalgae used in
crab larval rearing include Tetraselmis spp. and Nannochloropsis spp.
200 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

TABLE 1
Summary of mud crab larval rearing protocol

Larval density Protocol 1: 100–150 zoea 1/L

Protocol 2: 200–300 zoea 1/L; 25–50 zoea 5/L
Protocol 3: 200–300 zoea 1/L; 100–150 zoea 4/L; 25–50 megalopa/L
Larval stage Feeds and feeding:
Zoea 1–2 Rotifers: 20 ind./ml + algae 0.5–5.0 × 104 cells/ml
Umbrella stage Artemia 1–2 ind./ml (every 3 hours) alone or with rotifers
Zoea 3–4 Newly hatched Artemia 1–2 ind./ml (every 6 hours)
Artificial feed 1–2 g/m3 (every 6 hours) with or without algae
Zoea 5–megalopa Enriched Artemia 1–3 ind./ml (every 6 hours)
Artificial feed 2–3 g/m3 (every 6 hours)

Megalopa to crablet instar Artemia biomass, Acetes or trash fish (until satiation, 06:00 and 16:00)
Artificial feed 2–5 g/m3 (every 6 hours)
Water quality 25–30 oC; 25–33 ppt; 7.5–8.5 pH; < 1 ppm NH4; < 0.1 ppm NO2;
> 100 ppm alkalinity
Light 5 000–8 000 lux, 12–hour light/dark cycle
Substrate Nylon nets (mesh size ~1 cm) or netting bundles placed in the tank
starting from late megalopa stage (benthic stage)
Water exchange Rearing water replaced at 30% daily from day-3, up to 80% as larvae
mature
Culture duration 23–30 days
Survival rate 5–11% from zoea 1 to crab instar 1 (at zoea 1 stocking density of
300 ind./L)

The quality of Artemia has been found to affect larval survival. Hence, Artemia
enrichment products are used to maximize their nutritional value. Artemia enriched
with high doses of vitamin C, docosahexaenoic acid and taurine have been reported to
improve metamorphosis from zoea 5 to megalopa and from megalopa to crab instar.
Residual rotifers and Artemia usually become nutritionally deficient after 24 hours and
may start to die. If the density of residual live feeds increases, it is necessary to remove
a substantial proportion of these before adding subsequent feeds.
The rearing water is replaced at 30 percent daily from day-3 and up to 80 percent as
larvae mature and when levels of luminescent bacteria are high. Aeration is provided
throughout the rearing period. Shelters such as nylon nets or netting bundles are placed
in the tanks starting from the late megalopa stage. Since megalopae are cannibalistic, these
must be eventually transferred to large tanks or ponds provided with suitable shelters.

NURSERY OPERATION
The surface area of the rearing tank is important once the megalopae have settled and
metamorphosed into crab instar (crablet) stage. Common tank designs for culturing
crablets include rectangular concrete tanks with flat bottoms that slope towards a
sump pit for water drainage, shallow ponds lined with plastic material and equipped
with drain pipes, and net cages placed in ponds (Figure 9). These are provided with
freshwater and seawater supply pipes as well as aeration lines.
Nursery tanks or ponds are often exposed to the elements, which can cause the
temperature of the rearing water to rise, particularly during the summer months. This
increase in temperature can lead to high crablet mortality. To mitigate this, nursery
systems are typically covered with an overhead awning or roof to shield the rearing
facilities from direct sunlight and rain. Additionally, abrupt changes in salinity due to
heavy rainfall can stress the crablets, potentially resulting in mortality.
Various materials can be placed or suspended in nursery tanks to provide three-
dimensional shelters, increasing the surface area available for benthic crablets. Suitable
materials include netting bundles, leaf fronds or straw, and cut PVC pipes (Figure 10).
Mud crab hatchery and nursery systems in Viet Nam 201

FIGURE 9
Concrete tanks (a), shallow lined ponds (b), net cages (c), and composite tanks used for rearing crablets
during the nursery phase (d)

a b

c d

©T.N.D. Khoa
FIGURE 10
Netting material used as shelter for crablets (a) visible at the bottom of the nursery tank (b)

a b
©T.N.D. Khoa

These materials create additional surfaces for crablets to inhabit, promoting their
growth and survival.
Megalopae and crablets are commonly fed with trash fish, Acetes and shrimp pellet
until satiation.

DISEASE MANAGEMENT
Mass mortality in crab larvae is primarily attributed to bacterial infections, which has
led to an over reliance on antibiotics such as oxytetracycline (OTC) to mitigate the
 202 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

risks of batch rearing failure. However, the widespread use of antibiotics is discouraged
and often prohibited in many countries due to concerns about its broader impacts.
Fungal infections, caused by species such as Lagenidium, Sirolpidium, Haliphthoros,
and Atkinsiella, can also contribute to mortality during larval rearing, requiring distinct
treatment strategies. The greatest concern with the unregulated use of veterinary drugs
is the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the hatchery, which can also pose
a risk of resistance spreading to other animals and even humans.

Bacteria
Pathogenic Vibrio spp. are major contributors to diseases in farmed aquatic organisms.
The zoea stage is particularly susceptible to luminous bacteria, with several species
playing a significant role in disease outbreaks. V. harveyi, along with V. alginolyticus
and V. parahaemolyticus, have been isolated and tested for their pathogenicity to
zoea. Additionally, Vibrio spp. have been implicated in shell disease in captive crab
broodstock. This condition arises from a combination of chitinoclastic bacteria
and fouling organisms, which together
FIGURE 11 exacerbate the disease (Figure 11)
Crab broodstock with shell disease (Tendencia et al., 2017; Jithendran et al.,
! 2010; Faizah et al., 2016).

Viruses
White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV)
infection is characterized by rapid onset
of disease, with up to 90 percent of
the stock becoming infected within 2
to 7 days. WSSV can be transmitted
to crabs through vertical transmission
from wild broodstock or horizontal
transmission in monoculture systems.
Additionally, crabs can become infected
through feeding on or when reared
©T.N.D. Khoa

with WSSV-infected shrimp (Jithendran

et al., 2010; Faizah et al., 2016).

Fungi
A number of fungi species including Lagenidium scylla, Haliphthoros philippinicus and
Atkinsiella fluminensis, have been frequently observed to infect the eggs, larvae and
ovaries of mud crab (Figure 12) (Jithendran et al., 2010; Faizah et al., 2016). Eggs may
detach from berried females during the incubation period, leading to partial hatching or
complete loss of the egg mass. Haliphthoros spp. cause abortion and resorption of eggs,

FIGURE 12
Mud crab egg mass (a), eggs (b) and zoea (c) infected with the fungus Lagenidium. Developing
zoospores are visible in figure (b) (arrows)

a b c
©T.N.D. Khoa
Mud crab hatchery and nursery systems in Viet Nam 203

while larvae are highly susceptible to infections from the non-host-specific pathogen
Lagenidium spp., leading to significant mortality. To minimize the risk of infection,
bath treatments with formalin and fungicides are commonly administered.

Parasites
Protozoa such as the stalked peritrich ciliates, Epistylis sp., Zoothamnium sp., and
suctorian ciliates, Acineta sp. and Lagenophry sp., have been observed to attach to the
shell and gills of the crabs (Figure 13) (Faizah et al., 2016). Zoothamnium infestations on
the eggs of berried females, particularly those collected from brackish water areas, are
typically linked to water rich in organic matter and other nutrients (Figure 13). These
infestations can have negative effects, as Zoothamnium can impair egg development,
reduce hatching success, and increase the risk of disease transmission. Additionally,
the presence of Zoothamnium may indicate poor water quality, further exacerbating
stress on the broodstock and potentially leading to higher mortality rates in the larvae.

FIGURE 13
Electron microscopy of Zoothamnium sp. colonizing the mud crab larvae (a) and a
close-up view (b)

a b

©T.N.D. Khoa
!

Abnormalities and deformities

In hatchery settings, delays or failure to moult from zoea 5 to megalopa can result
in several negative consequences, including abnormal swimming behaviour and
the inability to consume food, which significantly impairs the larvae’s survival and
development (Faizah et al., 2016). Such delays or failures in moulting are often attributed
to unsuitable environmental conditions, such as suboptimal water temperature,
salinity, or oxygen levels, as well as nutrient deficiencies. Inadequate levels of essential
nutrients, particularly in the larval diet, can hinder physiological processes necessary for
moulting, leading to developmental abnormalities and increased vulnerability to stress
and disease. Ensuring optimal environmental conditions and a balanced, nutrient-rich
diet are crucial to support proper larval development and successful metamorphosis.

CONSTRAINTS
The major challenges in the hatchery operation of mud crabs include inconsistent
broodstock quality, cannibalism, diseases, and the lack of commercially available
formulated feeds specifically designed for mud crabs. While cannibalism can be
managed through the provision of shelters and size grading, more effective strategies
are needed. Research efforts should prioritize disease management, focusing on the
prevention and control of pathogens as well as the development of alternatives to
antibiotics. Additionally, the development of commercial diets for both broodstock
and larvae, as a viable substitute for live feeds, is a critical area for improvement.
204 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

REFERENCES
Alimuddin, M.Y., Karim, A.M. & Tahya, A.M. 2019. Survival rate of mud crab Scylla
olivacea larvae reared in coloured tanks. Aquaculture, Aquarium, Conservation &
Legislation - International Journal of the Bioflux Society, 12(4).
Faizah, M.S., Najiah, M., Nadirah, M., Sandra, C.Z., Marinna, H. & Khoa, T.N.D. 2016.
Critical disease of mud crabs. Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia, Penerbit UMT.
Jithendran, K.P., Poornima, M., Balasubramanian, C.P. & Kulasekarapandian, S. 2010.
Diseases of mud crabs (Scylla spp.): An overview. Indian Journal of Fisheries, 57(3): 55–63.
Khoa, T.N.D. 2018. Effect of probiotic (Bacillus subtilis) on water quality, survival rate
and digestive enzyme activities of mud crab larvae (Scylla paramamosain). Can Tho
University, Journal of Science, 54(Aquaculture), 1(1–8).
Khoa, T.N.D. 2023. Application of LED light in mud crab larviculture. Technical Report.
Can Tho, Viet Nam, Can Tho University.
Lavilla-Pitogo, C.R. & de la Peña, L. 2004. Diseases in farmed mud crabs Scylla spp.:
Diagnosis, prevention and control. Iloilo City, Philippines, SEAFDEC/AQD.
Patterson, B.D. & Mann, D.L. 2011. Mud crab aquaculture. In: R.K Fotedar, B.F
Phillips, eds. Recent Advances and New Species in Aquaculture. Oxford, UK, Blackwell
Publishing Ltd.
Shelley, C. & Lovatelli, A. 2011. Mud crab aquaculture – A practical manual. FAO
Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper. No. 567. Rome, FAO.
Tendencia, E.A., Cabilitasan, M.V. & Quinitio, E.T. 2017. Diseases of juvenile and adult
mud crab Scylla spp. in the Philippines. Iloilo City, Philippines, SEAFDEC/AQD.
The Mangrove Crab Technical Committee 2018. 2021. The Philippines recommends for
mangrove crab. Los Baños, Philippines, DOST-PCAARRD.
 205

Hatchery and nursery systems:

Philippines, India and Bangladesh

Emilia T. Quinitio,1 Fe D. Parado-Estepa,1 Kandan Shanmuganathan,2 Samir

Kumer Sarker,3 Bimal Jyoti Chakma4 & Manoj Chowdhury4

1
Integrated Services for the Development of Aquaculture and Fisheries, Iloilo City, Philippines
2
Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Aquaculture, Thoduvai, Tamil Nadu, India
3
Department of Fisheries, Matshya Bhaban, Ramna, Dhaka, Bangladesh
4
Department of Fisheries, Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh

ABSTRACT
In the Philippines, India and Bangladesh, the basic techniques used in the hatchery and
nursery of mud or mangrove crabs are almost similar and vary in some degree. The
techniques are not absolute and depend on the conditions in each country. Philippines
and India use ovigerous Scylla serrata sourced directly from the ponds, trading centres
and sometimes from the wild, while Bangladesh obtains berried crabs only from
the wild. Upon arrival in the hatchery, crabs are subjected to conditioning, formalin
bath and screening for viruses and other pathogens. They are held in quarantine and
later stocked in broodstock tanks when negative for viruses and other pathogens.
In Bangladesh, the berried crabs are subjected to formalin bath and held in aerated
buckets until their eggs hatch.
Newly hatched zoeae are collected immediately and rinsed with low dose
formalin or just with disinfected flowing seawater. Zoeae are stocked at a density of
80–100 ind./L in the Philippines and Bangladesh, and 70–80 ind./L in India. Rotifers
and Artemia are commonly utilized live food for crab larvae. However, newly hatched
zoeae are fed umbrella stage Artemia or newly hatched small-sized strain Artemia if
rotifers are insufficient. Commercially available shrimp formulated diets are also fed
to zoeae. Application of prophylaxis is done to prevent bacterial and fungal infections
and protozoan infestation in larvae. The frequency and volume of water to be changed
depends on the water condition in the tank.
The nursery phase has been established in the Philippines using net cages installed
in brackish water ponds to grow the megalopae or crab instars or utilizing small ponds
where crab instars are directly stocked. In India, the nursery phase is done in brackish
water ponds or creeks, and net cages in ponds. Megalopae or crab instars are fed either
Artemia biomass or finely chopped trash fish and molluscs. At present, there is no
nursery system established in Bangladesh since commercial production of crab instars
has not been achieved.

INTRODUCTION
Hatchery is the first phase in the culture of crab and has an important part in meeting
the increasing seedstock requirements for farming. Nursery is the transitional
phase which links the hatchery to pond grow-out culture. In the Philippines, both
the hatchery and nursery technologies developed were based on the research and
development conducted starting in the mid-1990s and continuously refined to become
more economically viable. There are many techniques applied in both hatchery and
nursery systems. Philippines, India and Bangladesh have some similar basic techniques
 206 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

but vary in some degree. These techniques are not absolute and depend on the
conditions (availability and types of materials, technical capability of staff, design or
layout of existing hatchery, etc.) in each country.

PHILIPPINES

Seawater source
Prefiltered or raw seawater from the nearby sea is pumped and passed through settling
tank or directly to a rapid mechanical sand filter or sand filter tank and stored in
the reservoir. Seawater is treated with chlorine and neutralized either with sodium
thiosulfate or strong aeration for several hours. Some hatchery owners use filtered
seawater that is treated with ultraviolet light or ozone prior to use in the hatchery.

Broodstock management
FIGURE 1
Although three species of mud crab have
Determination of ovarian maturity by pressing the first
abdominal segment underneath the carapace
been cultured in captivity, S. serrata is
the species preferred by crab growers.
S. serrata broodstock is commonly
sourced from the wild, trading centres
or directly from commercial ponds.
Healthy adult crabs at an advanced stage
of ovarian maturity (orange to dark
orange ovaries) and with no missing
limbs are selected. The condition of
the ovary is assessed by depressing the
first abdominal segment underneath the
carapace (Figure 1) or by using a strong
! light focused on the ventral side of the
©E.T. Quinitio

carapace. The ovary is full when the

light does not penetrate through the
anterior part of the carapace. Adult
crabs from brackish water ponds contain
higher lipids than those sourced from the wild perhaps since food is always available
during culture while wild crabs constantly search for food (Alava et al., 2007). Lipids
play important roles in the biochemistry, metabolism and reproduction of decapod
crustaceans. Furthermore, the newly spawned eggs of pond-reared crabs contain n-3
highly unsaturated fatty acids as well as n-3 and n-6 fatty acids that were found to be
significantly higher than those of wild-sourced crabs. Hence, the hatchery operators
often utilise pond-reared crabs for hatchery use.
Female crabs with maturing or fully mature ovaries are usually obtained to reduce
the latency period from maturation to spawning (Quinitio, De Pedro & Estepa, 2007).
It is difficult to determine whether a particular female has been mated through external
examination. Hence, several females per batch are obtained to have a higher possibility
that mated females will give viable eggs. Pond-reared crabs have also been observed to
have more mated females than those sourced from the wild.
Screening for viruses (white spot syndrome virus or WSSV, acute hepatopancreatic
necrosis disease, etc.) and other pathogens is done by taking samples of leg muscle
tissues after acclimation in the hatchery. Crabs are then disinfected through a
30-minute formalin bath. Crabs are maintained in separate quarantine tanks. If crabs
test negative in the screening, they are transferred to maturation tanks that range from
5–10 tonnes in size and provided with sand substrate, aeration and shelters. They are
stocked at 1–2 ind./m2. Disinfected seawater of 30–34 ppt is used for maturation and
spawning of S. serrata. Crabs are fed at 3–5 percent of their body weight per day or on
Hatchery and nursery systems: Philippines, India and Bangladesh 207

an ad libitum basis. Fish, molluscs (mussel, oyster, snail or clam), squid, and marine
or brackish water polychaetes are fed to crabs alternately. Food items are washed well
with freshwater prior to feeding. Live marine or brackish water worms are depurated
and disinfected prior to feeding as these can be a vector for WSSV (Vijayan et al., 2005).
Formulated pelleted feeds, whenever available, are sometimes provided in combination
with the natural food. About 50 percent of the seawater is changed 3–4 times per
week in a static system. In a water recirculating system, more than 100 percent of the
seawater is recirculated daily.
Although crabs are not difficult to breed, an eyestalk is sometimes ablated in a
crab with immature and maturing ovary to induce maturation and spawning. Crabs
can spawn up to three times from a single mating. Re-maturation takes place about
one month after spawning. In S. serrata, second spawning occurs typically 41–46 days
after the first spawning while the third spawning occurs 34 days after the second
spawning (Quinitio et al., 2011). However, there is usually a decrease in the number
of zoeae in repeat spawning. The interval from spawning to hatching ranges from
7–10 days (Figure 2).

FIGURE 2
Interval from one spawning to subsequent spawnings
41-46 days in Scylla 34-50
serrata
days

Moulting Mating Spawning Spawning Spawning

7-10 days 7-10 days

Hatching Hatching Hatching

Ovigerous crabs (females carrying eggs attached to the abdominal flap) are retrieved
from the tank and disinfected with 150 ppm formalin prior to stocking individually in
500 L incubation or spawning tanks with aerated seawater. Detached eggs, faeces, and
excess feeds are siphoned out daily prior to water change of 50–80 percent. Feeding
is discontinued when the egg mass starts to turn brown or light grey. After hatching,
the quality of the zoeae may be determined by exposing them to 40 ppm formalin
(37 percent formaldehyde was considered as 100 percent in the computation) for
3 hours. If mortality of a certain batch of mud crab zoea 1 is only within 0–18 percent
in 3 hours, then it is worth rearing the larvae as it is a good quality batch. If the
mortality is > 38 percent, then it is of poor quality and may be terminated as early as
zoea 1 (Quinitio, dela Cruz & Parado-Estepa, 2018).
An ongoing study is being done to enhance broodstock performance by providing
them with suitable diet (polychaetes and molluscs) and optimum water temperature in
recirculating aquaculture system with polychaete-assisted sand biofilters.

Larval rearing
The newly hatched zoeae are collected immediately, rinsed with low dose formalin and
stocked at 80–100 ind./L in tanks. Rotifers and Artemia are commonly utilized natural
food for crab larvae. Figure 3 shows the feeding and water management of mangrove
crab in the hatchery. Rotifers are fed immediately to newly-hatched zoeae. Rotifers are
used as these are small and easy to propagate. Survival is more consistent than feeding
them with Artemia alone at the beginning of zoea 1 as observed in S. serrata. The
density of rotifers maintained in the larval tanks is 15–30 ind./L. However, if rotifers
are insufficient, larvae are fed umbrella stage Artemia or newly hatched small-sized
strain Artemia. It is laborious to maintain both the green microalgae and rotifer culture
208 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 3
Feeding
FIGURE 3 Feeding and management
and water water management of mangrove
of mangrove crab in a mud crabcrab in a
hatchery mud crab hatchery

Day 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 40
Activities Stage Z1 Z2 Z3 Z4 Z5 Megalopa Crab instar

Feeding
15–30 ind./ml
Rotifers*
0.5–1.0 ind./1–3 ml newly hatched Artemia
Artemia**
0.5 ind./2–3 ml 3–5 day old Artemia

Formulated feeds 2.25 g/ton/day + 0.25 g increase per stage

Mussel & fish Satiation 2x daily

Addition of green microalgae (optional) 100 000–200 000 cells/ml

Replacement of water 30–50% every 3–4 days

Upon stocking of zoeae and every after water change

Prophylaxis

* * IfIfnot
notavailable, rotifersrotifers
available, can be substituted with umbrella stage
can be substituted withorumbrella
small-strain stage nauplii.
Artemiaor small-strain Artemia nauplii.
**Artemia can be enriched with highly unsaturated fatty acid emulsion
** Artemia can be enriched with highly unsaturated fatty acid emulsion.

but when algal concentrate or paste is available for feeding the rotifers, the culture of
green microalgae in the hatchery is reduced. There are now two companies producing
the algal concentrates in the Philippines (Figure 4). There are several commercially
available formulated shrimp diets with various levels of highly unsaturated fatty acids
and other essential nutrients that are also used to feed crab zoeae. Artemia that are
3–4 days old (enriched with algae) are fed to later stage of zoea 4 until early megalopa
stage. Older megalopae and crab instars are fed minced fish and mussel. Green
microalgae are sometimes added in the larval rearing tank to improve the water quality
and serve as shading. Moderate aeration is provided.
Treated seawater (chlorinated then neutralized and ultraviolet or ozone-treated
seawater) is used in the entire larval rearing. Application of prophylaxis is practised
to prevent the occurrence of bacterial and fungal infections, as well as protozoan
infestation in larvae. The frequency and volume of water to be changed depends on
the water condition in the tank. Suitable ranges of water parameters are shown in
Table 1. Late zoea 4 or early zoea 5 are transferred to other tanks with new seawater
and maintained until early crab instar stage. Survival rate ranges from 3–12 percent.
!
FIGURE 4
Green microalgae, Nannochlorum, algal concentrate for feeding rotifers. The rotifers are
fed to early zoea stage
©E.T. Quinitio
Hatchery and nursery systems: Philippines, India and Bangladesh 209

Nursery TABLE 1
Suitable ranges of water parameters
The nursery phase of mangrove crab has been developed as for mangrove crab larviculture
a link to the hatchery and the grow-out phase. Megalopa or
crab instar (or crablet) stage, both products of the hatchery, Parameter Range

are further grown to juvenile stage which are less vulnerable to Temperature 27–30 °C

fluctuating conditions of the pond during grow-out. Further Salinity 28–32 ppt
rearing is done in net cages that are placed inside the brackish Dissolved oxygen ≥ 5 ppm
water earth ponds. In some areas in the country, the megalopae pH 7.5–8.5
are sometimes collected from the wild and stocked in the pond Unionized ammonia ≤ 1 ppm
for several weeks until the size is suitable for pond stocking Nitrite ≤ 0.1 ppm
and grow-out. Crablets (< 1.5 cm carapace width [CW]) are Source: The Mangrove Crab Technical
also collected and sold to nursery operators. Committee 2018, 2021. The Philippines
for mangrove crab. Los Banos,
Before transferring megalopae or crab instars into the recommends
Philippines, DOST-PCAARRD.
ponds, unwanted species that may compete with or harm
the crabs are eliminated by drying and treating the pond water with organic (tobacco
waste, derris roots, or teaseed cake) or inorganic (ammonium sulphate with lime or
other combinations) pesticides. Fertilization of the pond water is done to grow the
natural food. Net fences are placed on the dykes or at the base of the dykes to prevent
the entry of other crab species (The Mangrove Crab Technical Committee 2018, 2021).
This is part of pond preparation which also includes steps to ensure good water and
soil conditions to enhance survival and growth.
Poles with net shades as roofing are placed in the ponds so that cages can be tied
to them (Figure 5). The net shade lessens the intensity of the heat especially during
extremely hot days. Net cages with about 1 mm mesh are installed inside the pond.
There must be at least 1 m of space between cages to allow good water circulation.
Cages range from 12–20 m2 in size. Stocking density is about 200 megalopae/m2 or
up to 50 crab instars/m2 of cage area (Parado-Estepa et al., 2015). Megalopae or crab

FIGURE 5
Net cages installed in brackish water earth pond for growing megalopae and/or crab instars
©E.T. Quinitio

!
210 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

instars are reared for 2–4 weeks but sorting according to size is done either on the
second or third week if crabs are not disposed immediately (The Mangrove Crab
Technical Committee 2018, 2021).
Crabs, like all crustaceans, need to moult before they can develop further and grow.
The newly moulted crab is very soft and unable to eat thus, is weak and easily becomes
prey to hard-shelled crabs. Shelters are provided as refuge or hiding area. Several types
of shelters have been tried, but nets consistently appear to be effective. Nets have
increased surface area which makes them convenient for the crabs to seek shelter.
Crabs are fed with either low-value fish, mussel or other mollusc meat, formulated diet
(pellets), or a combination of these. Fish and mollusc meat are chopped then washed
with clean water before given to the crabs. Feeding is done 2–3 times daily, during the
early morning and night or with another feeding in between. When crabs are less than
2 cm CW, they are fed at 100 percent of the total weight of the stock inside a particular
net cage and at 80 percent when they are bigger (Parado-Estepa et al., 2015; Alava,
Sumily and Parado-Estepa, 2017). A feeding tray is placed in each cage to monitor the
feeding consumption.
Megalopae and crab instars are harvested after 2–3 weeks. Crabs that attain 2.0–2.5 cm
CW are sold to farmers. However, farmers may opt for bigger sized crabs (3–4 cm CW).
Thus, those produced after 2–3 weeks are harvested and sorted according to size then
stocked in the same net cages at a lower density of 5–10 ind./m2. After another 2 weeks
the crabs attain the desired 3–4 cm size. Crabs are easily retrieved in net cages.

Problems encountered
The major problems encountered during the hatchery and nursery rearing include the
following:
• Inconsistent quality of broodstock.
• Inadequate supply of good quality seedstock for farming in grow-out ponds and
for soft-shell crab production.
• Bacterial (e.g. Vibrio, Leucothrix, Pseudomonas, Aeromonas) and fungal
(e.g. Lagenidium, Sirolpidium, Haliphthoros) infections and ciliates
(e.g. Zoothamnium, Epistylis, Vorticella) infestations are some of the common
causes of mortality in eggs and larvae.
• High mortality at zoea 5 to megalopa and megalopa approaching the crab instar
stage.
• Cannibalism especially during the nursery phase when crabs frequently moult.

INDIA
Most of the technology described here is based on the practices developed by the
Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Aquaculture (RGCA), a research arm of the Marine Products
Export Development Authority (MPEDA). Mangrove crab hatchery was established in
2004 after two RGCA technicians underwent training at the Aquaculture Department
(AQD) of the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC). This
was followed by an on-site training on the actual larval rearing conducted at RGCA
hatchery which lasted one complete rearing cycle. Crablets were produced and the
survival rate gradually increased over the succeeding cycles. Thereafter, nursery and
grow-out phases were established. The technology was improved through the years
adopting to the conditions in India. The first large-scale mangrove crab hatchery was
established by RGCA in Thoduvai, Tamil Nadu in 2013 (Figure 6). RGCA was granted
the patent in 2011 by the Controller General of Patent, Design and Trademarks, India
(Figure 7). The patent, an impressive milestone in India’s aquaculture sector, is valid
until 2030.
Hatchery and nursery systems: Philippines, India and Bangladesh 211

!
FIGURE 6
Mangrove crab hatchery of Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Aquaculture in Thoduvai, Tamil Nadu, India

©RGCA
Seawater source FIGURE 7
The seawater for the hatchery pumped from the sea Patent certificate awarded to the Rajiv
Gandhi Centre for Aquaculture for its mud
is passed through the rapid sand filter after which the crab hatchery technology
water is treated with ozone. The seawater is stored
in an overhead tank and is further disinfected using
ultraviolet light prior to use.

Broodstock management
Active hard-shelled and mature female crabs (500–800 g;
13–14 cm CW) are sourced from Tuticorin, Kodiyakarai
(Vedaranyam), Palayar, Killai (Pitchavaram) and
Pamban, Tamil Nadu. The mature crabs are normally
transported in woven gunny bags, bamboo baskets,
cardboard or thermocol boxes with holes to allow
sufficient ventilation. During transport, the crabs are
covered with mangrove leaves or cloth moistened with
seawater.
Upon arrival in the hatchery, the crabs are subjected
to conditioning, a formalin bath and screening prior to
stocking in the broodstock holding facility. The crabs are
transferred into 20 L basins and fresh seawater is added
every 5 minutes for about 30 minutes. Crabs are then
treated with 150 ppm formalin for 30 minutes. Crabs
©RGCA

are untied and kept in quarantine tanks until these are !!!" !
screened for the presence of mud crab reovirus (MCRV) !
and white spot syndrome virus (WSSV). Specimens that test negative for MCRV and
WSSV are transferred to the broodstock tanks for maturation and spawning.
Broodstock are housed in 10-tonne holding tanks provided with a layer of washed
medium coarse sand (5–10 cm thickness) at a stocking density of 1 ind./m2. The tank
212 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

TABLE 2
is filled with filtered seawater with a depth of 80–100 cm
Ranges of water parameters
maintained for crab broodstock and provided with constant aeration. PVC pipes of 6-inch
diameter are provided as hideouts. The sand bottom is cleaned
Parameter Range
every fortnight to remove accumulated organic wastes. The
Temperature 30 ± 2 °C
crabs are fed with squid, trash fish, mussel and polychaetes
Salinity 31 ± 4 ppt
at 5–10 percent body weight. Water exchange is done at the
Dissolved oxygen > 4 ppm rate of 40–50 percent every other day. The water quality
pH 8.0 ± 0.5 parameters maintained are shown in Table 2.
Unionized ammonia Nil
Larval rearing
Crabs that spawn are transferred to separate tanks. Upon hatching, aeration is turned
off to allow dead zoeae, unhatched eggs and faeces to settle at the bottom. The newly
hatched zoeae are collected as early as possible to prevent possible microbial infection
in larvae. The spent crab is removed from the tank. Newly hatched zoeae are stocked at
70–80 ind./L. Table 3 shows the feeding scheme used in the hatchery. Major food items
for the zoeae are rotifers and Artemia.

TABLE 3
Feeding of mangrove crab during larval rearing
Stage Food items Density (ind./ml) / Amount of food

Zoea, Z1–Z2 Rotifers enriched with algae 10–20

Z3 Rotifers enriched with algae 10–20
Z4 Artemia nauplii 0.5–1.0
Z5 Artemia nauplii enriched with algae 0.5–1.0
Megalopae Enriched Artemia biomass (live) 1.0
Squid and live or frozen Artemia biomass (for Based on consumption
benthic megalopae)
Crab instars Squid and frozen Artemia biomass Based on consumption

Water (30–50 percent of total volume) is changed every three days based on the
water quality. The water parameters are maintained as follows: salinity at 31 ± 3 ppt,
temperature at 29 ± 1 oC, pH at 8.0 ± 0.5, and dissolved oxygen at > 4 mg/L.
When the larvae moult to zoea 5, some are transferred to tanks containing ozone-
treated seawater to thin out the population. The remaining larvae are reared in the
same tank until crab instar. The survival rate from zoea 1 to C1–C2 is generally around
7–10 percent. It takes 25–30 days for the newly hatched zoea to reach crab instar. The
success of larval rearing primarily depends on the production and timely provision of
sufficient live food. The microalgae, Nannochloropsis salina, Nannochloropsis oculata,
and Chlorella marina, including other species. (Figure 8) are mass-cultured as feed for
the rotifer, Brachionus plicatilis. The green microalgae are added to the rearing water
when rotifers are fed to the early zoea stages.

Nursery
The growing of megalopae or crab instars to juvenile stage is done in brackish water
ponds or creeks with salinity ranging from 15 to 35 ppt. PVC pipes, nets and seaweeds
(Gracilaria sp.) are used as refuge to minimize cannibalism. Crab instars are grown in
5 × 4 × 1 m net cages at 30 ind./m2. Megalopae or crab instars are fed either Artemia
biomass or finely chopped trash fish. The culture period is 30–40 days or when
crablets reach 1.5–4.5 cm CW for farming in grow-out ponds (Figure 9). The crablets
are supplied to farmers in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharasthra, state fisheries
departments, universities and colleges for research purposes, and RGCA-MPEDA
demonstration projects.
Hatchery and nursery systems: Philippines, India and Bangladesh 213

FIGURE 8
Natural food cultures maintained in the algal laboratory (a) are gradually scaled up to
bigger tanks (b) for feeding the rotifers at the Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Aquaculture

a b

©E.T. Quinitio
8

Problems encountered FIGURE 9

The problems encountered are as Mud crablets ready for pond stocking

follows:
• Vibriosis and occurrence of round
pink coloration at the tank bottom.
• Protozoan infestation usually
obtained from live food culture. 9
• Large variation in larval sizes.
• Megalopae mortality due to
incomplete moulting.
• Abnormalities due to bacterial
infection.
• Cannibalism.
©RGCA

BANGLADESH
9
Scylla olivacea is the predominant mangrove crab species in Bangladesh. Crab seed
stocks for soft-shell crab production, grow-out farming, and fattening are primarily
sourced from the wild. This practice has led to a significant decline in the crab
population in recent years, with collectors increasingly encroaching into the inner
mangrove forests. Recognizing the urgency of this issue, the government prioritized
the establishment of hatcheries to sustain the mangrove crab industry.
In 2014, the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center/Aquaculture Department
(SEAFDEC/AQD) was engaged to provide training on mangrove crab culture at the
Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute (BFRI) in Paikgacha, Khulna Division. This
training was part of the project titled “Management of the Sundarbans Mangrove
Forest Diversity Conservation and Increased Adaptation to Climate Change” initiated
by the Ministry of Environment and Forests and the Bangladesh Forest Department,
with support from Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ)
(German Agency for International Cooperation). However, the existing aquaculture
facilities at BFRI were inadequate for crab hatchery operations, only a limited number
of crablets were produced. Furthermore, the availability of seawater for hatchery use
was a significant challenge in Khulna Division.
214 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 10
Crab hatchery established by the Department of Fisheries in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh
©E.T. Quinitio

In 2016, a crab hatchery was established by the Nowabenki Gonomukhi Foundation

(NGF) in Mushiganj, Shyamnagar, Khulna Division, where crab hatchery technology
from Viet Nam was introduced. Subsequently, in 2018–2019, the Department of
Fisheries (DoF) constructed a crab hatchery in Cox’s Bazar under the project “Culture
of Cuchia (Mud Eel) and Crab in Selected Areas of Bangladesh and Research Project
Component-A (DoF)” (Figure 10). Unlike Khulna Division, the salinity levels in Cox’s
Bazar are more favorable for larval rearing of mangrove crabs, making it an ideal
location. This region also hosts several established shrimp hatcheries, further supporting
aquaculture activities. Another hatchery in Cox’s Bazar has also experimented with
mangrove crab larval rearing.
More recently, a hatchery was established in Kalbari, Datinakhali, Shyamnagar,
Khulna Division. The hatcheries currently in operation utilize a combination of locally
introduced technologies and practices adapted from international training received by
technicians and staff, with site-specific modifications to optimize outcomes.

Seawater source
In the Khulna Division where salinity can be very low, especially during the rainy
season, brine is hauled into the hatchery, causing an additional expense. In Cox’s Bazar
DoF crab hatchery, seawater from the sea is pumped into the settling tank, passed
through a sand filter then disinfected with chlorine, neutralized, and transferred to the
overhead reservoir. Sometimes, further disinfection is done using an ultraviolet light
sterilizer or ozoniser after the seawater is passed through a series of cartridge filters
prior distribution to the rearing tanks.

Broodstock management
In Cox’s Bazar, berried crabs are usually sourced from Sonadia and Naziratek while
those in Khulna Division are mostly from Sundarban. Berried crabs brought to the
hatchery are disinfected with formalin and stocked in big buckets or small tanks until
the eggs hatched (Figure 11). Moderate aeration is provided continuously. Feeding is
stopped when the egg mass of female turns brown or grey. Water is changed daily after
the removal of uneaten feeds and faeces.
Hatchery and nursery systems: Philippines, India and Bangladesh 215

Larval rearing
FIGURE 11
Newly hatched larvae are subjected to Ovigerous females held in 100-L buckets provided with
formalin bath briefly prior to counting! disinfected seawater and aeration
and stocking in tanks at 80–100 ind./L.
Rotifers or umbrella stage or newly
hatched Artemia (small strain) nauplii
are fed to newly hatched zoeae. Artificial
diet formulated for shrimp is fed to zoea
2 onwards. Prophylaxis is applied at the
start of the culture period and after every
water change. No water replacement is
done on the first few days, but addition
of fresh seawater is done daily until
the tank is almost full, or water is
drained and replenished every 3–4 days.
Thereafter, water is changed depending
on the quality. Siphoning of sediments
is done whenever necessary. Probiotics
are sometimes applied. Zoea 4 or 5 are
transferred to new tanks and held there
until crab instar stage. Late megalopae
are fed minced fish, molluscs and frozen
(thawed) biomass Artemia. A survival
rate of 3 percent from zoea 1 to crab
instar has been achieved at DoF in 2022.
Crab instars produced were further
grown in nursery tanks (Figure 12) and
then in ponds. These were distributed
to some farmers in Cox’s Bazar.

©E.T. Quinitio
Nursery phase
A nursery system has not yet been
established due to the lack of commercial FIGURE 12
Crab instars produced at the Department of Fisheries
!!"" !
scale crablet production. However, the
hatchery in Cox’s Bazar, Bagladesh
limited quantities of crablets that are
produced are sold to farmers.
!

Problems encountered
The problems encountered in
the hatchery and nursery phases in
Bangladesh include the following:
• Low and inconsistent survival rate
from zoea to crab instar.
• High operational cost (feeds,
chemicals and other inputs).
• Inconsistent supply of feeds
(e.g. low value fish, molluscs).
• Lack of biosecurity measures.
!!!"$ !
©E.T. Quinitio

• Frequent power outage.

• Lack of established nursery system.
• Acceptability of farmers to use
hatchery-reared crablets (< 2 cm CW).
• Lack of R&D on commercial-scale production of crablets to support the industry.
216 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

REFERENCES
Alava, V.R., Quinitio, E.T., de Pedro, J. B., Priolo, F.M., Z. Orosco, Z. & Wille, M. 2007.
Lipids and fatty acids in wild and pond-reared mud crab Scylla serrata (Forsskal) during
ovarian maturation and spawning. Aquaculture Research, 38: 1468–1477.
Alava, V.R., Sumily, J.D. & Parado-Estepa, F.D. 2017. Nursery culture of the mud crab
Scylla serrata using different feeding ratios. In: E.T. Quinitio, F.D. Parado-Estepa &
R.M. Coloso, eds. Philippines: In the forefront of the mud crab industry development:
Proceedings of the 1st National Mud Crab Congress. 16–18 November 2015, Iloilo City,
Philippines. Iloilo City, Philippines, SEAFDEC/AQD.
Parado-Estepa, F.D., Alava, V., Garibay, E., Bejemino, C., Sumile, J., Silvestre, J. &
Quinitio, E.T. 2015. Recent developments and enhancing transfer of the nursery
technology for the mud crab Scylla serrata. In: E.T. Quinitio, F.D. Parado-Estepa &
R.M. Coloso, eds. Philippines: In the forefront of the mud crab industry development:
Proceedings of the 1st National Mud Crab Congress. 16–18 November 2015, Iloilo City,
Philippines. Iloilo City, Philippines, SEAFDEC/AQD.
Quinitio, E.T., De Pedro, J. & Estepa, F.D.P. 2007. Ovarian maturation stages of the mud
crab, Scylla serrata. Aquaculture Research, 38(14): 1434–1441.
Quinitio, E.T., dela Cruz, J.J., Eguia, M.R., Parado-Estepa, F.D., Pates, G. & Lavilla-
Pitogo, C.R. 2011. Domestication of the mud crab Scylla serrata. Aquaculture
International, 19: 237–250.
Quinitio, E.T., dela Cruz, J.J. & Parado-Estepa, F.D. 2018. Quality assessment of newly
hatched mud crab Scylla serrata. Aquaculture Research, 49: 75–80.
The Mangrove Crab Technical Committee 2018. 2021. The Philippines recommends for
mangrove crab. Los Banos, Philippines, DOST-PCAARRD.
Vijayan, K.K., Stalin Raj, V., Balasubramanian, C.P., Alavandi, S.V., Thillai Sekhar, V.
& Santiago, T.C. 2005. Polychaete worms – a vector for white spot syndrome virus
(WSSV). Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, 63: 107–111.
 217

Review of mud crab seed

production

Khor Waiho
Institute of Tropical Aquaculture and Fisheries, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala
Nerus, 21030, Terengganu, Malaysia

ABSTRACT
Mud crab larval rearing is a major process that directly determines the success or
failure of the mud crab aquaculture industry, since this is the phase from which the
seedstock requirement of the industry is sourced. The global mud crab aquaculture
sector has advanced significantly in recent years, making small- and medium-scale
hatchery operations increasingly feasible and sustainable. However, additional research
is required to address both persistent and emerging issues. The culture parameters
used during larval rearing should closely replicate the larvae’s natural environmental
conditions to optimize growth and survival. Likewise, a deep understanding of the
complex mud crab life cycle, particularly the critical transition from open ocean to
intertidal zones, is essential for designing practical and effective hatchery conditions.
This review summarizes the recent knowledge on the various culture parameters for
the mud crab larvae and crablet stages and highlights some future directions that
warrant urgent attention to propel seed production of mud crabs forward.

INTRODUCTION
Considerable attention has been given to fully incorporate the mud crab genus Scylla
into the aquaculture sector at the global scale. However, the main obstacle that
continues to impede its full integration is the low and unpredictable survival of early
life stages, especially during the zoeal stages. Farmers and aquaculturists rely heavily
on wild-caught broodstock and seed stock to be used in their aquaculture facilities
to keep up with the increasing demand for mud crabs in both local and international
markets. Nonetheless, successes on the mass production of mud crab juvenile seeds
have been reported in Viet Nam, Japan and the Philippines. Other countries like
Thailand, Indonesia and China are also gaining momentum on seed production.

MUD CRAB LIFE CYCLE

Understanding the life cycle of the mud crab genus Scylla is instrumental for the
development and optimization of culture conditions and parameters for its different
life stages (Figure 1).
After progressing through ten embryonic stages, Scylla spp. hatch as zoea 1 in
the open waters of coastal zones (Ates et al., 2012; Li et al., 2022). They go through
five (zoea 1–5) early life stages as pelagic larvae, typically lasting approximately
20–30 days, thereby enabling them to achieve significant dispersal (Table 1). The
subsequent megalopa phase is followed by a critical ontogenetic shift – from pelagic
to benthic phase – and they also experience huge morphological changes such as the
development of chelipeds, widening of the carapace, and reduction in dorsal spine
length. However, it is reported in that some morphologically advanced larvae of
Scylla serrata exhibited megalopal characteristics, such as long endopods of the second
antennae, the presence of chelipeds, and pleopods with plumose setae as early as zoea 5.
218 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 1
General life cycle of the mud crab

MANGROVE
FOREST

ration Plan
mig kto
ng nic
ESTUARY ni larv OCEAN
ae

aw
MUD FLATS Mated ovigerous female

Sp
Zoea III

Adults Ro
uti

Zoea V
ne
m
ov

INSHORE OFFSHORE
em

nt
e

t
ovemen
tic m
ne
Early juveniles ge
to
On

©S. Mazelan
Settle
ment
Megalopa

TABLE 1
The development duration of Scylla during early larval stages (in days)
Days
Species Source
Z1 Z2 Z3 Z4 Z5 M Total

S. paramamosain 3 3 3 3 4–5 5–6 22–24 Li et al., 2022

S. serrata 2 2 3 3 3 7 20 Yi, Lee & Lee, 2009
18–19 Jantrarotai et al., 2006
S. olivacea 18–19 –
(to reach Z5)
S. tranquebarica 4 3 3 3 3 6 22 Thirunavukkarasu et al., 2014
Motoh, de la Peña & Tampos,
S. serrata 4–5 3–4 3 3 4–6 8–10 25–31
1977
18–20 Heasman & Fielder, 1983
S. serrata 3–5 3–4 3–4 3–4 3–5 – (to reach
megalopa)
S. serrata 3 4 4 3 –* 3 18* Paran et al., 2022

Note: Z1: zoea stage 1; Z2: zoea stage 2; Z3: zoea stage 3; Z4: zoea stage 4; Z5: zoea stage 5; M: megalopa; C: crab
instar. *Zoea stage 5 is not mentioned in Paran et al., 2022.

During megalopa and crablet 1 phases, Scylla spp. transition back to the estuarine
and brackish water intertidal zones as they develop towards their final mature crab
form. In these habitats, they often seek shelter in seagrass beds or among mangrove
pneumatophore networks as they develop into juveniles and finally mature and reach
adult crab size (Webley et al., 2009). Copulation generally occurs in the intertidal
zones. Once their ovaries mature, females migrate offshore to spawn. Females spawn
up to 5 million eggs per batch and can spawn up to three times consecutively, although
the final spawn is generally of lower quality (higher aborted eggs, lower fertilization
rates and fecundity, and reduced larval quality).
Although all Scylla species normally go through five zoeal stages before
metamorphosing into megalopae, the occurrence of the additional zoea 6 stage, with
additional setae numbers at the maxillule, maxilla, and maxilliped I and II has been
reported in Scylla paramamosain. The presence of the zoea 6 stage is postulated to be
linked with unfavourable dietary conditions (Zeng, Li and Zeng, 2004).
Review of mud crab seed production 219

ZOEA COLLECTION AND QUALITY ASSESSMENT

Newly spawned larvae are phototactic, and thus can be easily collected at the water
surface with the aid of a light source. Larvae should be collected as soon as they are
spawned from the spawning tank to prevent and minimize bacterial infection. The
quality of these larvae can be inspected via a formalin stress test, involving exposure
to 40 mg/L of formalin for 3 hours. Larvae are considered of good quality if their
mortality rate is low (0–18 percent) and are suitable to be incorporated into subsequent
larval rearing systems.

LARVAL CULTURE PARAMETERS

Temperature and salinity

The growth and survival of mud crab larvae are highly dependent on these
two critical environmental factors. Although they exhibit tolerance to the fluctuations
in temperature and salinity, larviculture beyond the optimum range of 25–30 °C and
20–35 ppt would impede their growth and development. The tolerance of larvae
is dependent on the species and growth stage. For example, the larvae of S. serrata
and Scylla olivacea demonstrate higher tolerance to salinity compared to that of
Scylla tranquebarica, and megalopae and crablets are more tolerant to salinity and
temperature changes compared to larval stages, due to the development of functional
gills and thickening of integument.

Stocking density
The recommended stocking density for mud crab zoeae is at 100–150 Z1/L for
S. paramamosain, 75–100 Z1/L for S. tranquebarica, and 50 Z1/L for S. serrata (Table 2).
When set too low, stocking density leads to excess food accumulation and subsequent
deterioration of water quality; when set too high, it increases food competition,
introduces stress and hinders proper development. The lower stocking density in
S. serrata compared to other Scylla species might be attributed to the larger body size
of its zoea (total body length of Z1: S. serrata = 1.33 mm, S. paramamosain = 1.26 mm,
S. olivacea = 1.20 mm).

TABLE 2
The stocking density at zoea 1 (Z1) and the resulting survival rates of Scylla species
Stocking density Survival rate
Species Source
(Z1/l) (%)
S. paramamosain 50 27 (up to Z5) Djunaidah et al., 2001
75 39 (up to Z5)
100 63 (up to Z5)
S. paramamosain 50 4 (up to day 22) Nghia et al., 2007
100, 150, 200 5 (up to day 22)
S. tranquebarica 75 52–55 (up to Z2) Maheswarudu et al.,
100 50–54 (up to Z2) 2007

S. tranquebarica 30 (up to crablet) Gunarto & Sulaeman,

45 1.86 (up to crablet) 2017
60 1.82 (up to crablet)
75 3.30 (up to crablet)
S. tranquebarica 50 2.88–3.88 (up to megalopa) Syafaat et al., 2019
0.28–0.52 (up to crablet)
S. serrata 30–50 2.7 (up to megalopa) Quinitio et al., 2001
S. serrata 50 8 (up to megalopa) Paran et al., 2022
75 2–3 (up to megalopa)
100 < 0.5 (up to megalopa)
150 < 0.5 (up to megalopa)
220 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Aeration and water exchange

As mud crab larvae are pelagic and exhibit slow movement, it is critical to use sufficient
but gentle aeration devices that produce fine air bubbles in the larval culture tanks
to ensure their uniformity throughout the water column (Figure 2). Water exchange
is minimal, especially if microalgae is incorporated into the system. However, when
necessary – or when a flow through system is used – mesh nets can be installed at the
water outlet as well as ensuring that the water flow is at a rate that does not cause larvae
to be clustered on the filtering mesh net.

FIGURE 2
Aeration fitted at the centre of 1 000 L circular tank for uniform air distribution

©M. Sabri Muda

Prophylaxis
The early life stages of mud crab, zoeal stages in particular, are extremely sensitive and
prone to disease due to their undeveloped immune systems. Thus, many hatcheries
still rely heavily on the use of antibiotics (such as oxytetracycline, penicillin G or
polymyxin B) – many during stages zoea 1–3, and occasionally zoea 1–5 – to effectively
reduce bacterial infections and improve larval survival. However, aside from the
potential residual antibiotics that might be transmittable to consumers, the use of
antibiotics, especially over a prolonged period, is also linked to higher occurrences of
morphological deformities in larval and juvenile stages (Pates et al., 2017).
In addition to antibiotics, formalin is another commonly used prophylaxis agent in
mud crab larviculture. Formalin, at an exposure concentration of 5 μg/L or 10 μg/L and
duration of up to 96 hours, can be used in all five larval stages (zoea 1–5) to enhance
larval survival and increase the transition percentage to megalopae (Pedro, Quinitio
and Parado-Estepa, 2007). However, like antibiotics, the use of formalin also causes
deformities and thus should only be used when necessary (Quinitio, de la Cruz-
Huervana and Parado-Estepa, 2018).
Other emerging prophylaxis agents that show promising results in Scylla spp.
larviculture include probiotics and biofloc. Both common bacterial probionts (such
as Alteromonadaceae spp. and Bacillus spp.) and commercial probiotics have been
Review of mud crab seed production 221

proven to confer positive effects on mud crab larvae such as enhancing survival,
growth, and development, as well as minimizing the occurrence of Vibrio and other
pathogenic bacteria (Tran and Li, 2022). Biofloc, on the other hand, contains microbial
communities that are beneficial as a supplemental diet for the larvae while maintaining
water quality parameters, including the removal of nitrogenous compounds. The use
of biofloc in the water column throughout the larval stages of S. paramamosain has
been shown to enhance growth, with larvae transitioning from zoea 1 to megalopae
within 17 days (Kasan et al., 2021). Additionally, higher survival rates were observed
when crablets were fed a mixture of commercial pellets and biofloc pellets (Kasan et al.,
2022).

Tank colour
Crustacean larvae, including mud crab larvae, are non-obligate visual feeders – that is
they feed through random encounters or rely on chemosensors to locate food. However,
mud crab larvae benefit from visual cues for better prey visibility. Consequently, the
use of dark-coloured tanks, especially black tanks, has been shown to result in lower
cannibalism rates, higher survival rates, shorter developmental durations, and more
synchronized moulting. In contrast to culturing in white tanks, where the phototactic
larvae aggregate and remain at the bottom, larvae cultured in black tanks exhibit a more
uniform distribution in the water column (Rabbani and Zeng, 2005).

ASSESSMENT OF ZOEA AND MEGALOPA

Larval Stage Index

In addition to calculating the survival and mortality rates, and the total body length of
crab zoea daily, it is also vital to characterise the growth and development of the zoea
by estimating their Larval Stage Index (LSI) (Nghia et al., 2007). LSI can be calculated
using the following equation:

LSI = ((A1 × A2) + … + (B1 × B2))/C

C

Where A1 is the number of larvae at the earliest stage, A2 is the corresponding

zoea stage, B1 is the number of larvae at the highest stage, B2 is the corresponding
zoea stage, and C is the total sample size of all stages. The corresponding zoea stages
are commonly designated as follows: zoea 1 = 1, zoea 2 = 2, zoea 3 = 3, zoea 4 = 4,
zoea 5 = 5, megalopa = 6.
To estimate the LSI in each treatment, subsamples (e.g. 10 or 20 ind./tank) are
sampled. Larvae are then identified according to their corresponding zoeal stages.
For example, within a sample of 20 larvae, three zoea 2, five zoea 3, six zoea 5, and
six megalopa are found, then the LSI value would be calculated as 4.35 ([[3 × 2] +
[5 × 3] + [6 × 5] + [6 × 6]]/20).

Percentage of Megalopa Occurrence Index

The transition from zoea 5 to megalopa is a critical stage that involves not only physical
changes but also changes in lifestyle (from pelagic to benthic). Thus, researchers
calculate the percentage of successful megalopa transition from zoea 5 via the Megalopa
Occurrence Index (MOI) (Gunarto et al., 2018; Syafaat et al., 2019). The MOI is an
estimate of the occurrence of megalopa in every 100 zoea 5 individuals. For example,
if a sample of 100 individuals contains 90 zoea 5 and 10 megalopae, then the MOI is
0.10 or 10 percent.
222 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

LARVAL CULTURE SYSTEM

Larviculture of mud crabs, albeit with inconsistent success rate, is still widely
carried out by mud crab hatcheries. Most mud crab hatcheries adopt either clear
water or microalgae-enriched culture systems, with either manual water exchange
or recirculating systems. In clear water systems, a recirculating water system with a
100 percent water exchange rate every 3–4 hours resulted in higher larval survival rates
2–3 weeks post-hatching and better water quality compared to manual water exchange
at 30–50 percent daily. In addition, a recirculating system also demands less labour
and the need of fresh seawater, thereby reducing production costs. However, the first
two larval stages (zoea 1 and 2) are weaker and extremely sensitive to mechanical shock
and stress compared to other stages. Thus, the first two zoeal stages should be cultured
in clear water or a microalgae-enriched non-recirculating system.
Microalgae are commonly used in the culture of crustacean larvae, including that
of mud crabs. Aside from serving as nutritious feed directly for early larval stages or
indirectly for live feed such as rotifers and Artemia – and thereby ultimately enhancing
the survival and growth of crab larvae – microalgae are also useful in maintaining water
quality of the culture system (stabilizing pH; increasing dissolved oxygen levels; and
decreasing nitrite, nitrate, orthophosphate and total ammonia nitrogen levels as well as
suspended solids), and preventing the growth of pathogenic microbes such as Vibrio
in the water and sediment. In general, Chlorella sp. can be incorporated during the
zoea 1–3 stages, whereas Chaetoceros sp. can be used from the zoea 4 stage onwards.

LARVAL DIETS
Mud crab larvae are carnivorous in nature. The diet for early larval stages of mud
crab relies mostly on the use of live feed, and the use of artificial feed is still at the
experimental stage. Some of the constraints include the unique feeding behaviour of
zoeal stages, the developing foregut across zoea 1–5 stages, and the varying width of
mouth opening at different larval stages.
Mud crab larvae, especially zoea 1, feed by pushing water, along with any food
particles or prey, towards their mouths with their telson. It was reported that food
particles of approximately 50–55 μm in size need approximately 3 minutes to pass
through the gut and be digested by the zoea 1 of S. serrata (Maheswarudu et al., 2007).
Such feeding behaviour implies that food particles, especially artificial feed, must spread
across the water column for the larvae to encounter easily. In addition to their unique
behaviour, the digestive system of early larval stages (zoea 1–3) is still underdeveloped,
possessing only a simple and continuous foregut. Two distinct compartments of the
foregut are visible only in the zoea 4 and 5 stages (Lumasag et al., 2007). As such, the
need for easier and faster nutrient-absorbing formulation should be considered when
designing artificial diets for the early larval stages of mud crabs (Waiho et al., 2018).
As mud crab larvae progress through the five zoeal stages, their feeding organ and
digestive system develop rapidly and as a result the gut evacuation time increases with
progressive developmental stages as well – from approximately 80 minutes in zoeal
stages to about 120–135 minutes in the megalopa and crab instar stages. Furthermore,
live feed facilitates faster gut evacuation time compared to artificial feed (Serrano and
Serrano, 2012).
In terms of dietary nutritional requirements, high-protein diets (e.g. 50 percent
lipid-free casein [Sheen, 2000], 32–40 percent protein [Catacutan, 2002], or 45 percent
crude protein [Unnikrishnan and Paulraj, 2010]) are found to enhance growth and
improve survival, owing to the high protease activity exhibited by the carnivorous
mud crab larvae. Live feed enrichment experiments further highlight the positive
impact of various essential and non-essential amino acids (such as histidine, leucine,
tryptophan, arginine and valine) to larvae growth and survival (Dhont et al., 2013).
Fatty acids, both essential and non-essential, also play roles in improving the survival
Review of mud crab seed production 223

and development of mud crab during their early life stages. Mud crab larvae were
found to thrive when fed a dietary highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) content of
30 percent and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)/eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) in a ratio of
4:1 (Nghia et al., 2007). Other nutritional elements such as cholesterol, phospholipids
and carbohydrates are also often incorporated into the feed formulation for mud crab
larvae, based on their common usage in the diets of other crustacean or aquatic species.
However, a better understanding of the nutritional needs of mud crabs and subsequent
optimization of specific nutritional elements are needed to advance their larviculture.

Live feed
Mud crab larviculture is dependent on the use of live feed as the diet source for the
early life stages. Among the shared characteristics of different types of live feed are
their small size, fast proliferation rate (hence are mass cultured easily), slow swimming
behaviour, tolerance to a wide range of culture parameters and free dispersal in the
water column.

Rotifers
Brachinus plicatilis has a size range of 45–200 μm and is the commonly used rotifer
species as the first feed of mud crab zoea 1, although in general any species within the
genus Brachinus are viable (Davis et al., 2005). Rotifers are especially useful as vessels
for transferring nutrients to larvae, as they can be fed and enriched with various feed
sources (e.g. microalgae, yeast or specific nutrient elements). The enrichment of rotifers
is often necessary as their nutritional contents fluctuate greatly. Owing to their small
size, rotifers have been proven suitable as first feed for mud crab larvae, at least up to the
zoea 2 stage, before co-feeding with Artemia up to megalopa. A rotifer concentration
of 30–45 ind./ml is suitable for zoea 1 of S. olivacea and S. paramamosain, while
S. serrata and S. tranquebarica larvae grow best with rotifers at 10 ind./ml co-fed with
newly hatched Artemia nauplii (0.5 ind./ml) or rotifers at 20 ind./ml co-fed with newly
hatched Artemia nauplii (3 ind./ml). Alternatively, both S. serrata and S. tranquebarica
larvae may be fed a diet solely of rotifers at 20–40 ind./ml. Generally, rotifers are
enriched using artificial enrichment supplements or various strains of microalgae.
Despite their size, suitability and the ease of transference of specific nutritional
requirement to larvae via enrichment, rotifer cultures are difficult, labour intensive,
and prone to unpredictable crashes, especially due to virus or fungal infections. Thus,
hatchery owners have to concurrently produce several batches of rotifers and keep as
backups, in case one or more batches collapse unexpectedly.

Artemia
In the larviculture of species such as mud crabs that have yet to have specific artificial
feed formulations for their early larval stages, brine shrimp Artemia is a common,
convenient, technically easy and readily available live prey that plays a pivotal role.
Paired with the use of rotifers, research has shown that Artemia is the most efficient
when fed to mud crab larvae from zoea 3 onwards (Ruscoe, Williams and Shelley,
2004b). Similar to rotifers, Artemia is also often enriched with commercial supplements
or commercially available Artemia enrichment emulsion oils with high DHA and EPA
contents, before being fed to crab zoeae.
In general, newly hatched Artemia nauplii (at 0.5 ind./ml) are given at early zoeal
stages (zoea stages 1–3), whereas 24-hour-enriched nauplii (at 1.5–2 ind./ml) can be used
for subsequent stages (Shelley and Lovatelli, 2011). It is important to note that Artemia
nauplii density should be moderate (≤ 5 ind./ml) to minimize food, dissolved oxygen
and space competition with crab larvae, and to reduce the possibility of water fouling.
Most commercial crab hatcheries have resorted to the exclusive use of Artemia nauplii
over labour-intensive zooplankton (rotifers), especially from the zoea 3 stage onwards.
224 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Copepods
Copepods are part of the natural larval diet of most aquatic species, and compared to
rotifers and Artemia, copepods are of superior nutritional value and digestibility. In
addition, the various life stages of copepods (nauplii, copepodites, adults) imply that
they are available at any preferred size as live feed. The use of copepods, however, is
still in the experimental phase as their availability is seasonal and very geographically
restricted. Nonetheless, when combined with rotifers, the larvae of S. olivacea were
observed to also consume frozen copepods, resulting in excellent survival and growth
(Jantrarotai, Temphakdee and Pripanapong, 2004). Similar to Artemia, copepods can
also be enriched using artificial feed or microalgae to improve their nutritional content
before being fed to mud crab larvae. For example, an experimental trial of mud crab
(S. olivacea) larviculture from the zoea 1 stage to megalopa, using the copepod Oithona
rigida enriched with a mixture of rice bran and Nannochloropsis oceanica, resulted in
a higher survival (20 percent) compared to treatment with O. rigida enriched with
rice bran (14 percent), O. rigida enriched with N. oceanica (12 percent), or Artemia
(3 percent) (Yuslan et al., 2022).

Artificial feed
The process of formulating an optimized diet for the early larval stages of mud crab is
still in an early stage of development. Thus far, researchers have formulated microbound
diets that showed promising results when used in addition to Artemia (1:1 ratio),
resulting in enhanced survival and development from zoea stage 3 to 5. Microbound
diets are beneficial as they offer advantages such as ease of storage, availability in any
desired size, and cost-effective production. A significant increase in the ingestion rate
of microbound diets was apparent after zoea stage 3, indicating that the more developed
mud crab larvae after this stage (zoea 3) are capable and readily consume microbound
diets, and the replacement of live feed with microbound diets is possible (Holme, Zeng
and Southgate, 2006). In addition to microbound diets, researchers and farmers are also
using commercial diet for shrimp larvae from zoea 3 onwards, although the outputs
(e.g. survival, growth) are similar to using enriched Artemia nauplii alone. There are
still a lot of uncertainties in the field of feed formulation for mud crab larvae.

MEGALOPA AND CRABLET CULTURE

After transitioning through five zoeal stages, mud crab larvae metamorphose into
the megalopa stage that lasts for 7–10 days (Figure 3). In the wild, megalopae start to

FIGURE 3
The megalopae (a & b) and crablet stage 1 (c) of Scylla paramamosain

a b

1 mm

c
©S. Maae

1 mm 1 mm
Review of mud crab seed production 225

migrate back to the coastal zones and estuaries, and thus exhibit increased tolerance
towards a larger range of salinity (15–45 ppt) and higher temperatures (20 °C) (Baylon,
2013). However, it is not until the first crab stage that they truly settle and adapt to
the environmental parameters of intertidal zones. The moulting interval from the first
crablet stage onwards increases gradually as they grow in size.
In general, mud crab nurseries encompass culturing megalopae to crablets stage 5 or
6 (C5 or C6), where their carapace width is around 10–12 mm, although some farms
or facilities might proceed until the extended nursery stage to produce larger juvenile
crabs. The transitions from zoea stage 5 to megalopa and the subsequent crablet stage is
critical as they are prone to bacterial and fungal infections, and the occurrence of moult
death syndrome is high (Hamasaki, Suprayudi and Takeuchi, 2002).

NURSERY CULTURE SYSTEM

While culturing megalopae and crablets individually in a laboratory setting can
significantly improve their survival rate up to nearly 100 percent, this culture method
is not feasible or practical for use in large farms and nurseries. The extensive labour
and manpower needed for the whole operation, from manual feeding to monitoring
and harvesting individual crabs, makes it operationally challenging and contributes to
high capital and operating costs. Therefore, a communal rearing method is preferable
for large-scale megalopa and crablet culture.
Cannibalism is, however, a major problem that can directly decrease the production
of megalopae and crablets in communal rearing. This is largely due to the development
of chelipeds or pincers at the megalopa stage. To mitigate the impact of cannibalism,
shelters that mimic their natural environment (seagrass) such as black netting or seaweeds
may be placed, either at the bottom or floated within the water column. When they
reach the juvenile stage, substrates such as PVC pipes, bricks, or open sand substratum
are suitable as shelters. The presence of shelter provides megalopae and crablets with a
safe space to undergo the moulting process safely, without the risk of predation by other
crabs. It is important to note that, in addition to shelter, the availability of sufficient
food supply is another critical factor that contributes to cannibalism in crabs.
Specific research on the stocking density of megalopae is scarce. Hatchery-reared
megalopae of S. serrata can be stocked at 10–30 ind./m2 in net cages within brackish
water nursery ponds, with reported high survival rates (48–53 percent) until the
juvenile stage (Rodriguez et al., 2001). Increases in stocking density to 133 ind./m2
in aquarium settings, however, resulted in lower survival rates (12–32 percent) with
various diet treatments (Syafaat et al., 2016). With a stocking density of 70 ind./m2
for 30 days from crablet stage 1 (S. paramamosain), individuals reached a final size of
around 22–25 mm carapace width, while an extension of another 30 days of culture
with a stocking density of 30 ind./m2 yielded an encouraging survival of 64–67 percent,
with individuals attaining a final carapace width range of 35–36 mm (Ut et al., 2007).

MEGALOPA TRANSPORTATION HANDLING

Mud crab larvae are still fragile during the megalopa stage and thus strong and
continuous agitation should be minimized or avoided. Megalopae are normally packed
in plastic bags for transportation. The stocking density during packing is often kept
at a maximum of 200–300 ind./L to avoid them grasping each other, resulting in
potential injury and consequent reduction of survival rate. If possible, lower stocking
densities such as 50–150 ind./L greatly enhance the survival of megalopae. Research has
shown that when stocked at 50 ind./L and subjected to 6 hours of simulated transport
and shaking, megalopae can still achieve a survival rate of 99 percent. Additionally,
transporting megalopae in lower temperatures (such as 24 ºC) is more conducive,
resulting in better survival rates compared to the more frequent temperature of 28 ºC
(Quinitio and Parado-Estepa, 2000).
226 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

NURSERY FEEDING
Once mud crab larvae reach the megalopa stage, they are able to feed on larger prey and
food particles. Artemia, either live or frozen, can still be used as the main source of feed
during the transitional megalopa to crablet stage, although other feed such as shrimp,
fish, clams, mussels, polychaetes or artificial feed can be included, both in dried and
wet form. Ut et al. (2007) showed that live Artemia, fresh chopped shrimp, or tilapia
were equally superior as feed for juvenile crabs. In addition to Artemia, egg custard
diet – which consists of a mixture of egg albumen, vitamin and mineral premix, milk
powder, and cod liver or vegetable oil – is also being used as an alternative in mud crab
nurseries. This choice is favoured for its production simplicity, cost-effectiveness, and
readily available ingredients.
Microbound diets are artificial diets produced by combining all essential ingredients
together using a binder, which is subsequently dried, crushed and sieved to the
desired size (Genodepa, Southgate and Zeng, 2006). Microbound diets have been
experimentally tested as feed for the megalopae of S. serrata, although the survival
of megalopae was highest and the development time was shortest when fed with live
Artemia. Subsequent optimization of microbound diets, especially on the dietary
lecithin composition by Holme, Southgate and Zeng (2007), successfully resulted in a
microbound diet that is equal or superior to live Artemia nauplii when fed to mud crab
megalopae. However, microbound diets are comparatively higher in production cost
due to the usage of squid meal that is not readily available in some countries.
Aside from trash fish, Acetes spp., a small planktonic shrimp genus, is abundant in
most Indo-Pacific countries. When fed exclusively on live Acetes or in combination
with commercial feed, megalopae of S. paramamosain moulted earlier into the
crablet stage synchronously than with other treatments (minced shrimp meat, locally
formulated feed, commercial feed, and live Acetes with minced shrimp meat or live
Acetes with locally formulated feed). Additionally, megalopae fed with live Acetes had
the highest survival in communal rearing (Ong, Fotedar and Ho, 2000). Thus, Acetes
is a potential live feed source for megalopae culture that warrants future investigation.
With the lack of mud-crab-specific diets, most nurseries rely on the use of commercial
shrimp (post-larvae) feed during megalopae culture, either alone or in combination
with Artemia. Once they morph into the crablet stage, they are predominantly benthic
in nature and their digestion system is fully developed. Thus, mud crab crablets can
be fed with locally available fresh feed (such as minced trash fish, bivalves, shrimps),
frozen adult Artemia, or artificial feed.

CRABLET CULTURE PARAMETERS

As mud crabs reach megalopae and subsequent crablet stage, they are more resilient to
the changing water parameters. The optimal temperature remains similar to that of larvae
(28–30 °C), whereas the optimal salinity of megalopae and crablets is lower (between
20–25 ppt) than the salinity used in larviculture since in nature they start to transition
back to the intertidal zone during this life stage. To date, research on the optimization
of culture parameters at the nursery stage is still limited. Table 3 summarises the feasible
parameters used in various studies for nursery and grow-out culture.

Shelters and size-grading

As mud crabs develop into crablets and adopt a benthic lifestyle, they become territorial
and are highly aggressive and cannibalistic. Seaweeds, sand substrates, shells, bricks and
nylon netting are some of the commonly used shelter options during crablet stages,
whereas PVC pipes of various sizes provide superior hiding options when crablets reach
near-adult size. The shelter may be placed at the bottom layer or in the water column to
provide sufficient surface area for the crablets. Utilizing bricks and clamshells as shelter
resulted in higher survival rates among the crablets of S. paramamosain compared to
Review of mud crab seed production 227

TABLE 3
Water quality parameters during nursery and grow-out culture of Scylla spp.
Parameters Optimum range/value Sampling frequency Source
Dissolved oxygen (DO) > 5 ppm Twice a day Shelley & Lovatelli, 2011
7.5–8.5 (< 0.5 daily Ganesh et al., 2015
pH Twice a day
variation)
Ruscoe, Shelly & Williams,
Temperature 28–30 °C Daily 2004a; Gong et al., 2015;
Syafaat et al., 2021
Ruscoe, Shelley &
Williams, 2004a;
Salinity 20–25 ppt Daily
Nurdiani & Zeng, 2007;
Baylon, 2010, 2011, 2013
Total ammonia nitrogen (TAN) < 3 ppm Weekly Shelley & Lovatelli, 2011
Un-ionised ammonia (NH3) < 0.01 ppm Weekly Ganesh et al., 2015
< 10 ppm at salinity Shelley & Lovatelli, 2011
Nitrite (NO2) > 15 ppt; < 5 ppm at Weekly
salinity < 15 ppt
> 80 ppm (ideally Shelley & Lovatelli, 2011
Alkalinity Weekly
120 ppm)
Hardness > 2 000 ppm Weekly Shelley & Lovatelli, 2011
Hydrogen sulphide < 0.1 ppm Weekly Shelley & Lovatelli, 2011
Turbidity 20–30 cm Daily Shelley & Lovatelli, 2011

Source: Adapted from Syafaat, M.N., Azra, M.N., Waiho, K., Fazhan, H., Abol-Munafi, A.B., Ishak, S.D., Syahnon, M.,
Ghazali, A., Ma, H. & Ikhwanuddin, M. 2021. A review of the nursery culture of mud crabs, genus Scylla: Current
progress and future directions. Animals, 11: 2034.

using sand substrate (Ut et al., 2007). Although no colour preference research has been
conducted on crablets, adult S. tranquebarica showed strong bias towards blue and
white shelters compared to green, red and black PVC pipes as shelter (Kawamura et al.,
2020). Additionally, Kawamura et al. (2020) observed that adult mud crabs were more
tolerant to other conspecifics and up to four crabs could be found per shelter.
Seaweed is a common type of shelter utilized in mud crab nursery. Recent research
showed that different species of seaweeds impact mud crab growth and survival
differently. Green seaweed Cladophora sp., when used as shelter, promoted faster
growth rate in juveniles of S. paramamosain compared to red seaweed Gracilaria
tenuistipitata from week-2 onwards, and higher survival at week-3 (Toi et al., 2023). In
a separate experiment, G. tenuistipitata was superior to green seaweed Enteromorpha
intestinalis when used as shelter in the culture of juveniles S. paramamosain, with
treatments incorporated with G. tenuistipitata had higher crab survival and better
water quality (lower nitrogenous compounds) (Van et al., 2022). The benefit of using
seaweed over other artificial shelter types is that in addition to providing refuge to
crablets, seaweeds are also natural bioremediation agents to reduce nitrogen and
phosphorus compounds.
In addition to the provision of shelter, periodic size-grading of crablets is important
to minimize cannibalism and ensure higher production of mud crabs. This is because
cannibalism occurrence increases significantly when there is a difference in body size
within the cultured population, and the occurrence of cannibalistic behaviour increases
with body size. For example, S. serrata of 51–70 mm internal carapace width (ICW)
exhibited cannibalistic interactions ten times higher than the smaller (20–30 mm ICW)
size class (Mirera and Moksnes, 2013).

Stocking density
Optimal stocking density in mud crab nursery culture is important. Too high stocking
densities will result in cannibalism, insufficient food and suboptimal growth, while too
228 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

low stocking densities may lead to reduced production. During instar or crablet stages,
they can be stocked at higher densities but as the crablets increase in size the optimal
stocking density is significantly reduced (Table 4).

TABLE 4
Stocking density trials in Scylla species
Stocking density
Species Life stage (body size) Survival rate/results Source
(ind./m2)
Juvenile (no data) Growth rate and Toi et al., 2023
200 survival highest
at 200 ind./
S. paramamosain 300
m2, followed by
400 300 ind./m2 and
400 ind./m2.
S. serrata Juvenile 0.5 98% Triño, Millamena &
(3.50–4.26 cm CW; 1.5 57% Keenan,
7.3–11.0 g) 1999
3.0 31%
S. serrata Juvenile 0.5 47% Venugopal et al.,
(5.2–6.8 cm CW; 0.75 33% 2012
40–60 g)
1.0 27%
S. serrata Juvenile 4 No significant Mirera and
(2–8 cm ICW) 8 difference in Moksnes, 2014
cannibalism and
mortality
S. paramamosain Instar 1 110 No significant Ut et al., 2007
(4.45 ± 1.07 mm CW; 175 difference in
17.1 ± 9 mg) survival rate
230
Note: ICW: internal carapace width; CW: carapace width.

CRABLET TRANSPORTATION AND HARVESTING

Crablets are often harvested and transferred to larger earthen ponds or facilities within
1 month after stocking, as their sizes grow exponentially, and their benthic lifestyle
warrants a lot of space. Crablets are commonly transferred in wet conditions, or
alternatively in dry or semi-moist condition. In wet conditions, crablets are immersed
in water and put in plastic bags filled with oxygen. Shelter in the form of nylon netting can
also be included to reduce aggression and cannibalism. A high survival of 88–97 percent
was reported when crablets, packed at densities of 50 to 150 ind./bag were transported
for a period of 5 hours using the wet method (Sulaeman, Yamin and Parenrengi, 2008).
The dry or semi-moist method involves packing the crablets without water into either
plastic bags or Styrofoam (polystyrene) boxes with wet cloth or tissues, or seaweeds. Due
to the larger surface area and the stackable nature of Styrofoam boxes, higher quantities
of crablets can be stocked compared to using plastic bags. When crablets (200 to
300 ind./bag) are transported in the dry or semi-moist condition, over a similar
duration of 5–6 hours, in either plastic bags or Styrofoam boxes, survival rates of more
than 95 percent can be achieved (Yamin and Sulaeman, 2011).

CONCLUSION
Seed production is a critical and delicate process in the farming of mud crabs. Most of
the critical culture parameters such as temperature and salinity have been optimized
by researchers and farmers, although slight variations might still exist due to the
differences in local adaptation. However, the inconsistency and unpredictably low
survival rate during early larval stages of mud crabs is still an issue that hinders
the large-scale production of mud crabs in captivity. Close collaboration between
industries and research institutes is needed to resolve this longstanding bottleneck.
Another major hurdle that still needs attention is the formulation of specific artificial
feed for megalopa and crablet stages of mud crabs. The current reliance on either
Review of mud crab seed production 229

artificial shrimp pellet or fresh feed during nursery phase might not contain the optimal
nutrient required by mud crab crablets. Lastly, cannibalism remains as one of the
primary causes of mortality during the nursery phase, although size- and sex-grading
might help to reduce the cannibalism rate. Future research should investigate the
mechanism and promoting factors of cannibalism in mud crabs, and potentially find a
solution to mitigate their cannibalistic behaviour.

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 233

Studies on tissue growth in

juvenile mud crabs and optimal
cholesterol inclusion levels in
formulated mud crab feeds

Nguyen Thi Bich Ngoc

Research Institute for Aquaculture No. 3, Viet Nam

INTRODUCTION
Mud crab farming in Southeast Asia still predominantly relies on capture-based mud
crab juveniles (Allan and Fielder, 2003). The crablets are commonly fed trash fish,
which can contaminate the culture medium, increasing the risk of disease outbreaks
and contributing to high mortality rates (Linder, 2005). However, the use of trash
fish in aquaculture is increasingly unsustainable due to challenges in storage –
requiring refrigeration or freezing – and rising costs across many regions. To ensure
the sustainable growth of crab farming, the industry must transition to the use of
formulated feeds made from selected ingredients sourced locally and internationally.
Crustacean growth relies on the regular moulting of their rigid exoskeletons, a
process that requires adequate stored energy and appropriate levels of the hormone
ecdysone. Dietary cholesterol plays a critical role in supporting growth and ensuring
high survival rates in crustaceans (Sheen, 2000; Holme, 2006; Tao, 2014). Cholesterol
is a vital sterol, acting as a precursor for numerous physiologically active compounds,
including sex and moulting hormones, adrenal corticoids, bile acids and vitamin D.
While most animals can synthesize sterols from acetate, crustaceans lack the ability to
produce sterols de novo (Sheen et al., 1994; Teshima and Kanazawa, 1971).
Most previous studies on mud crab growth have focused on growth rate as
measured by increases in fresh weight. Fresh weight changes follow a characteristic
pattern through the moulting cycle: rapid and significant increases due to water uptake
at ecdysis; moderate gains during the post-moult phase as carapace mineralization
and tissue growth occur; and a period of relative stabilization during the intermoult
phase, lasting until the onset of the next ecdysis (Heasman, 1980). In contrast, tissue
mass increase is a continuous process throughout the moulting cycle (Freeman, 1990).
Tissue growth is often measured by increases in dry weight, as tissues lose water
proportionally to their gains in dry mass (Passano, 1960).
A comprehensive understanding of juvenile mud crab growth is essential for advancing
the formulation of optimized feeds. This paper provides insights into the growth
of mud crab juveniles, focusing on tissue growth and the deposition of key nutrients –
protein, lipid and ash – during the moulting cycle. Additionally, the study examines the
effects of varying cholesterol levels in formulated feeds on the growth and survival of
crab juveniles and evaluates specific pellet formulations for soft-shell crab farming.
234 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fundamental knowledge on growth of mud crab juveniles

Crab and holding facilities
Juvenile crabs, Scylla serrata, were collected from the mangrove habitat surrounding
the experimental station in Boulouparis district, New Caledonia. Seventy juvenile
crabs were caught using a hand net and transferred to the laboratory and acclimatised
into eight circular composite tanks (500 L capacity) for 1 week prior to the beginning
of the experiment. The crabs were examined to identify their moult stage using the
criteria and methodology described in Heasman (1980). From the collected crabs,
54 were identified as being in intermoult stage and were selected for the experiment.
These crabs were randomly and individually assigned to 54 experimental rectangular
polyethylene tanks (30 × 20 × 30 cm) covered with black lids. After being dried in soft
paper and cotton cloth, each crab was weighed to the nearest 0.01 g and its carapace
width was measured to the nearest 0.01 mm.
Each experimental tank was continuously supplied with seawater running from
a polyethylene reservoir (2 000 L capacity) at a rate of 0.19 L/min. The water
pumped from the lagoon was filtered through a 25 µm net bag into the reservoir.
The temperature was automatically controlled using a heater. The temperature in the
experimental tanks was measured every 3 hours using an automatic recording probe.
During the experimental period, the water parameters were carefully maintained as
follows: temperature at 21.5 ± 2.5 °C, salinity at 34.0 ± 1.5 ppt, pH at 7.97 ± 0.09, and
oxygen at 4.48 ± 0.16 mg/L.

Diet preparation and composition

The crabs were fed five different experimental diets (SPC-12, SPC-32, SPC-42, SPC-
52 and SPC-60) formulated with graded levels of soy protein concentrate (SPC) as the
main protein source (Table 1). The diets were produced in the laboratory using the
following procedure. The dry ingredients were ground up in a grinder with a 1 mm
screen. The meal obtained was mixed with oil and water in a horizontal mixer until the
consistency was suitable for pelleting. The mixture was then extruded through a 3 mm
die in a meat grinder. Pellets were steamed for 15 minutes and stored at -20 °C before
use. The ingredient compositions and proximate nutrient contents of experimental
diets are shown in Table 1.

Growth trial
At the beginning of the experiment, the crabs were kept without food for 48 hours
and then weighed and measured. The crabs had an initial average body weight of
20.43 ± 9.81 g and average carapace size of 4.92 ± 0.81 cm. Crabs were held individually
in each experimental unit. All 54 tanks with individual crabs were assigned to the
five different dietary treatments. Thus, 11 tanks were randomly assigned to each
treatment (n = 11), except for the treatment with diet SPC-12 (n = 10). The crabs were
fed ad libitum daily. The daily pre-weighed feed ration for crabs in each tank was given
at 06.00–07.00. Three hours after each meal the uneaten feed was siphoned out, dried
for 24 hours at 60 °C and weighed.
The leaching rate (dry matter loss of the pellet in the water) was determined by
measuring remaining dry matter in a weighed sample of each diet after 3 hours of
immersion. Then the amount of voluntary feed intake (VFI) for each crab was obtained
following this equation:
VFI = dF - L - uF

Where: VFI = voluntary feed intake; dF = distributed Feed; L = leaching after

3 hours; and uF = unconsumed feed.
Studies on tissue growth in juvenile mud crabs and optimal cholesterol inclusion levels in formulated mud crab feeds 235

TABLE 1
Ingredients and proximal compositions of five experimental diets
Experimental diets
SPC-12 SPC-32 SPC-42 SPC-52 SPC-60
Composition (%)

Soy protein concentrate 12.00 32.00 42.00 52.00 60.00

Crab meal 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00
Wheat flour 53.50 35.00 25.50 16.00 8.00
Fish oil 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00
Soy oil 2.50 1.00 0.50 0.00 0.00
Gluten 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00
Dicalcium phosphate 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00
1
Vitamin C 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
2
Vitamin premix 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
Trace elements3 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Analysis (dry matter basis)

Crude protein (%) 26.87 35.52 39.69 44.15 49.17

Lipid (%) 4.08 4.80 4.62 4.36 4.43
Ash (%) 13.95 14.54 22.36 21.80 27.43
Gross energy density (MJ/kg-1) 17.96 17.26 17.87 18.61 18.44
P/E (g/Mj-1 ) 16.79 20.58 22.13 23.72 25.56
1
Vitamine C: Rovimix Stay-C 35 from DSM Cie.
2
Vitamin premix for shrimp from BEC Feed Solutions PTY, LTD. Ingredients: vitamin AD3 1000/200, vitamin B1 98%
Thiamine, Mononitrate, vitamin B2 Riboflavin 80%, vitamin B3 99% Niacin, vitamin B5 98% D-Calpan, vitamine B6
98% Pyridoxine, Vitamin B9 97% Folic acid, vitamin D3 500, vitamin E 50 ADD, vitamin K3 43.7%.
3
Trace eliments from SICA Cie (Goodman Fielder).

During the experimental period, the carapace width, live body weight and date of
ecdysis were recorded for each crab after moulting, before being transferred back to
the tanks. The exuviae were collected and weighed before and after drying at 80 °C for
24 hours, then kept at -20 °C for energy analysis. The trial was maintained for 81 days.
At the end of the experiment, all the crabs were left unfed for 48 hours and then
weighed, measured, dried at 80 °C for 48 hours, and kept at -20 °C before biochemical
and energy analysis.

Biochemical analysis
The proximate compositions of the diets, faeces, and both initial and final crabs were
determined at the in vivo laboratory in Viet Nam, following the methods outlined by
AOAC (1995). The moisture content of mud crabs and feed was determined by oven
drying at 105 °C to a constant weight. Nitrogen content was measured by combusting
each sample in pure oxygen, with the nitrogen detected using thermal conductivity
detection. The nitrogen content was then converted to equivalent protein content
using the factor 6.25 (crude protein percentage = %N × 6.25). Crude lipid content was
quantified by solvent extraction with petroleum ether. Ash content was determined by
combustion in a muffle furnace at 550 °C for 8–10 hours. The energy content of the
diets was determined using a calorimetric bomb (Parr® 6200, USA, calibrated with
benzoic acid) at the IFREMER laboratory in New Caledonia.
236 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Definitions, calculations and statistics

Monitoring the moulting – Cumulative moulting or moulting rate (CM in percent) was
calculated using the following formula:

∑
n Mi
CM = 100 ×
i-0 Cr
Where i = day i; Mi = number of moults on day i; Cr = number of crabs in each
treatment.

Growth measurements – Growth parameters of crabs in this study were determined as:
tissue growth, tissue gain and nutrient gains (protein, lipid and ash).

Parameters recorded were:

iBW = Dry initial body weight.
Dry body weight after ecdysis (15% of fresh body
BWae = weight of crab estimated from average assessment of
12 crabs that moulted after 1 day).
fBW = Final dry body weight.
Tissue growth after ecdysis (% of BWae/day) or during the experiment (% of iBW/
day) and tissue gain (% of BWae) were measured based on the increase in dry weight
(Passano, 1960).
100 × ([fBW − BWae] - ash gained) / (BWae × days
Tissue growth after ecdysis =
after ecdysis)
Tissue growth during the 100 × ([fBW – iBW] - ash gained) / (iBW × days of
=
course of experiment experiment)
Tissue gain = 100 × ([fBW − BWae] - ash gained) / BWae)
Protein, lipid or ash gain = 100 × (protein, lipid or ash retained / BWae)

Use of formulated feed for crab farming in Viet Nam

Two experiments were conducted at the Research Institute for Aquaculture No. 3 in
Viet Nam to evaluate the effects of supplemented cholesterol levels and to compare
formulated mud crab feed with trash fish. Juvenile mud crabs (Scylla paramamosain)
used in the trials were sourced from mud crab farms in Khánh Hòa Province. Prior to
stocking, crabs in the intermoult stage were selected

Trials on cholesterol supplementation in crab feed

Six treatments of graded cholesterol levels of 0 (control treatment), 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, 0.2
and 0.3 percent (named DC, CH-0.5, CH-1, CH-1.5, CH-2 and CH-3, respectively)
were supplemented to the basic crab diet. The nutritional composition of the basic
diet was assessed as 44 percent protein, 7.5 percent lipid and 21.3 percent ash, with an
energy density of 16.5 MJ/kg.
For each treatment, 60 crab juveniles (S. paramamosain) of 60–80 g initial body
weight were randomly stocked into 60 boxes in a recirculating aquaculture system
during a 30-day experiment, with three replicates for each treatment. At the end of the
experiment, the moulting rate (cumulative moulting), moulting duration and survival
rate were determined. The moulting rate was calculated as detailed above, while
moulting duration (in days) was identified from the first day of the experiment to the
day that crab moulted. The survival rate was the percentage of living crabs at the end
of the experiment compared to the initial stocking number.
Studies on tissue growth in juvenile mud crabs and optimal cholesterol inclusion levels in formulated mud crab feeds 237

Comparison between crabs fed formulated diet and trash fish

To assess the performance of a formulated mud crab feed for soft-shell crab production, a
pelleted feed was compared with trash fish. The trial consisted of two treatments: one using
trash fish (small fish and crustaceans) and the other using the most suitable formulated
feed previously optimized during the cholesterol supplementation experiment.
Each treatment involved 60 individual
S. paramamosain crabs, with body weights FIGURE 1
ranging from 60–80 g, distributed across Water content of Scylla serrata juveniles during a
three replicates per treatment. As in the moult cycle

cholesterol supplementation experiment, 90

key parameters were monitored, including 85

Crab water content - % fresh BW

< 25 days after ecdysis
moulting rate, moulting duration, survival > 25 days after ecdysis
80
rate and feed conversion ratio (FCR). The
FCR was calculated as the dry matter of 75

the formulated feed or trash fish consumed

70
relative to the crabs’ weight gain.
65
Mean =
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 60
62.4 ± 0.6 %
Ecdysis 1 Ecdysis 2
55
Tissue growth during a moult cycle 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
The water content of post-moult crabs Time after ecdysis (days)

was 85 percent one day after ecdysis

(Figure 1) and then decreased over the
next 23 days to reach a baseline of 62.4 ±
0.6 percent of water which then remained FIGURE 2
Growth of Scylla serrata juveniles during a moult cycle
relatively constant until the next moult.
(a) Tissue gain expressed as the % dry BW after ecdysis
The tissue gain, measured as the increase minus the % BWae. Mean value was determined for
in dry organic matter as a proportion of crabs after 25 days of ecdysis. (b) Tissue growth rate
dry body weight after ecdysis (BWae), expressed as the % dry BW after ecdysis/day minus the
increased for about 30 days after ecdysis % BWae/day
and then remained relatively constant 140
until the next moult (Figure 2a).
120
The tissue growth rate was the highest
Tissue gain - % of dry BWae

Mean =
2 days after ecdysis (16.5 percent) and 100 101.5 ± 4.1%

then dropped dramatically during 80

the first 10 days to 3.6 percent. The 60

< 25 days after ecdysis
decrease was slower than the minimum 40 > 25 days after ecdysis
value of 1.3 percent that was recorded
20
before the next ecdysis (Figure 2b). Crab
Ecdysis 1 Ecdysis 2
body protein and lipid change during 0

the intermoult cycle showed the same 20

trend as the tissue growth (Figure 3a and
Tissue growth rate - % of dry BWae/day

Figure 3b) with two distinct phases, i.e. an

15
initial increase followed by a plateau. The
initial increase of body protein content
-0.58
y = 18.64x

started approximately 1 week earlier than 10 2

R = 0.93
the increase of the lipids. Ash gain did not
follow the trends of protein and lipids,
5
instead increasing rapidly during the first Ecdysis 1 Ecdysis 2
5 days after ecdysis and then remaining
stable during most of the intermoult 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
period (Figure 3c).
Time after ecdysis (days)
238 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 3
Voluntary feed intake and cumulated
Nutrient gains of Scylla serrata juveniles expressed as moult during one moult cycle
% dry BW after ecdysis during a moult cycle Since voluntary feed intake (VFI) was not
(a) Protein gain, (b) lipid gain, and (c) ash gain influenced by diet composition, all data
90 were pooled to analyse feed consumption
2
80
r = 0.64 patterns during the experiment (Figure 4).
Protein gain - % dry BWae

70 Mean = 65.3 ± 3.4

During the first 14 days post-ecdysis, crabs
60
consumed approximately 200 g/kg of initial
body weight (iBW) weekly, equivalent to a
50
daily ration of 0.58 g/ind. Thereafter, VFI
40
gradually declined, reaching lower levels
30 by day 35. Between days 49 and 77, VFI
> 35 days after ecdysis
20
< 35 days after ecdysis stabilized at a baseline of around 100 g/kg
10 of fresh iBW weekly (0.29 g/ind. daily). In
14
0 20 40 60 80 100
the final 5 days prior to ecdysis, the VFI
2
r = 0.68
dropped sharply to 50 g/kg of fresh iBW
12
weekly (0.15 g/ind. daily).
Lipid gain - % dry BWae

10
Mean = 8.5 ± 0.7
8
Cumulative moults
6 The cumulative moults were clearly
4 affected by the VFI levels when all diets
2
were combined (Figure 5). Two groups
> 40 days after ecdysis were identified: a low VFI group (1.05 ±
0 < 40 days after ecdysis
0.12 percent of iBW consumed daily) and
0 20 40 60 80 100 a high VFI group (1.97 ± 0.12 percent
100
iBW daily). Cumulative moults during
2
r = 0.56
the experiment were 50 percent and
80
100 percent in the low and high VFI
Ash gain - % dry BWae

Mean = 62.7 ± 3.3

60
groups, respectively.

40 Moulting and survival rates of juvenile

crabs fed graded, cholesterol-level-
> 5 days after ecdysis
20
< 5 days after ecdysis supplemented formulated diets
Supplementing cholesterol levels in the
0
diet from 0.05 percent to 0.1 percent
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (days) significantly increased the moulting
rate from 70.32 percent to 90.04 percent
(P < 0.05) during the 30-day culture
FIGURE 4
period (Figure 6). However, further
Voluntary feed intake of Scylla serrata juveniles fed all
diets during a moult cycle increase in the supplemented cholesterol
Homogenous groups determined from Tukey’s Range levels from 0.1 to 0.3 percent resulted in
Test are presented above the curve according to time a significant decrease in the moulting rate,
300 from 90.04 to 73.48 percent (P < 0.05).
Homogeneous groups
x x x
x
The highest moulting rate, 90.04 percent,
250
was observed in the treatment with
x x x x
x x
Average V.F.I. - g.kg/iBW/week

x x
x
x
x x
0.1 percent supplementary cholesterol,
200
equivalent to 0.38 percent total cholesterol
150 in the diet, indicating optimal levels for
S. paramamosain juvenile.
100 Cholesterol is recognized as an
important metabolic precursor for
50
Ecdysis Ecdysis ecdysone biosynthesis in crustaceans
0
(Teshima and Kanazawa, 1971; Watson
7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 80
Time (days)
Studies on tissue growth in juvenile mud crabs and optimal cholesterol inclusion levels in formulated mud crab feeds 239

and Spaziani, 1982; Sheen et al., 1994). FIGURE 5

Additionally, the uptake of cholesterol by Cumulative moults of crab Scylla serrata juveniles
the Y-organ is significantly enhanced when (% initial crab numbers) according to the voluntary feed
the moulting process is initiated (Spaziani intake (VFI) levels (a) and different diets (b)
and Kater, 1973). This study demonstrated
Low VFI = 1.05 ± 0.12 %.iBW.day-1
that an increased cholesterol level in the 100 High VFI = 1.97 ± 0.12 %.iBW.day-1

diet can stimulate the excretion of moulting

80
hormones, resulting in higher moulting
rates. However, excessive cholesterol in 60
the diet can negatively impact growth
and survival in crustaceans (Sheen, 2000), 40

not due to toxicity but rather because of

Cumulative moults (%)

20
nutrient imbalances (Mercer, 1982).
The survival rates of crabs in the 0
experimental treatments and control 100
group (without supplemental cholesterol)
were high, ranging from 70.56 to 80

75 percent (Figure 6). The control group,

which did not receive supplemental 60

cholesterol, had the lowest survival rate

40
(70.56 percent); however, no significant
differences were observed between this SPC12
SPC32
20
group and the other treatments (P > 0.05). SPC42
SPC52
SPC60
This suggests that adding cholesterol at 0
various concentrations (0–0.3 percent) to 0 20 40 60 80 100
the formulated feed did not significantly Times (days)
affect the survival rate of S. paramamosain
(iBW = fresh initial body weight)
juveniles. The results indicate that the
initial cholesterol level in the control diet
(0.28 percent) was already sufficient for
crab juveniles to grow and survive. Sheen FIGURE 6
(2000) reported that for S. serrata juveniles, Moulting and survival rate of Scylla paramamosain
the optimal dietary cholesterol level was juveniles fed diets supplemented with graded cholesterol
0.51 percent, with the highest survival Different letters represent statistically significant
(93 percent) recorded in juveniles fed a differences (P < 0.05)
diet containing 0.21 percent supplemental 100 90.40
cholesterol. This study also suggested that
Moulting & survival rates %

70.10
even at the juvenile stage, S. serrata could 75
70.32
75.00
survive on relatively low levels of dietary 70.56
cholesterol. 50 Moulting rate
Survival rate
Moulting duration 25
The results indicate that the moulting
duration of crab juveniles was similar 0
CH. 0.5 CH. 1 CH. 1.5 CH. 2 CH. 3 C
among treatments, except for the
Experimental cholesterol diets
group fed the diet without cholesterol
supplementation (Figure 7). While there
were some differences in moulting duration between the treatments, they were not
statistically significant, ranging from 22.06 to 27.21 days. However, a significant
difference was observed in the control group (0 percent cholesterol supplementation),
where crabs had a moulting duration of 29.16 days, which was longer compared to
all other treatments. Among the treatments, the group supplemented with 0.1 percent
cholesterol exhibited the shortest moulting period of 22.06 days, which was 7 days
240 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 7
shorter than the control group fed the diet
Moulting duration of Scylla paramamosain juveniles without added cholesterol.
fed diets supplemented with graded cholesterol
Moulting rates marked with different letters are Comparison of formulated mud crab feed
statistically significant (P < 0.05) with trash fish
c
d The trial results showed that the FCR of
30
crabs given pellet feeds were significantly
Moulting duration (days)

c c
a a
25
27.21 29.28 lower than those fed trash fish: 0.67 and
20 24.37
22.56
24.08 0.88, respectively. It is hypothesized that
22.06
15 the balanced nutritional profile of the
10 pellets provided a more complete diet than
5
the trash fish (Figure 8). The moulting rate
(cumulative moult) of crabs fed pellets
0
CH 0.5 CH 1 CH 1.5 CH 2 CH 3 ÐC (81.73 percent) was 2.8 times higher
Experimental cholesterol diets than those fed trash fish (29.01 percent)
(Figure 9). The weight gained after
ecdysis was similar for crabs fed pellets
(61.41 percent) and those fed trash fish
FIGURE 8
(57.08 percent). In addition, the same
Feed conversion rate of Scylla paramamosain juveniles trend was seen for survival rates, which
fed trash fish and formulated diet were 94.44 percent and 84.44 percent for
Moulting rates marked with different letters are crabs fed pellets and those fed trash fish,
statistically significant (P < 0.05) respectively (Figure 10).
1.00 a These results strongly indicate that a
0.88
formulated feed can be developed for
b juvenile mud crabs to replace trash
0.67
fish. Crabs fed formulated feed had a
higher moulting rate, whilst there was no
FCR

0.50
difference in survival rate or weight gained
after moulting.

REFERENCES
0.00
AOAC (Association of Official Analytical
Trash fish Formulated diet Chemists). 1995. Official methods of analysis
Diets
of the Association of Official Analytical
Chemists. Sixteenth edition. Arlington,
USA, AOAC.
Allan, G. & Fielder, D. 2003. Mud crab
FIGURE 9
aquaculture in Australia and Southeast
Moulting rates of Scylla paramamosain juveniles fed
trash fish and formulated diet
Asia. In: Proceedings of the ACIAR crab
Moulting rates marked with different letters are aquaculture scoping study and workshop
statistically significant (P < 0.05). 28–29 April 2003, Joondooburri Conference
100 Centre, Bribie Island. Canberra, ACIAR.
b
Freeman, J.A. 1990. Molt increment,
81.73
75 molt cycle duration, and tissue growth in
Moulting rate (%)

Palaemonetes pugio Holthuis larvae. Journal

50 of Experimental Marine Biology and
a
Ecology, 143: 47–61.
29.01
25
Heasman, P.N. 1980. Part II: Molt cycle
dependent changes in the gross composition
0
of juvenile S. serrata. Aspects of the
Trash fish Formulated diet
Diets general biology and fishery of the mud crab
Scylla serrata (Forskal) in Moreton Bay,
Studies on tissue growth in juvenile mud crabs and optimal cholesterol inclusion levels in formulated mud crab feeds 241

FIGURE 10
Weight gains and survival rates of Scylla paramamosain juveniles fed trash fish and
formulated diet
100 100

94.44
75 75 84.44

Survival rate (%)

Weigh gain (%)

61.41 50
50 57.08

25 25

0 0
Trash fish Formulated diet Trash fish Formulated diet
Diets Diets

Queensland. Brisbane, Australia, University of Queensland. PhD thesis.

Holme, M. 2006. The effects of supplemental dietary cholesterol on growth, development
and survival of mud crab, Scylla serrata, megalopa fed semi-purified diets. Aquaculture,
261: 1328–1334.
Linder, P. 2005. Impacts of mud crab hatchery technology in Vietnam. Impact Assessment
Series Report No. 36. Crawley, Australia, Economic Research Associates and School of
Agricultural and Resource Economics University of Western Australia.
Mercer, L. 1982. The qualitative nutrient-response relationship. Journal of Nutrition,
112: 560–566.
Sheen, S. 2000. Dietary cholesterol requirements of juvenile mud crab Scylla serrata.
Aquaculture, 189: 277–285.
Sheen, S.S., Liu, P.C., Chen, S.N. & Chen, J.C. 1994. Cholesterol requirement of juvenile
tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon. Aquaculture, 125: 131–137.
Spazani, E. & Kater, S. 1973. Uptake and turnover of cholesterol-14C in Y-organs
of the crab Hemigrapsus, as a function of the molt cycle. General and Comparative
Endocrinology, 20(20): 543–549.
Passano, L.M. 1960. Molting and its control. In: T.H. Waterman, ed. The physiology of
Crustacea. Volume 1. New York, USA, Academic Press.
Tao, X., Wang, C., Wei, H., Ren, Z., Ma, X. & Lu, W. 2014. Effects of dietary cholesterol
levels on moulting performance, lipid accumulation, ecdysteroid concentration and
immune enzymes activities of juvenile Chinese mitten crab Eriocheir sinensis. Aquaculture
Nutrition, 20: 467–476.
Teshima, S. & Kanazawa, A. 1971. Biosynthesis of sterols in the lobsters, Panulirus
japonicus, the prawn, Penaeus japonicus, and the crab, Portunus trituberculatus.
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 38B: 597–602.
Watson, R. & Spaziani, E. 1982. Uptake of 14C-cholesterol and secretion of ecdysone by
crab Y-organ in vitro. Integrative and Comparative Biology, 22: 296.
 243

Mud crab feeds and feeding

management

Diana Chan Pek Sian, Fanny Yasumaru, Md Arefin Rahman, Deborah Chua,
Saravanan Padmanabhan & Lee Chee Wee
Aquaculture Innovation Centre, Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore

ABSTRACT
Formulated feeds were developed for juvenile mud crab Scylla serrata grow-out
culture. Currently, there are no commercial feeds available in the market for mud crab
farming in pelleted form. Farmers have been relying on fish, molluscs and other aquatic
animal by-products (low value fish trimmings, shrimp heads, chicken offal, etc.) or
supplementing with feeds formulated for other commercial species to feed the crabs.
Three feeding trials were conducted to assess the feasibility of using formulated feed on
growth performance of mud crab. In the first feeding trial, commercial feeds of shrimp
and grouper were fed for 73 days. The feeds used for either shrimp and grouper had no
significant effect on final body weight (g/ind.) and carapace width (CW) of the cultured
crab (p > 0.05). The total weight gain (in percentage) of mud crabs was less both in the
shrimp (55.5 ± 25.0) and grouper (53.4 ± 22.0) feed groups, which were insignificant
to each other (p > 0.05). Crabs fed shrimp and grouper feed had moulting rates of 65
and 68 percent, respectively, which were not statistically significant (p > 0.05). In the
second trial, a seafood mix feed (an equal blend of mussels, squid, oyster and trash
fish) and formulated feed were provided to the crabs for 60 days. The formulated
crab feed included nutrient rich marine ingredients, lecithin, vitamin and mineral
premixes, natural pigments (astaxanthin) and gelatine as binder, to supply the necessary
nutrients for optimum crab growth and health. The crabs fed with formulated feed
showed significantly higher final body weight (g/ind.) and specific growth rate (SGR)
(p < 0.05) compared to crabs fed the seafood mix. The total weight gain (in percentage)
in formulated feed fed group was 576 ± 77 which was significantly higher than the
crabs fed with seafood mix (206 ± 45) (p < 0.05). Crab shell pigmentation was observed
in both feeding trials. Crabs fed with formulated feed containing astaxanthin showed
a brown coloured carapace, whereas crabs fed with the other feeds had blue carapace.
In the third feeding trial, black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) meal was used to replace
fishmeal at 0, 50 and 100 percent in mud crab feed. After a 120-day feeding trial,
fishmeal (FM) replacement feed had no effect on weight gain (g/ind.), final weight
(g/ind.), SGR, feed conversion ratio (FCR), or protein efficiency ratio (PER)
(p > 0.05). In conclusion, mud crab could be fed on formulated feed for better growth
performance compared to the commercial feed of shrimp, grouper, and seafood
mix. Additionally, BSFL could also be used as a replacement of fishmeal in mud crab
feed to support growth and health.

INTRODUCTION
Aquaculture production of all mud crab Scylla spp., which include the green mud
crab (Scylla paramamosain), the Indo-Pacific swamp crab (S. serrata), the orange mud
crab (S. olivacea) and the purple mud crab (Scylla tranquebarica) was 141 264 t in
Southeast Asia in 2021 (FAO, 2023). The major producing countries in the region are
Viet Nam (81 144 t), the Philippines (23 112 t) and Indonesia (12 823 t). The majority
244 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

of farming systems for crabs are extensive, relying on low-value fish or by-products
from processing other livestock, such as chicken offal, as feed. Some crab farmers
have experimented with commercial feeds designed for other aquatic species, such as
shrimp or carnivorous fish, but these efforts have yielded poor results. Furthermore,
the use of raw, fresh or frozen food may pose some contamination and disease issues.
The use of formulated feeds for crab farming is still incipient, as the demand might not
support or justify commercial production by feed manufacturers. Formulated feeds
offer several advantages, including providing consistent nutrition, promoting improved
growth and moulting, enhancing crab health and shell pigmentation, reducing the risk
of contamination and ensuring biosecurity. Scylla serrata showed faster growth rate
and frequent moulting when fed feeds containing high protein (55 percent) and lipid
(15 percent) levels (Shelley and Lovatelli, 2011). Most of the crustaceans, including
mud crabs, need to moult and generate a new cuticle under the shell for growth. Chitin
is one of the main components of the cuticle (Kaya et al., 2014).
Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) are a rich source of chitin and have a comparable
nutritional profile to fishmeal (Mohan et al., 2022). The protein and lipid content of
BSFL is 38–57.6 percent and 21.6–28.4 percent, respectively (Liu et al., 2017). The
BSFL is a rich source of amino acids, however, variations in body composition were
observed depending on the culture substrates used (Mohan et al., 2022). While BSFL
are widely recognized as an excellent protein source, the complete replacement of FM
with BSFL in aquafeed has not yet been successfully achieved (Henry et al., 2015).
Studies have shown that BSFL can replace 18–36 percent of fishmeal in rainbow trout
diets (Sealey et al., 2011) and 6.7–12.5 percent of dietary protein in Atlantic salmon
diets (Weththasinghe et al., 2021).
High inclusion levels of BSFL in aquafeed have been shown to reduce growth
performance and protein digestibility (Kroeckel et al., 2012; Weththasinghe et al., 2021).
However, the potential use of BSFL in mud crab diets has not yet been investigated.
Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the feasibility of using commercially available
shrimp and grouper feeds, seafood mix, and formulated feeds incorporating BSFL as
a substitute for fishmeal in mud crab (S. serrata) diets, and to assess their effects on
growth performance.

METHODOLOGY

High protein commercial and formulated feeds

An experiment was carried out to test the feasibility of using commercial feeds of
shrimp (48 percent crude protein; 6 percent fat) and grouper (44 percent crude protein;
14 percent fat) on the growth performance of S. serrata. The commercial feeds were
separately ground and extruded through a 2 mm die. Juvenile crabs (initial body weight
14.4 ± 4.7 g; n = 20/treatment) were fed twice a day at 10 percent body weight for
60 days.
A second feeding trial was conducted to determine the growth performance of
S. serrata using a seafood-mix feed and a formulated feed with gelatine. The seafood-
mix feed was prepared by blending mussels, squid, oyster and trash fish in same
proportion and adding corn starch as binder. The mixture was cooked in boiling water
until it rose to the top of the water. The formulated feed was prepared by mixing
the ingredients and adding gelatine dissolved in warm water, mixed and rolled into
small cylindrical pellets. The different types of feeds are presented in Figure 1 and
the proximate composition of the formulated feed is shown in Table 1. Juvenile crabs
(initial body weight 0.54 ± 0.08 g; n = 7/treatment) were fed twice a day at 10 percent
body weight for 73 days. The calculated nutritional composition of the seafood mix
feed was 14.5 percent crude protein and 2.8 percent fat on “as-is” basis. Feeds were
kept refrigerated at 2–4 °C.
Mud crab feeds and feeding management 245

During both trials, crabs were housed individually in floating plastic containers
within a recirculating aquaculture system. The water quality parameters, including
salinity (18 ppt), temperature (27 °C), dissolved oxygen (> 5 mg/L), pH (7.6) and total
ammonia nitrogen (≤ 0.2 mg/L) were carefully controlled to ensure they remained
within the acceptable range for the species. At the end of both trials, the pigmentation
of the crab exoskeleton was observed and recorded.

FIGURE 1
Experimental diets fed to juvenile mud crabs (Scylla serrata)
Extruded grouper feed (a), extruded shrimp feed (b), formulated feed with gelatine (c)
and seafood-mix feed (d)

a b c d

©F. Yasumaru, AIC

TABLE 1
Formulation and composition (“as-is” basis) of the experimental feed for Scylla serrata

Ingredients % Ingredients %

Fishmeal 29.8 Soy lecithin 1.0

a
Soybean meal (fermented) 18.0 Astaxanthin (pigment) 0.2
Poultry by-product meal 10.0 Vitamin-mineral premixb 1.0
Squid liver meal 6.0 Proximate composition %

Blood meal 3.0 Crude protein 43.3

Krill meal 2.0 Crude fat 10.0
Fish hydrolysate 5.0 Mineral 13.3
Fish oil 6.0 Total carbohydrates 13.4
Gelatine 10.0 Energy (kcal/kg) 3 922.4
Polychaete meal 8.0
a
Carophyll® pink, DSM Thailand.
b
Vitamin-mineral premix (unit/kg): Vitamin A 3 500 000 IU, Vitamin D3 1 500 000 IU, Vitamin E 75 g, Vitamin K3 15 g,
Vitamin B1 12.5 g, Vitamin B2 10 g, Vitamin B6 12.5 g, Vitamin B12 0.01 g, Niacin 50 g, Panthotenic acid 40 g, Biotin
0.5 g, Folic acid 5 g, Vitamin C 100 g, Copper 12.5g, Manganese 15 g, Iodine 0.5 g, Cobalt 0.1 g, Zinc 50 g, Selenium
0.175 g.

Formulated feeds with full-fat black soldier fly larvae protein

Three iso-nitrogenous (crude protein 45 percent) feeds were formulated and fed to
S. serrata in a completely randomized design. The basal feed with 30 percent FM served
as the control (100 percent FM). Two experimental feeds were prepared replacing FM
at 50 and 100 percent. The ingredients and formulations are shown in Table 2. Full-fat
246 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

BSFL meal and other ingredients were grounded, sieved and homogenously mixed in a
Hobart mixer. Around 30 percent warm water was applied to prepare the dough. The
pellets were made into sizes of 2.0–2.5 cm in length as shown in Figure 2.
Each feed was fed to three mud crabs with an initial body weight of 34.83 ± 7.90 g
and carapace width (CW) of 5.85 ± 0.44 cm to satiation in a recirculating aquaculture
system for 120 days. The feeding trial was performed twice with the same experimental
set up conditions. The salinity, temperature, pH and dissolved oxygen of the water
were 25.0 ± 1.0 ppt, 26.4 ± 1.5 °C, 7.5 ± 0.50, and 4.5 ± 0.72 mg/L, respectively. The
ammonia, nitrite and nitrate levels were measured at 0.25 ± 0.10 mg/L, 0.00 mg/L,
and 20.00 ± 10.00 mg/L, respectively, which remained within acceptable ranges
throughout the study. At the end of the trial, each crab was individually weighed
and its CW measured. Likewise, weight gain (g), final weight (g), specific growth rate
(SGR; %/day), feed conversion ratio (FCR) and protein efficiency ratio (PER) were
determined.

FIGURE 2
Experimental diets fed to juvenile mud crabs (Scylla serrata)
Feeds with zero (a), 50 % (b) and 100% (c) BSFL content

a b c

©Md. Arefin Rahman, AIC

100% FM 50% FM + 50% BSFL 100% BSFL

TABLE 2
Ingredients and proximate composition (% as-fed basis) of the experimental feeds with varied
levels of fishmeal (FM) and black soldier fly larvae (BSFL)
Ingredients T1 T2 T3
(% of feed) (100% FM) (50% FM+50% BSFL) (100% BSFL)
Fishmeal 30.0 15.0 0
BSFL (microwave-dried) 0 15.0 30.0
Wheat gluten 7.5 10.0 18.0
Squid liver meal 6.0 7.0 8.0
Krill meal 8.0 8.0 3.0
Fish hydrolysate 4.0 4.0 4.0
Fish oil 8.0 1.0 –
Dried yeast – 1.5 3.0
Lecithin 2.0 2.0 2.0
Gelatine 10.0 10.0 10.0
Ulva meal (seaweed) 2.0 2.0 2.0
Polychaete worms 8.0 8.0 8.0
Mud crab feeds and feeding management 247

TABLE 2 (CONTINUED)
Ingredients T1 T2 T3
(% of feed) (100% FM) (50% FM+50% BSFL) (100% BSFL)
Wheat flour 8.0 10.0 5.5
Mineral premix 3.0 3.0 3.0
Vitamin premix 3.0 3.0 3.0
Carophyll pink 0.5 0.5 0.5
Proximate composition (%)

Crude protein 45.0 44.80 45.20

Crude lipid 14.80 13.10 16.60
NFE1 8.60 13.0 12.80
Energy (Kcal) 4 274.10 4 284.70 4 635.70
1
Nitrogen free extractables.

Statistical analysis
Growth performance data from both feeding trials – the first (shrimp feed and
grouper feed) and the second (seafood mix and formulated feed) – were analysed using
GraphPad™ Prism 9.3.1 software. Welch’s t-test was applied to evaluate the data, with
differences between treatments considered significant at a 5 percent probability level.
For the experiment evaluating FM replacement with BSFL, all collected data were
analysed using one-way ANOVA in the statistical software SPSS 22 (SPSS Inc.,
Chicago, United States of America) for Microsoft Windows. Tukey’s range test was
used to differentiate between means, with significance determined at the 95 percent
confidence level.

RESULTS

High-protein commercial and formulated feeds

Growth performance of crabs fed with extruded shrimp and grouper feed, and crabs
fed with formulated feed and seafood-mix are presented in Table 3 and Table 4,
respectively. The crabs fed with shrimp or grouper feed did not show any significant
differences (p > 0.05) in the final body weight and final CW, total weight gain and
survival rate (Table 3). Total weight gain (percentage) varied between 53.4 ± 22.0 to
55.5 ± 25.0.

TABLE 3
Morphometric parameters and survival rate of Scylla serrata after feeding with extruded
shrimp and grouper feed for 60 days
Parameters Shrimp feed Grouper feed

Initial body weight (g) 14.4 ± 4.7 22.9 ± 10.7

Initial carapace width (cm) 4.1 ± 0.5 4.7 ± 0.8
Final body weight (g) 22.0 ± 8.0 32.0 ± 15.3
Final carapace width (cm) 4.8 ± 0.6 5.4 ± 0.9
Total weight gain (%) 55.5 ± 25 53.4 ± 22.0
Survival (%) 95 100
Values are mean ± SE, where n = 20.
Weight gain (g/ind.) = final weight (g/ind.) − initial weight (g/ind.).

In the second feeding trial, the final body weight, total weight gain percentage and
SGR were significantly higher in crabs fed with the experimental feed compared to the
seafood-mix feed (p < 0.05) (blend of mussels, squid, oyster and trash fish) as shown in
248 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Table 4. However, FCR, moulting and survival percentage of crabs were comparable
(p > 0.05) in the two feeding groups.

TABLE 4
Comparison of morphometric and performance parameters of Scylla serrata after 73 days
feeding with seafood-mix and experimental feed
Seafood-mix Experimental
Parameters
feed feed
Initial body weight (g) 0.54 ± 0.20 0.54 ± 0.17
Initial carapace width (cm) 1.57 ± 0.22 1.57 ± 0.19
Final body weight (g) 1.78 ± 0.83b 3.23 ± 0.73a
Final carapace width (cm) 2.32 ± 0.39 2.87 ± 0.18
Total weight gain (%) 206 ± 45b 576 ± 77a
b
Specific Growth Rate (%/day) 1.47 ± 0.42 2.57 ± 0.34a
Feed Conversion Rate 7.1 ± 2.59 3.87 ± 0.96
Moulting (%) 71 86
Survival (%) 71 86
Values are mean ± SE, where n = 7.
Weight gain (g/ind.) = Final weight (g/ind.) - Initial weight (g/ind.).
Specific growth rate (SGR, %/day) = ([lnW2 - lnW1] / [T2 - T1]) × 100; W1 = Initial weight; W2 = Final weight; T2 - T1 =
Culture period (days).
Feed conversion ratio (FCR) = feed intake ∕ weight gain (g/ind.).

Carapace pigmentation varied among crabs fed with the experimental feed and
those fed with other tested diets, including commercial shrimp feed, grouper feed,
and seafood mix feed. Notably, crabs fed the experimental diet containing astaxanthin
exhibited distinct pigmentation, while crabs on all other diets developed bluish
carapaces, as illustrated in Figure 3.

FIGURE 3
Colour difference of juvenile Scylla serrata fed with seafood-mix (a) and
experimental feed (b)

a b ©F. Yasumaru, AIC

Black soldier fly larvae protein in mud crab diet

After 120 days of the feeding trial, no mortality was observed among the crabs across
all feeding groups. Growth performance data are presented in Table 5. Key parameters,
including final weight, weight gain, CW, SGR, FCR and PER, showed no significant
differences (p > 0.05) in crabs fed diets where FM was replaced with BSFL at levels up
to 100 percent.
Mud crab feeds and feeding management 249

TABLE 5
Growth performance and nutrient utilization of mud crab after 120 days of feeding with
fishmeal (FM) replacement diet using black soldier fly larvae (BSFL)
Initial
Initial Final Weight Carapace Consumed
carapace SGR
Feed type weight weight gain length gain feed FCR PER
width (%/day)
(g/ind.) (g/ind.) (g/ind.) (cm) (g/ind.)
(cm)
T1 25.75 ± 5.37 ± 91.86 ± 66.02 ± 2.38 ± 1.05 ± 98.89 ± 1.60 ± 1.47 ±
(100% FM) 7.71 0.61 33.04 25.48 0.25 0.06 4.78 0.55 0.50
T2
36.80 ± 5.97 ± 114.26 ± 77.46 ± 2.36 ± 1.03 ± 111.73 ± 1.48 ± 1.55 ±
(50% FM +
5.55 0.19 13.90 16.67 0.33 0.19 10.84 0.31 0.29
50% BSFL)
T3 37.17 ± 6.05 ± 113.55 ± 76.38 ± 2.45 ± 1.06 ± 119.03 ± 1.59 ± 1.42 ±
(100% BSFL) 8.88 0.40 12.48 14.50 0.80 0.07 10.11 0.27 0.22
Values are mean ± SD, n = 3.
Weight gain (g/ind.) = Final weight (g/ind.) - Initial weight (g/ind.)
Specific growth rate (SGR; %/day) = ([lnW2 - lnW1] / [T2 - T1]) × 100; W1 = Initial weight, W2 = Final weight, T2 - T1 = Culture period
(days).
Feed conversion ratio (FCR) = feed intake / weight gain (g/ind.).
Protein efficiency ratio (PER) = weight gain / total protein intake.

DISCUSSION
Diets of 45–55 percent crude protein and 9–15 percent lipid appear to support optimal
growth in S. serrata crablets (Shelley and Lovatelli, 2011). Catacutan (2002) reported
that a formulated feed with 32–40 percent protein and either 6 percent or 12 percent
fat is conducive to optimal growth in mud crabs. In another study, Catacutan (2017)
reported better conversion ratios and specific growth rates in feed containing higher
protein levels (48 percent). In the present study, crabs fed on formulated feed with
43 percent crude protein and 10 percent crude fat presented a higher percentage weight
gain compared to the commercial shrimp feed, commercial grouper feed or seafood-mix
feed. The results showed that faster weight gain and frequent moulting can be achieved
with feeds containing higher protein and lipid levels. Nevertheless, feed conversion
ratio was still poor (3.87 ± 0.96) in crabs fed with formulated feed as compared to
previously reported values of 1.2–2.1:1 for juvenile crabs (Shelley and Lovatelli, 2011).
Mud crabs have been reported to efficiently digest a variety of plant-based and
terrestrial animal ingredients (Catacutan et al., 2003), expanding the range of raw
materials that can be used to develop nutrient-rich and more sustainable crab feeds.
However, mud crabs are messy eaters, handling feed with their chelae and often leaving
significant amounts of uneaten feed behind. To minimize feed wastage, the use of an
effective binder is essential. From a nutritional perspective, protein-based binders such
as zein, wheat gluten, or gelatine are preferable to polysaccharide-based binders like
agar, alginate or carrageenan (Holme, Zeng, and Southgate, 2009).
Observations of mud crabs feeding in the wild, such as their consumption of marine
worms, suggest that they may feed more efficiently on tubular, “spaghetti-like” feeds
(Shelley and Lovatelli, 2011). Based on this insight, gelatine was used in the formulated
feeds to enable the creation of cylindrical pellets measuring 4–5 cm in length. These
pellets were stable, easier for the crabs to handle, and minimized feed waste. The
inclusion of marine ingredients enhanced the feed’s attractiveness, while the addition
of astaxanthin was critical for promoting natural shell pigmentation.
Formulated feeds offer consistent and balanced nutrition, supporting improved
growth, better health, and vibrant shell coloration – a key factor influencing the
marketability of crabs.
The use of BSFL in S. serrata feeds during the 120-day feeding trial demonstrated
that BSFL can serve as a viable alternative protein source, as it had no adverse effects on
crab health or survival. Previous studies have shown that BSFL can promote positive
growth and improve the health status of several aquatic species (Mohan et al., 2022).
250 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

While no significant differences were observed in growth performance or FCR between

the control and BSFL-incorporated experimental feeds, the results suggest that insect
protein in the feed supports healthy growth due to its essential amino acid profile.
Consequently, fishmeal can be safely replaced with full-fat BSFL in formulated feeds
for mud crabs.
In conclusion, mud crabs can benefit from feeding on formulated diets, which
improved growth performance compared to commercial shrimp, grouper feeds or
seafood-mix. Additionally, BSFL can be used as an alternative protein source in mud
crab feeds, promoting growth and enhancing overall health. However, further research
is needed to ensure that crab health and growth performance are not negatively
impacted when fed pelleted diets containing BSFL over longer periods. In this study,
while the crabs were gradually conditioned to accept formulated pellets over 2–4 weeks,
they exhibited varying feeding behaviours. Some crabs responded immediately to the
pellets, while others took longer to start eating or consumed the feed more slowly.
Additional research is needed to better understand these feeding behaviours and
optimize the adaptation of crabs to formulated feeds.

RECOMMENDATION
Given the declining wild fish stocks, there is an urgent need to prioritize fish for human
consumption rather than using it for fishmeal in aquaculture. To reduce reliance on
fish, aquaculture feeds must shift towards alternative ingredients that do not compete
with human nutrition. Formulated feeds for crabs should incorporate more terrestrial
plants, microalgae, animal by-products, invertebrates and single-cell proteins. Further
research is needed to determine optimal inclusion levels based on factors such as
digestibility, growth, gut health, immune response and production cost. Additionally,
it is crucial to include appropriate binders, lipids, sterols and pigments in the feed, as
these are essential for promoting growth, successful moulting and maintaining overall
health (Kanazawa, 2001; Suprayudi, Takeuchi and Hamasaki, 2012).

REFERENCES
Catacutan, M.R. 2017. Biological evaluation of existing feed formulations for the growth-
out culture of mud crab S. serrata. In: E.T. Quinitio, F.D.P. Estepa & R.M. Coloso, eds.
Philippines: In the forefront of the mud crab industry development. Proceeding of the 1st
National Mud Crab Congress, Iloilo, Philippines. Iloilo City, Philippines, Aquaculture
Department, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC/AQD).
Catacutan, M.R. 2002. Growth and body composition of juvenile mud crab, Scylla serrata,
fed different dietary protein and lipid levels and protein to energy ratios. Aquaculture,
208(1–2): 113–123.
Catacutan, M.R., Eusebio, P.S. & Shin-Ichi, T. 2003. Apparent digestibility of selected
feedstuffs by mud crab, Scylla serrata. Aquaculture, 216(1–4): 253–261.
FAO. 2023. Fishery and Aquaculture Statistics. Global aquaculture production. Rome
[Cited 20 November 2023].
Henry, M., Gasco, L., Piccolo, G. & Fountoulaki, E. 2015. Review on the use of insects in
the diet of farmed fish: Past and future. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 203(1): 1–22.
Holme, M.H., Zeng, C. & Southgate, P.C. 2009. A review of recent progress toward
development of a formulated micro bound diet for mud crab, Scylla serrata, larvae and
their nutritional requirements. Aquaculture, 286(3–4): 164–175.
Kanazawa, A. 2001. Sterols in marine invertebrates. Fisheries Science, 67(6): 997–1007.
Kaya, M., Karaarslan, M., Baran, T., Can, E., Ekemen, G., Bitim, B. & Duman, F. 2014.
The quick extraction of chitin from an epizoic crustacean species (Chelonibia patula).
Natural Product Research, 28(23): 2186–2190.
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Kroeckel, S., Harjes, A.G.E., Roth, I., Katz, H., Wuertz, S., Susenbeth, A. & Schulz, C.
2012. When a turbot catches a fly: Evaluation of a pre-pupae meal of the black soldier fly
(Hermetia illucens) as fish meal substitute – Growth performance and chitin degradation
in juvenile turbot (Psetta maxima). Aquaculture, 364–365: 345–352.
Liu, X., Chen, X., Wang, H., Yang, Q., Ur Rehman, K., Li, W., Cai, M., Li, Q., Mazza,
L., Zhang, J., Yu, Z. & Zheng, L. 2017. Dynamic changes of nutrient composition
throughout the entire life cycle of black soldier fly. PLOS ONE, 12(8): e0182601.
Mohan, K., Rajan, D.K., Muralisankar, T., Ganesan, A.R., Sathishkumar, P. & Revathi,
N. 2022. Use of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.) larvae meal in aquafeeds for
a sustainable aquaculture industry: A review of past and future needs. Aquaculture,
553: 738095.
Sealey, W.M., Gaylord, T.G., Barrows, F.T., Tomberlin, J.K., McGuire, M.A., Ross, C.
& St-Hilaire, S. 2011. Sensory analysis of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, fed
enriched black soldier fly pre-pupae, Hermetia illucens. Journal of the World Aquaculture
Society, 42(1): 34–45.
Shelley, C. & Lovatelli, A. 2011. Mud crab aquaculture – A practical manual. FAO Fisheries
and Aquaculture Technical Paper, No. 567. Rome, FAO. 78 pp.
Suprayudi, M.A., Takeuchi, T. & Hamasaki, K. 2012. Phospholipids effect on survival and
molting synchronicity of larvae mud crab Scylla serrata. HAYATI Journal of Biosciences,
19(4): 163–168.
Weththasinghe, P., Hansen, J., Nøkland, D., Lagos, L., Rawski, M. & Øverland, M. 2021.
Full-fat black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) meal and paste in extruded diets for
Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar): Effect on physical pellet quality, nutrient digestibility,
nutrient utilization and growth performances. Aquaculture, 530: 735785.
 253

Prophylactic treatment for mud

crabs

Diana Chan Pek Sian, Saravanan Padmanabhan, Huang Yun-Tzu, Germaine Lau,
Deborah Chua, Md Arefin Rahman & Lee Chee Wee
Aquaculture Innovation Centre, Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore

ABSTRACT
There are no commercial mud crab production farms in Singapore but there are a few
companies such as local importers and wholesalers that utilize “water crabs” for crab
fattening. As imported mud crabs are coming from various sources including wild-
caught and cultured, there is a risk of them carrying pathogens causing disease that
would significantly impact the farming operations. The current prophylactic treatment
given to imported mud crabs is a formalin (40 percent formaldehyde) bath (150–
200 ppm) for 30 minutes. The present study was done to identify an environmentally
friendly prophylactic treatment for mud crabs for companies that are engaged in
mud crab fattening, grow-out and soft-shell crab production, or for crabs used in
hatchery research. In this preliminary work, comparative analysis of five different
treatment modalities were studied: formalin, formalin in combination with oxolinic
acid (OXO), sodium percarbonate (SPC) and OXO, SPC and oxytetracycline (OTC),
and a commercial organic water conditioner for invertebrates (MangrozymeTM).
Improvements in the treatment outcome were observed among the SPC/OXO and
SPC/OTC experimental groups.

INTRODUCTION
Singapore is the world’s second-largest importer of live mud crabs, following China,
with annual imports exceeding 3.3 million kg of live and chilled mud crabs, and an
average daily consumption of 10 t. A variety of pathogens – including viruses, bacteria,
parasites, and fungi – can potentially affect mud crab broodstock, posing significant
biosecurity risks and potentially impacting hatchery operations. Shell disease and
fouling organisms are common issues among mud crab broodstock, which are sourced
from diverse locations. Previous investigations into mud crabs with shell disease
identified pathogens such as Vibrio species (V. parahaemolyticus, V. harveyi), as well as
other bacteria including Pseudoalteromonas lipolytica, Priesta megaterium and Bacillus
amyloliquefaciens (AIC, unpublished data).
Diseases in Scylla serrata continue to cause significant mass mortalities and
substantial economic losses for farmers worldwide (Chen et al., 2011). Of the four viral
diseases reported in mud crabs – white spot syndrome virus (WSSV), muscle necrosis
virus, mud crab reovirus (MCRV) and baculovirus – MCRV is particularly pathogenic.
MCRV has been implicated in numerous outbreaks and severe economic losses in
open pen culture systems. Furthermore, MCRV has been associated with sleeping
disease (SD) in S. serrata (Weng et al., 2007; Zhang et al., 2013).
Proper broodstock handling, as well as hatchery and nursery culture operations,
require stringent hygiene and biosecurity measures to achieve consistently high larval
survival rates. While existing procedures for incoming adult crabs, such as short-term
formalin baths, are recommended, they may not provide comprehensive protection.
Although Singapore does not have commercial mud crab production farms, a few
254 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

farms and importers engage in sorting water crabs from the catch for fattening or
soft-shell crab production. Implementing effective treatment protocols during crab
conditioning is a critical first step in ensuring farm biosecurity. This study evaluated
a comprehensive prophylactic treatment for incoming mud crabs, focusing on the
effectiveness of non-formalin approaches compared to current standard practices.

METHODOLOGY
In this preliminary investigation a total of 30 samples of S. serrata including 23 females
and 7 males from the same source, were divided into five experimental groups as
follows:

GP-I: Standard protocol formalin 150 ppm for 30 minutes.

GP-II: Formalin at 100 ppm for 1 hour daily for 2 days, followed by an oxolinic
acid (OXO) treatment 15 ppm (1.5 g/100 L) – 1 hour daily for 5 days.
GP-III: Sodium percarbonate (SPC) 45 g + citric acid (16 g/100 L) – 1 hour daily
for 2 days, followed by OXO treatment as in GP-II.
GP-IV: SPC treatment as in GP-III for 2 days, followed by oxytetracycline
(OTC) 20 ppm (2 g/100 L) – 1 hour daily for 5 days.
GP-V: Commercial MangrozymeTM for invertebrates treatment – 10 ppm daily
for 7 days.

Six crabs were allocated to each experimental group (Table 1). The average
body weight (BW) and carapace width (CW) of crabs were 252.56 ± 10.86 g and
11.02 ± 1.7 cm, respectively. The mud crabs were maintained in 25 ppt salinity water at
room temperature (26–27 °C) with a dissolved oxygen content of > 5 mg/L. Unionized
ammonia and nitrite levels were < 1 ppm and < 0.1 ppm, respectively. The doses of
SPC, OXO and OTC are derived from AIC’s treatment protocols for marine fishes
for ectoparasites and bacterial pathogens. The usual treatment course is 5–7 days for
bacteria, with intermittently spaced treatment for fish parasites extending for 14 days.
The farms follow an appropriate withdrawal period post-treatment regime to comply
with the maximum residue level (MRL) of drugs in randomly sampled fishes.
Water from each treatment tank was analysed for total coliform and Escherichia coli
count using the 3M Petrifilm aerobic plate count method (Figure 1) post-treatment 3
(T3) to compare microbial load in respective crab holding tanks.

TABLE 1
Experimental groups (GP) of mud crabs and prophylactic treatment (T) modalities
GP-I GP-II GP-III GP-IV GP-V

Baseline crab sampling

Day 0 T1 Formalin Formalin SPC SPC MangrozymeINV
Day 1 T2 – Formalin SPC SPC MangrozymeINV
Day 1 sampling
Day 2 T3 – OXO OXO OTC MangrozymeINV
Day 3 T4 – OXO OXO OTC MangrozymeINV
Day 3 sampling
Day 4 T5 – OXO OXO OTC MangrozymeINV
Day 5 T6 – OXO OXO OTC MangrozymeINV
Day 6 T7 – OXO OXO OTC MangrozymeINV
Day 7 Day 6 sampling
SPC: Sodium percarbonate; OXO: Oxolinic acid; OTC: Oxytetracycline.
Prophylactic treatment for mud crabs 255

FIGURE 1
Total coliform and Escherichia coli count determination in 3M Petrifilm aerobic count
plate, showing colonies at two different water sample dilutions

1:50 dilution 1:500 dilution

©S. Padmanabhan, AIC

Sedation or stunning followed by various euthanasia methods, such as spiking nerve
centres or using a clove oil bath, has been employed in different studies to ensure the
humane killing of mud crabs. In this study, mud crabs were sedated in a saltwater
ice slurry for 15 minutes. Haemolymph samples were collected from the base of the
swimming legs using a 1 ml insulin syringe (29 gauge × 12.7 mm) and immediately
transferred to anticoagulant tubes containing a solution of 400 mM NaCl, 25 mM
EDTA, 30 mM sodium citrate, 25 mM citric acid, 150 mM dextrose (pH 5.0).
After haemolymph collection, the mud crabs were euthanized using 300 mg/L
AQUI-S for 30 minutes. The crab shells were then opened for gross observation of
internal organs and gill parasites. Tissue samples from the hepatopancreas, gills, gut
and heart were dissected, homogenized and preserved through ultralow freezing.
Portions of the homogenates were plated on selective and enrichment agar media for
microbiological analysis, including TCBS (thiosulfate citrate bile salt sucrose agar),
BHI (brain heart infusion agar), MA (marine agar) and TSA (tryptic soy agar). The
remaining homogenates were divided for DNA and RNA extractions and stored at
-80°C for molecular analysis.
Gill tissue DNA extracts were screened for WSSV using an IQ2000 WSSV PCR
kit following the manufacturer’s protocol. Positive PCR results were identified by the
presence of 333 bp and 630 bp bands during agarose gel electrophoresis, visualized
using gel red staining.
MCRV was screened from RNA extracts of hepatopancreas and gut tissue
samples collected from mud crabs representing the five experimental groups. In brief,
cDNA was generated by reverse transcription reaction, followed by PCR using
forward primer (5’-TCAGTGTCTTCAGCTTTAGGTTG-3’) and reverse primer
(5’-TCTCTTGAGGCCTAGATTCG-3’) with cycling conditions involving initial
denaturation at 95 °C for 2 minutes followed by 35 cycles of 10 seconds at 95 °C
(denaturation), 30 seconds at 61 °C (annealing), 30 seconds at 72 °C (elongation) and a
final elongation for 5 minutes at 72 °C. The PCR-amplified products were analysed by
agarose gel electrophoresis and Gelred staining and visualization in a Syngene G:BOX
imaging system. Positive PCR produced a predicted 483-bp amplicon.
256 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

RESULTS
The average baseline total coliform and E. coli count determined in experimental tanks
was observed to be 3 000 CFU/ml. More than 1-log reduction in water bacterial load
was observed among experimental groups III and IV during Day-3 sampling as shown
in Table 2 below.

TABLE 2
Coliform and Escherichia coli count in experimental tank water sampled on Day-3 of the
experimental study
Coliform count E. coli count
Experimental tanks
(CFU/ml) (CFU/ml)
GP-I 5 000 ± 424 2 100 ± 141
GP-II 1 550 ± 353 430 ± 28
GP-III 360 ± 56 125 ± 35
GP-IV 255 ± 35 65 ± 7
GP-V 4 950 ± 212 1 500 ± 282

In GP-I, 100 percent of the microbes identified were pathogenic, including

94.7 percent Vibrio isolates of which V. parahemolyticus contributed 52.6 percent.
GP-V bacteria isolations were 81.9 percent pathogenic with Vibrio bacteria contributing
63.7 percent (Table 3). GP-III and GP-IV showed the lowest isolation of pathogenic
microbes at 71.1 and 50 percent, respectively. The total Vibrio isolates were 42.7
and 25 percent, with corresponding V. parahaemolyticus of 21.4 and 12.5 percent,
respectively. GP-II isolates were 66.9 percent pathogenic with Vibrio contributing
58.4 percent of these.

TABLE 3
Pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacterial isolates identified from different prophylactic
treatment groups
GP-I GP-II GP-III GP-IV GP-V
Bacterial isolates
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Pathogenic bacteria
Vibrio parahaemolyticus 52.6 16.7 21.4 12.5 36.4
Vibrio campbelli 10.5 0.0 0.0 12.5 9.1
Vibrio alginolyticus 10.5 8.3 7.1 0.0 9.1
Vibrio panuliri 10.5 0.0 7.1 0.0 0.0
Vibrio ponticus 5.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Vibrio harveyi 5.3 16.7 0.0 0.0 0.0
Vibrio sinaloensis 0.0 16.7 0.0 0.0 9.1
Vibrio mediterranei 0.0 0.0 7.1 0.0 0.0
Proteus vulgaris 5.3 0.0 7.1 0.0 0.0
Enterococcus sp. 0.0 8.3 7.1 12.5 0.0
Pseudomonas sp. 0.0 0.0 7.1 0.0 0.0
Photobacterium ganghwense 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 18.2
Oceanimonas sp. 0.0 0.0 7.1 12.5 0.0
Non-pathogenic bacteria
Shewanella algae (warm water - soil and water) 0.0 25.0 0.0 25.0 9.1
Shewanella aquamarine (probiotic) 0.0 8.3 0.0 0.0 0.0
Shewanella rhizosphaerae 0.0 0.0 7.1 0.0 0.0
Tenacibaculum mesophilum 0.0 0.0 7.1 25.0 0.0
Staphylococcus kloosii 0.0 0.0 14.3 0.0 0.0
% Vibrio isolates of the total bacteria
94.7 58.4 42.7 25.0 63.7
remaining after each treatment
Prophylactic treatment for mud crabs 257

FIGURE 2
RT-PCR analysis of mud crabs sampled on days 3 and 6 post-treatment showed positivity
for mud crab reovirus in all experimental groups

Day-3 Treatment sampling Day-6 Treatment sampling

©AIC
Baseline reovirus testing of mud crabs showed positive results in the hepatopancreas
and negative in the gut samples. However, hepatopancreas and gut samples from
two crabs in each of the five experimental groups sampled on Day-3 showed positive
results for reovirus infection (Figure 2). All gill samples tested were negative for WSSV
both in baseline and in Day-3 sampling.

DISCUSSION
Vibriosis is an important disease in the culture of portunid crabs, and one which can
infect all stages of crabs (Coates and Rowley, 2022). Vibriosis is known to cause severe
economic losses and is responsible for mass mortality in shrimp, fish and shellfish
(Novriadi, 2016). Antibiotics and other chemicals have been used for treatment
and prevention of vibriosis. However, drug-resistant strains may develop with the
constant use of antibiotics. As Singapore emphasizes a clean and green environment for
aquaculture, chemicals that are hard to remove from the environment are discouraged.
Sodium percarbonate and citric acid powder are ecofriendly cleaning products that
also act as disinfectants. Citric acid is a weak organic acid found commonly in citrus
fruits. When mixed with sodium percarbonate which acts against bacteria and mould,
the chemical reaction results in the formation of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water which
are environmentally friendly. Prophylactic treatment involving SPC and oxolinic
acid recorded a higher survival rate during the holding period, and with a more than
90 percent reduction in water microbial load during the treatment phase. The advantage
of SPC application lies in its faster activity peaking between 15 and 45 minutes and
leaves no traces of chemical impact to the environment. The by-products are hydrogen
peroxide, CO2 and water.
Oxolinic acid is a synthetic quinolone antibiotic authorized in veterinary medicine
for use in finfish, calves, pigs and poultry. It is active against gram-negative and gram-
positive bacteria (more so against the former) and has been used for prophylaxis and
therapy for rainbow trout (Roger and Austin, 1983). It is a synthetic antibacterial
agent used in the treatment of fish diseases in many countries. According to a study
on the retention of oxolinic acid and oxytetracycline residues in fish and sediments
from five fish farms after chemotherapy (Bjorklund, Rabergh and Bylund, 1991), the
absorption of oxolinic acid into the treated fish was faster than that of oxytetracycline.
The former was also excreted faster with only 0.05–0.2 µg/g in the fish sediments for
5 days after the treatment of the fish. On the other hand, OTC concentrations of
0.8–6.3 µg/g remained at that level in the fish sediments.
258 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

OTC is one of the most used antimicrobial agents approved for aquaculture to
control and treat bacterial diseases (USFDA, 2008; Olatoye and Afisu, 2013). While
the safety, efficacy, and withdrawal period of OTC have been established for certain
temperate fish species, there is a lack of comprehensive studies on its use in tropical
fish. Optimization is required for tropical fish species, including considerations for
the treatment method (oral administration through feed or immersion), as well as its
impact on fish behaviour, growth, histopathology and tissue residue levels.
In contrast, Mangrozyme™ did not demonstrate a significant impact at a 10 ppm
dose when used in mud crab treatment. This outcome differs from earlier trials
conducted with Litopenaeus vannamei (whiteleg shrimp), where both prophylactic
(10 ppm for 5 days) and disease challenge rescue protocols (100 ppm for 1 day
followed by 4 days at 20 ppm) significantly reduced cumulative mortality rates during
a 7-day observation period. In these shrimp trials, 44 percent protection was achieved
compared to an 84 percent mortality rate in the control group (unpublished data)
when challenged with Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Additionally, ammonia levels were
notably lower in the prophylactic-cum-rescue group (0.75 mg/L) compared to the
control group (6.0 mg/L). Further studies are needed to determine the optimal dosing
of Mangrozyme™ for prophylactic treatment in mud crabs.
Reovirus is a highly virulent pathogen that causes significant mortality in mud crabs
(Scylla spp.), with clinical symptoms including loss of appetite, lethargy, loose gills,
enlarged hepatopancreas and shell discoloration (Weng et al., 2007). Currently, there
are no available treatments for controlling this pathogen. Histopathological analysis
of infected mud crabs has revealed atrophied hepatopancreas, tissue degeneration, and
viral inclusions in the hepatopancreas, gills and muscles (Sravani et al., 2024).
To mitigate the impact of MCRV, stringent biosecurity measures are essential in
aquaculture settings. Regular monitoring of MCRV in polyculture farms is crucial for
early detection and intervention. A practical, non-lethal screening method involves
collecting small volumes (< 50 µL) of hemolymph from broodstock to test for MCRV
using quantitative RT-PCR. This approach enables the identification and selection of
MCRV-free breeding crabs for stocking in culture facilities.
Mud crabs are known carriers of WSSV and typically remain asymptomatic.
Natural WSSV infections have been documented in a few studies involving both
wild-caught and farmed mud crabs at various growth stages (Jithendran et al., 2011).
Although vertical transmission of WSSV from wild broodstock has been proposed, this
phenomenon has not been extensively studied or well-documented.
It is critically important for shrimp farmers to understand whether mud crabs act as
reservoirs of WSSV capable of transmitting the virus to farmed shrimp. This concern
is particularly relevant in regions where monoculture or polyculture of mud crabs is
widely practiced alongside shrimp farming. Addressing this knowledge gap is essential
to mitigate the risk of WSSV outbreaks and safeguard shrimp aquaculture systems.

RECOMMENDATION
Further studies involving a larger sample size of mud crabs in treatment groups are
needed to validate the promising results observed with prophylactic treatments using
sodium percarbonate and oxolinic acid. These studies should aim to determine the
optimal dosage and duration of the treatment regimen for effective disease control.
Additionally, investigating the gut microbiota and immune responses of treated and
untreated mud crabs could provide valuable insights into the treatments’ broader
physiological and immunological impacts.
Prophylactic treatment for mud crabs 259

REFERENCES
USFDA (United States Food and Drug Administration). 2008. Freedom of information
summary – Supplemental new animal drug application – NADA 038-439 – TERRAMYCIN
200 for fish – oxytetracycline dihydrate – type a medicated article. Maryland, USA,
USFDA.
Bjorklund, H.V., Rabergh, C.M.I. & Bylund, G. 1999. Residues of oxolinic acid and
oxytetracycline in fish and sediments from fish farms. Aquaculture, 97(1): 85–96.
Cecília de Souza, V. 2022. Anaesthesia of decapod crustaceans, Veterinary and Animal
Science, 16: 100252.
Chen, J.G., Yang, J.F., Lou, D., Juan, X. & Wu, S.Y. 2011. A Reo-like virus associated
with high mortality rates in cultured mud crab, Scylla serrata, in East China. In: M.G.
Bondad-Reantaso, J.B. Jones, F. Corsin & T. Aoki, eds. Proceedings of the Seventh
Symposium on Diseases in Asian Aquaculture. Selangor, Malaysia, Asian Fisheries
Society, Fish Health Section.
Christopher, J.C. & Andrew, F.R. 2022. Emerging diseases and epizootics in crabs under
cultivation. Frontiers in Marine Science, 8: 809759.
Coates, C.J. & Rowley, A.F. 2022. Emerging diseases and epizootics in crabs under
cultivation. Front. Mar. Sci., 8: 809759.
Coloso, R.M., Catacutan, M.R. & Arnaiz, M.T. 2015. Important findings and
recommendations on chemical use in aquaculture in Southeast Asia. Iloilo City,
Philippines, SEAFDEC/AQD (Aquaculture Department, Southeast Asian Fisheries
Development Center).
Jithendran, K.P., Poornima, M., Balasubramanian, C.P. & Kulasekarapandian, S. 2011.
Diseases of mud crab (Scylla spp.): an overview. Indian Journal of Fisheries, 57(3): 55–63.
Novriadi, R. 2016. Vibriosis in aquaculture. Omni-Akuatika. Journal of Fisheries and
Marine Research, 12:1.
Olatoye, O. & Afisu, B. 2013. Antibiotic usage and oxytetracycline residue in African
catfish (Clarias gariepinus in Ibadan, Nigeria). World Journal of Fish and Marine Sciences.
5: 302–309.
Rodgers, C.J. & Austin, B. 1983. Oxolinic acid for control of enteric redmouth disease in
rainbow trout. Veterinary Record, 112(4): 83.
Roth, B. & Øines, S. 2010. Stunning and killing of edible crabs (Cancer pagurus). Animal
Welfare, 19(3): 287–294.
Rotlant, G., Llonch, P., Garcia Del Arco, J.A., Chic, O., Flecknell, P. & Sneddon, L.U.
2023. Methods to induce analgesia and anaesthesia in Crustaceans: A supportive decision
tool. Biology, 12(3): 387.
Shelley, C. & Lovatelli, A. 2011. Mud crab aquaculture – A practical manual. FAO Fisheries
and Aquaculture Technical Paper No. 567. Rome, FAO. 78 pp.
Sravani, S., Gopalakrishnan, A., John, A.S., Ramasubramanian, R., Kesavaperumal,
G., Prabhu, N.M., Dhasarathan, B. & Natarajan, S.B. 2024. Incidence of mud crab
reovirus (MCRV) outbreak in polyculture ponds of Andhra Pradesh, southeast coast of
India. The Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 204: 108092.
Weng, S.P., Guo, Z.X., Sun, J.J., Chan, S.M. & He, J.G. 2007. A reovirus disease in cultured
mud crab, Scylla serrata, in southern China. Journal of Fish Diseases, 30(3): 133–139.
Zhang, D., Yang, K., Su, Y., Feng, J. & Guo, Z. 2013. A duplex nested-PCR assay for
detection of mud crab reovirus and mud crab dicistrovirus-1. Journal of Fishery Sciences
of China, 20(4): 808–815.
Zhu, L., Qi, S., Shi, C., Chen, S., Ye, Y., Wang, C., Mu, C., Li, R., Wu, Q., Wang, X. &
Zhou, Y. 2023. Optimizing anaesthetic practices for mud crab: A comparative study of
clove oil, MS-222, ethanol, and magnesium chloride. Antioxidants, 12(12): 2124.
 261

Value chain, processing and

international trade in soft-shell
mud crab

Andrew Ng Ying Hui

HJT Foods Sdn. Bhd., Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
SG Crabs World Ltd., Kyauktan Township, Yangon Region, Myanmar

ABSTRACT
Soft-shell crab is a high-value, specialty seafood that is prized for its soft, edible shell,
which allows consumers enjoy the same delicate white crab meat without the hassle
of breaking apart the otherwise-hard shell. What used to be a niche product, soft-shell
crabs have become a mainstay in many Japanese restaurants around the world. Its
consumption is expected to increase, buoyed by the continued growth of the Japanese
restaurant sector and the adoption of soft-shell crabs in other cuisines. The major
markets for soft-shell crabs include the United States of America (which alone imports
about one third of the global supply), various Asia-Pacific countries and Europe. The
increasing demand for soft-shell crabs and their high value-added potential has led to
a rapid proliferation of soft-shell crab farms in recent years, especially in Myanmar,
Indonesia and Bangladesh, which together produce most of the product available in the
international market. The soft-shell crab value chain, starting from the capture of seed
stock to farming and processing then export, poses a unique set of challenges that limits
production and increases the cost of this specialty seafood product. These challenges
include: the long distances that seed stock must be transported over to farms, leading
to significant stress and mortality; the reliance on extensive culture methods due to
the cannibalistic nature of crabs; and the labour-intensive process of monitoring and
harvesting newly moulted crabs during the short window of opportunity before their
shells harden. Therefore, there are many opportunities for innovations to increase the
efficiency of soft-shell crab production and further expand this industry.

OVERVIEW OF THE GLOBAL SOFT-SHELL MUD CRAB INDUSTRY

Most soft-shell mud crabs (Scylla spp.) available in the global market today come from
Southeast Asia, wherein Myanmar, Indonesia and Bangladesh are the main producing
countries (Figure 1). Commercial scale soft-shell mud crab production is thought to
have started in Thailand, which developed the extensive farming system comprised
of floating rafts and plastic baskets that is still in use today in many other countries.
Thailand was the global leader of soft-shell crab production by volume in the 1990s to
2000s. However, the soft-shell crab industry in Thailand gradually declined due to the
diminishing wild mud crab population. The industry continues to operate in Thailand
but is reliant on mud crabs imported from its neighbouring countries Myanmar and
Viet Nam. For example, the soft-shell crab farms along the western coast of Thailand,
notably Ranong, source an estimated 80 percent of the mud crabs from the Tanintharyi
region of Myanmar.
The technology for soft-shell crab farming was later transferred from Thailand to
the southern region of Myanmar in the early 2000s and extended to other parts of the
country. The industry in Myanmar saw a rapid expansion in the past decades due to the
262 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 1
Overview of the main Southeast Asian countries exporting soft-shell mud crabs
Most soft-shell crabs currently available in the international market comes from Myanmar,
Indonesia and Bangladesh.

Note: Refer to the disclaimer on the copyright page for the names and boundaries used in this map.

abundance of natural mud crab resources and is currently one of the largest exporters
of soft-shell crabs in the world. About 50 percent of its soft-shell crabs are exported to
the Asia-Pacific (APAC) market (such as China, Hong Kong SAR, Japan, Singapore,
and Taiwan Province of China); the United States of America is the single largest
importer (35 percent), whereas the European market’s share is relatively small given
that Myanmar only received European Union export authorization in 2018. Soft-shell
crab production is currently stable in Myanmar, but the country needs to invest in
sustainable practices to secure the long-term sustainability of this food sector.
From Myanmar, soft-shell crab farming continued to spread westwards from its
Rakhine region into the adjacent Cox’s Bazaar in eastern Bangladesh, where it was first
established in 2011. However, the number of farms in eastern Bangladesh saw a massive
decline of 80 percent between 2014 to 2017, attributed to poor linkage to global value
chains and shortage of seed supply (Lahiri et al., 2021). On the other hand, soft-shell
crab farming seems to have taken hold in the Sundarbans in southwestern Bangladesh,
where there are 350–400 farms in operation. At present, about 70 percent of the
soft-shell crabs produced in Bangladesh are exported to Australia and Japan (Md.
Mojibar Rahman, personal communication). In contrast to Thailand, Myanmar, and
Bangladesh, farming methods in Indonesia have evolved distinctly, utilizing the limb
autotomy-moulting method described below. Despite these differences, Indonesia
remains a significant player in the global soft-shell crab industry. Soft-shell crab
farming is practised in other parts of Southeast Asia including Viet Nam, Malaysia and
the Philippines, but not at the same scale.
Value chain, processing and international trade in soft-shell mud crab 263

MOULTING METHODS

Natural moulting vs. limb autotomy

Crustaceans, including crabs, need to shed their hard-shells (a natural process called
“moulting”) to grow (Waiho et al., 2021). Natural moulting is the primary method
used in major soft-shell crab producing and exporting countries such as Myanmar,
Thailand and Bangladesh. Limb autotomy, or the deliberate removal of a crab’s claws
or legs, is used to induce moulting as part of the crab’s natural survival mechanism for
regenerating lost limbs (Figure 2). This method is widely practiced in Indonesia to
accelerate the moulting process, reducing holding times, minimizing mortality during
captivity, and improving turnaround time. Furthermore, as declawed crabs cannot eat
well, farmers often forego feeding, significantly lowering farming costs. The origin
of this practice in Indonesia, as opposed to other countries, is not clear. However,
the notable commercial benefits likely incentivize its continuation, despite ethical
concerns. Research has shown that the limb autotomy method yields lower-quality
crabs, with reduced post-moult body size and weight, missing limbs, or regrown limbs
that are smaller, particularly the claws (Fujaya et al., 2020) (Figure 2). In contrast,
naturally moulted soft-shell crabs exhibit fuller white meat content and more appealing
physical characteristics.
In the soft-shell crab market, many importers and distributors have come to
appreciate the differences between natural vs. artificial moulting, which they tend
to advertise in their product packaging or websites. In comparison, soft-shell crabs
produced by limb autotomy have been colloquially referred to as “balloon crabs”,
describing the absence of meat inside the normal looking exterior. These “balloon

FIGURE 2
Comparison of the physical appearance of soft-shell crabs produced by natural
moulting vs. limb autotomy
The dorsal (a) and ventral (b) views of a naturally moulted soft-shell crab compared to
crabs subjected to partial or full limb autotomy resulting in soft-shell crabs with either
limbs of smaller sizes (c) or completely missing limbs (d).

a b

c d
©Y. Fujaya
264 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

crabs” are also prone to bursting when deep fried in hot oil (the most common cooking
method for soft-shell crabs), which can be dangerous to food preparers. Despite the
lower quality of soft-shell crabs produced by limb cutting, the lower cost of goods
compared to naturally moulted crabs is attractive for countries with lower costs of
living and price-sensitive consumers. As a result, the market is currently segmented
into the higher-quality and higher cost naturally moulted crabs vs. the lower-quality
and lower cost crabs produced by limb cutting. Naturally moulted soft-shell crabs
(especially from Myanmar and Bangladesh) have greater market share in countries such
as the United States of America and in the European Union whereas Indonesian origin
soft-shell crabs have a considerable market share in the Asia-Pacific.

SOFT-SHELL CRAB VALUE CHAIN

Soft-shell crabs have high value-added potential, which on average can be exported at
3.5-times of the unit price of hard-shell crabs sold by fishers. The overall process of
soft-shell crab production requires a well-organized network of stakeholders, starting
with the fishers involved in the capture and tie-up of hard-shell crabs from the wild,
which are subsequently accumulated at the village or township level then sold, with the
facilitation of domestic live-crab traders, to soft-shell crab farms (Figure 3 and Figure 4).
Soft-shell crabs are then transported to processing facilities to be graded, sized, cleaned,
individually wrapped and frozen within hours after harvest before the new shells
harden. Due to the narrow window of opportunity for the soft-shelled state, processing
facilities should ideally be directly adjacent to or near to the producing farms.
Delays in harvesting or processing the soft-shell crabs result in lower quality
products with a tougher, paper-like skin. Additionally, soft-shell crabs received at the
processing facility should still be alive and are visually inspected for the appearance
and colouration of their shells and, more importantly, whether there are any broken
or missing legs. Lower quality products are usually sold at discounted prices to the
domestic market, to be consumed in local restaurants or hotels. During processing,
export-grade soft-shell crabs can be prepared as either “whole clean” products, with
the undesirable parts of the crab removed (e.g. gills, apron or abdominal flap, antennae,

FIGURE 3
Cost of goods in the soft-shell crab value chain in Myanmar in 2019
Values assume an exchange rate of 2 100 MMK (Myanmar Kyats) to 1 USD
Cost of goods in the soft-shell crab value chain in Myanmar
30 000
Hard-shell crab Soft-shell crab

25 000 ~US$11 at export* (2019)

Selling price (Myanmar Kyats)

20 000
∆3.5x on average
(but can reach up to 6x)
15 000

10 000

5 000

0
Crab Fisher Collector Local buyer SSC farmer Local sales SSC processor Export

Note:
* Export Export
price price represents
represents the average
the average ofofWhole
Whole Round
Roundandand
Whole CleanClean
Whole prices across
pricesdifferent
across sizes.
different sizes.

Source: Adapted from Robalino, J.J., Russell, A.J.M. & Soewarno, N. 2019. Myanmar Ayeyarwady Delta: Bio-based value
chain analysis for sustainable mangrove restoration. Seoul, The Global Green Growth Institute.
Value chain, processing and international trade in soft-shell mud crab 265

Soft-shell crab production requires a well-organized network of

FIGURE 4
stakeholders
Overview of the stakeholders and corresponding activities in the soft-shell crab value chain

Function Input supply / Collection Domestic trade Soft-shell crab Processing Export or local
production (Live Crabs) farming sales

Stakeholders
Crab Soft-shell
Seafood Seafood
Collectors Traders crab
Fishers farmers processors processors

Activities Capture Collect at village Clean Soft-shell crab Sort based on size Export
Tie up or township Determine size farming Process and freeze Local sales and
level Tie up Package distribution
Determine sizes Weigh
Weigh Package
Overnight Store (river or
storage in boxes)
boxes Organize
Package transport
Store in ponds

Source: Adapted from García, V. 2021. Impact of COVID-19 on the mud crab value chain in
Adapted
Source:State,
Rakhine fromYangon,
Myanmar. García,Myanmar,
V. 2021.Mercy
Impact of COVID-19
Corps’ on the
Market Analysis mud crab value chain in Rakhine State, Myanmar. Yangon, Myanmar,
Unit.
Mercy Corps’ Market Analysis Unit.
3

claw pins), or “whole round” in which the entirety of the crab remains intact. Many
countries importing soft-shell crabs have basic requirements for an active HACCP
(Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point) food safety management system. Other
countries, especially in the European Union, have additional food safety requirements
in the form of GFSI (Global Food Safety Initiative) recognized standards such as the
BRCGS (Brand Compliance Global Standard), IFS (International Featured Standard),
or ISO (International Organization for Standardization) 22000.
After processing, the ready-to-cook, individually quick frozen (IQF) soft-shell
crabs are typically packed into 1 kg cardboard boxes and are ready to be exported.
Most of the soft-shell crab products available in the market are shipped frozen because
of the transient nature of the soft-shelled state. Exported products need to adhere
to a complex set of requirements such as product labelling, food testing and proper
documentation, which varies depending on the importing country.

SOFT-SHELL CRAB CONSUMPTION

The most common method of cooking soft-shell crabs is deep frying, which turns the
edible shell into a thin, crispy layer that contrasts with the juicy white crab meat on
the inside. Other regions may have different cooking methods, such as pan-frying in
the East Coast of the United States of America or steaming in parts of southern China.
The most popular ways to prepare soft-shell crabs in Japanese cuisine is either in sushi
rolls (“spider rolls”) which are thought to have been invented by Vancouver-based
Chef Hidekazu Tojo in the 1970s (Harowitz, 2017), or as tempura (coated in a light
flour batter then deep-fried) (Figure 5a and Figure 5b). The appetite for soft-shell crabs
grew and it became a mainstay of many Japanese restaurants in the United States and
eventually spread to other Japanese restaurants around the world.
There are an estimated 187 000 Japanese restaurants outside Japan as of 2023, reflecting
a 20 percent increase since 2021, according to a survey by the Japanese Ministry of
Agriculture (Verdict Food Service, 2023). This growth in the Japanese restaurant sector
is expected to sustain global demand for soft-shell crabs. Additionally, their adoption in
other cuisines is further driving demand. For instance, Thai restaurants in the Republic
of Korea have creatively replaced hard-shell mud crabs with soft-shell crabs in dishes
like Thai stir-fried crab yellow curry (phu phat pong karee; Figure 5c). In Japan, the
country’s first burger chain, DomDom, introduced a soft-shell crab burger to its menu
in 2020 (Japan Today, 2020; Figure 5d). As restaurants and consumers become more
266 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 5
Popular ways of preparing soft-shell crabs
Spider rolls (a) and tempura soft-shell crabs (b) are currently the mainstay menu items in
many Japanese restaurants around the world, whereas soft shell crab burgers (c) and Thai
soft shell crab curry (d) are starting to gain more popularity.

a b

©Kura Sushi
©Kura Sushi

c d
©Soie et Épice

©PR Times
familiar with soft-shell crabs, there will likely be more creative ways to incorporate this
ingredient in different recipes and cuisines.
Depending on the type of cuisine or restaurant and consumer preferences, soft-
shell crabs are sold in different sizes. For example, soft-shell crabs served as entrées
presented as the whole crab are typically larger whereas those used in Japanese sushi
rolls are typically smaller. Sizes for whole clean soft-shell crabs, which are mostly
exported to the United States of America and Europe, follow the nomenclature set
by the American soft-shell blue swimming crab industry, which has a long history
dating back to the mid-1800s. Soft-shell crab production in the United States of
America was reported to have started in New Jersey around 1855, and by 1905 the
products were being exported to Europe (Hungria et al., 2017). Whole clean, soft-shell
crab sizes include “super colossal” (6 pieces/box), “colossal” (7 pieces/box), “super-
whale” (8 pieces/box), “whale” (9–10 pieces/box), “jumbo” (12 pieces/box), “prime”
(14 pieces/box) and “hotel” (18 pieces/box).
Whole round sizes are mostly applicable to the Asia-Pacific market and follows a
set of weight ranges (e.g. “100/200” referring to 100–200 g) for the individual soft-shell
crab pieces. Overall, product sizes for soft-shell crabs in the market are standardized
and well established.

FUTURE PERSPECTIVES ON THE SOFT-SHELL CRAB MARKET

Global consumption of soft-shell crabs is expected to grow, driven by the increasing
number of Japanese restaurants and the diversification of preparation methods (see
Figure 5). A SWOT analysis of the soft-shell crab value chain is shown in Figure 6.
Unlike hard-shell crabs, soft-shell crabs are more convenient to eat, as their edible
shells reduce mess and waste. However, they are primarily served in restaurants
Value chain, processing and international trade in soft-shell mud crab 267

because deep frying, the most common cooking method, involves excessive oil and is
less convenient for home preparation.
Home consumption could see modest growth with the rising popularity of air
fryers – compact convection ovens offering a healthier, more convenient alternative to
deep frying. As of March 2023, nearly 60 percent of U.S. households own air fryers
(Lucas, 2023). To capitalize on this trend, manufacturers should conduct market
research to develop value-added products, such as air fryer-compatible tempura soft-
shell crabs or meal kits.
Soft-shell crabs remain a specialty seafood item due to their high cost and limited
supply compared to other proteins like fish (e.g. cod, salmon) and shrimp. Innovations
on the supply side to increase yields and reduce costs could broaden their appeal and
drive greater adoption.
Consumer misconceptions may also hinder the popularity of soft-shell crabs,
with many people unfamiliar with the natural moulting process. Anecdotal evidence
suggests that some incorrectly believe soft-shell crabs are a distinct species or that
their shells are chemically treated to become soft. Raising awareness and educating
consumers about the product’s natural origins could be key to boosting consumption.
In summary, the soft-shell crab market represents a fascinating niche with unique
challenges and opportunities, offering a commercially attractive space for future
innovation and growth.

FIGURE 6
SWOT analysis for the soft-shell crab industry

STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES
 Convenience of soft-shell crabs (i.e. no  Low volume and high-cost limits it to being a
picking, no waste) is aligned with specialty seafood item
consumer preferences  Cooking method limited to frying
 Mostly available in restaurants but not retail

S W
 Low consumer awareness and understanding
about product quality

OPPORTUNITIES
 Demand tied to growth of Japanese
O T THREATS

 Increasing costs might lead restaurants to

restaurants and sushi consumption, which eliminate expensive items from menu
is steadily increasing
 Increased penetration in other cuisines
(e.g. burgers, salads, phu phat pong
curry)

13

REFERENCES
Fujaya, Y., Rukminasari, N., Alam, N., Rusdi, M., Fazhan, H. & Waiho, K. 2020. Is
limb autotomy really efficient compared to traditional rearing in soft-shell crab (Scylla
olivacea) production? Aquaculture Reports, 18: 100432.
Harowitz, S. 2017. Hidezaku Tojo: Roll with the punches. Montecristo Magazine, 11
Dec 2017. Vancouver, Canada. [Cited 12 Dec 2023]. https://montecristomagazine.com/
magazine/winter-2017/hidekazu-tojo.
Hungria, D.B., dos Santos Tavares, C.P., Pereira, L.Â., Silva, U.A.T. & Ostrensky, A.
2017. Global status of production and commercialization of soft-shell crabs. Aquaculture
International, 25: 2213–2226.
268 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Japan Today. 2020. Japan’s first ever burger chain celebrates with a whole fried crab
burger. Japan Today, 25 Sep 2020. Tokyo. [Cited 12 Dec 2023]. https://japantoday.com/
category/features/food/japan%E2%80%99s-first-ever-burger-chain-celebrates-with-a-
whole-fried-crab-burger.
Lahiri, T., Nazrul, K.M.S., Rahman, M.A., Saha, D., Egna, H., Wahab, M.A. & Mamum,
A. 2021. Boom and bust: soft-shell crab farming in south-east coastal Bangladesh.
Aquaculture Research, 52(10): 5056–5068.
Lucas, A. 2023. Nestle, Tyson and other food giants bet on air fryer boom to grow sales.
CNBC, 5 March 2023. Englewood Cliffs, USA [Cited 12 Dec 2023]. https://www.cnbc.
com/2023/03/05/nestle-tyson-air-fryer-boom.html.
Verdict Food Service. 2023. Japanese restaurants overseas triple to 187,000 over past decade.
Verdict Food Service, 21 Nov 2023. New York, USA. [Cited 12 Dec 2023]. https://www.
verdictfoodservice.com/news/japanese-restaurants-overseas-triples/?cf-view.
Waiho, K., Ikhwanuddin, M., Baylon, J.C., Jalilah, M., Rukminasari, N., Fujaya, Y. &
Fazhan, H. 2021. Moult induction methods in soft-shell crab production. Aquaculture
Research, 52(9): 4026–4042.
 269

Quality standard of mangrove crabs

Emilia T. Quinitio1 & Camille Baraquiel2

1
Integrated Services for the Development of Aquaculture and Fisheries, Iloilo City, Philippines
2
Standards Development Division, Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Standards, Department
of Agriculture, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines

ABSTRACT
The handling, storage, and transportation of mangrove or mud crabs must be managed
effectively from capture to its destination to ensure the delivery of high-quality,
marketable crabs to consumers. In many crab producing countries, established
national quality standards for locally produced mud crabs are lacking. While traders
and exporters often strive to meet the quality requirements of importing nations,
the absence of comprehensive domestic guidelines highlights a significant gap in the
industry. The quality of crabs is evaluated based on the fullness of meat by palpation,
relative weight to size, and overall appearance. Crabs exhibiting mechanical injuries,
oozing haemolymph or bleeding, bubbling or frothing at the mouth, or displaying
weak movements are excluded from final packing and transportation. When crabs
are kept out of water for several days, ammoniacal excreta accumulate in their gills,
resulting in an unpleasant odor. Prolonged storage also causes the crab muscles to
become emaciated, making the limbs prone to detachment. To maintain their quality,
crabs should not be held for more than three days after harvest.
In the Philippines, the Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Standards (BAFS)
under the Department of Agriculture (DA) is tasked with developing and promoting
standards to ensure food safety, product quality, workers’ health and welfare,
environmental management, and the global competitiveness of Philippine agriculture
and fishery products. BAFS has established Philippine National Standards (PNS) for
various crab products, including live, fresh chilled, and fresh frozen mangrove crabs
(product standard), soft-shell crabs (product standard), chilled or frozen crabs (code
of practice), and the Code of Good Aquaculture Practices. These standards outline
food safety and quality requirements for different crab product forms, aiming to
protect consumer health while ensuring global competitiveness. The PNS developed
by DA-BAFS are aligned with regional and international standards, particularly those
set by the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and Codex Alimentarius.

INTRODUCTION
Active and healthy mangrove crabs command a good price in the market. However,
crabs must be handled, stored and transported properly to maintain their quality from
the time they are caught until they reach their final destination. High quality crab
satisfies the end consumers and commands higher prices for traders.
In the Philippines, the Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Standards (BAFS) of the
Department of Agriculture (DA) is mandated to develop and promote standards to
ensure food safety, quality, workers’ health and welfare, environmental management,
and global competitiveness of Philippine agriculture and fishery products. BAFS, in
collaboration with relevant government and research agencies, academic institutions,
and stakeholders, developed the Philippine National Standards (PNS) for live, fresh
chilled and fresh frozen mangrove crabs (product standard), soft-shell crabs (product
standard), chilled or frozen crabs (code of practice) and the Code of Good Aquaculture
270 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 1
Process for the development of product quality standards
(Philippines National Standards – PNS)

Creation of Initial
New/ Revision/ TWG
Technical Initial draft stakeholder
Amendment/ meetings
Working Group
Adoption consultation
(TWG)

Finalization Public circulation

Working Field data
(Final SC, Posting TWG meetings
meeting draft PNS gathering
at the BAFS’s
(optional)
website)

Endorsement to
Endorsement to DTI-BPs repository
Philippine
Final draft the Department Approval of DA and notification to
National
PNS of Agriculture Secretary relevant
Standard
(DA) Secretary regulatory
agencies

Practices for shrimps and crabs. These PNS for crabs describe the food safety and
quality requirements for various crab product forms to safeguard the health of
consumers and secure globally competitive products.
The process for the development of a safe and quality standard is shown in Figure 1.
New or existing standards that need amendments or updating are proposed to BAFS
and then a technical working group (TWG) is formed composed of representatives
from relevant government agencies, academia, research institutions, private sector
and civil society organizations. The TWG is created through a Special Order signed
by the DA Secretary. The PNS draft is formulated and discussed in a series of TWG
meetings and stakeholder consultations that are conducted both physically and online
before the draft is endorsed to the Secretary of the DA for approval. The draft is also
posted on the BAFS website to elicit comments from relevant stakeholders and provide
transparency on the standards development process. The approved PNS can be used
to support the development of relevant policies and laws by concerned government
agencies. Regulators, legislators and other government representatives refer to
standards to protect consumers and business interests.
BAFS develops PNS which are harmonized with the regional and international
standards – in particular the ASEAN and the FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius
standards, respectively. Harmonization with the international standards is one of
the basic principles in the development of national standards that aim to protect
consumers’ health and facilitate fair practices in food trade (https://bafs.da.gov.ph).
The DA-BAFS conducted the most recent review of existing PNS related to fisheries
in 2023. This review aimed to re-evaluate and verify whether the provisions of the older
PNS remain relevant to current regulatory and market requirements. If necessary, PNS
are revised or amended every five years to incorporate updates that enhance consumer
product safety and ensure compliance with evolving standards. Additionally, the
review seeks to align product specifications with current market demands, ensuring
that the standards remain practical and competitive.
In many mangrove crab-producing countries, there remains a lack of documented or
established national quality standards for mangrove crabs. While traders and exporters
often adhere to the quality requirements of importing countries, these standards should
also be applied domestically to protect consumer health and uphold the business
interests of all stakeholders. Additionally, exporting countries must ensure compliance
Quality standard of mangrove crabs 271

with the standards established in the Philippines, further promoting consistent quality
and safety across markets.

POST-HARVEST QUALITY OF CRABS

Crabs are typically transported to trading centres immediately after harvest from
culture ponds or fishery collection sites. They are carried in woven baskets, sacks,
cartons, polystyrene boxes or crates, lined with clean, damp cloth or leaves to maintain
their freshness and prevent damage during transit (Figure 2). These are then classified
according to species, sex, body size and weight, maturity, completeness of limbs, and
presence of deformities (Figure 3) (The Mangrove Crab Technical Committee 2018,
2021).

FIGURE 2
Some containers used for the transportation of live crabs
Locally crafted baskets (a), carton (b) and polystyrene boxes (c)

a b c

©E.T. Quinitio
Quality grading
FIGURE 3
The quality of crabs is assessed by
Crabs are classified according to species, sex, body
examining the meat fullness through weight, maturity and completeness of limbs upon arrival
palpation and comparing their weight at the trading centre or consolidator
relative to their size (Figure 4). A firm
carapace indicates fullness of meat.
Crabs showing signs of mechanical
injuries, oozing haemolymph or
bleeding (Figure 5), bubbling or frothing
at the mouth, or exhibiting weak or
sluggish movements are excluded
from the packing process (Figure 6).
When crabs are kept out of water for
extended periods, ammoniacal excreta
accumulate over time. If unwashed,
this accumulation in the gills can cause
an unpleasant odour (The Mangrove
©E.T. Quinitio

Crab Technical Committee 2018, 2021).

To prevent this, crabs are thoroughly !
washed and cleaned to remove body
wastes and eliminate off-odours. Prolonged storage of crabs can also lead to muscle
emaciation. Without feeding, their glycogen reserves are depleted, forcing them to
use major energy sources such as lipids, carbohydrates and proteins. This results in
 272 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

muscle atrophy, weight loss, and easily

FIGURE 4
Meat fullness of a mud crab is checked by pressing the detached limbs, significantly reducing
sides of the carapace their market value. To preserve quality,
crabs should not be stored for more
than three days after harvest.

Packing
There are several containers used
for packing and transporting crabs
depending on the destination, mode of
transport and size of crabs. Polystyrene
boxes with ventilation holes are
©E.T. Quinitio

commonly used for air transport.

Carton boxes with ventilation holes are
utilized for road transport. Chunks of
ice are wrapped in paper and placed in
FIGURE 5
the container to maintain cool condition
Haemolymph oozing from the crab
during transport.

PHILIPPINE NATIONAL STANDARD

Currently, several approved Philippine
National Standards (PNS) pertain to
mangrove crabs. The following excerpt
is taken from the Bureau of Agriculture
and Fisheries Standards (BAFS) PNS:

• Live, fresh chilled, and fresh frozen

©The Mangrove Crab Technical Committee 2018

crabs – Product standard [BAFS-DA,

2023 (PNS/BAFS 177:2023 - ICS
67.120.30)]

In 2016, the PNS for Live Mangrove

Crab [BAFS-DA, 2016 (PNS/BAFS
177:2016)] was developed by a TWG
!
led by the Bureau of Agriculture and
Fisheries Standards. This standard
FIGURE 6 was created to establish a common
Bubbles (foaming) produced from the mouth of an adult understanding of key aspects related to
mud crab live mangrove crabs, including: the scope
of the standard; product and process
descriptions; essential composition
and quality factors; food additives;
contaminants; hygiene and handling
practices; packaging and labelling
requirements; methods of sampling,
examination and analysis; definitions
of defects; and lot acceptance criteria.
The standard covered all four species
©E.T. Quinitio

of mangrove crabs: Scylla serrata, Scylla

! olivacea, Scylla tranquebarica and Scylla
paramamosain.
In 2023, the standard was amended and reissued as Live, Fresh Chilled, and Fresh
Frozen Crabs – Product Standard (PNS/BAFS 177:2023 - ICS 67.120.30). This
Quality standard of mangrove crabs 273

updated version effectively cancelled

FIGURE 7
and replaced the 2016 standard for Selected crab species included in the Philippine National
Live Mangrove Crab. Key changes Standards that are marketed either live, fresh chilled and
introduced in the 2023 revision include: fresh frozen
• expanded the scope to include Mangrove crab (a), crucifix crab (b) and blue swimmer
all commercially available crab crab (c)
species; a
• added fresh chilled and fresh frozen
product forms to the scope;
• updated Normative References and
Terms and Definitions;
• enhanced microbiological safety
requirements, including the
addition of Shigella and Vibrio
cholerae;
• revised size classification of live
mangrove crabs to align with the
Department of Trade and Industry
regulations;
• updated labelling requirements to
reflect current standards; and b
• included Maximum Residue Limits
(MRL) for veterinary drug residues
in crabs.

The scope of the new PNS version

applies to crabs that are marketed either
live, fresh chilled, and fresh frozen.
This includes species of mangrove crab
(Scylla), crucifix crab (Charybdis),
and blue swimmer crab (Portunus)
(Figure 7) of the family Portunidae,
stone or king crab-related species of the
family Lithodidae and other species of
marine and freshwater crabs which have
similar morphological structures and c
features. The PNS provides a common
understanding on: description of the
product; essential composition and
quality factors; processing aid; hygiene
and handling; presentation, packaging
and labelling; methods of sampling,
examination and analysis; definition of
defectives; and lot acceptance.
The final crab product should
conform to the quality requirements as
shown in Table 1 and Table 2. The size
classification with consideration of the
existing ordinances is shown in Table 3.
©E.T. Quinitio
274 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

TABLE 1
Microbiological safety requirements for frozen raw crab
Microbiological parameter n c m M Source
Aerobic Plate Count (APC)/
Standard Plate Count (SPC) 5 3 106 107 FDA-DoH, 2022
Colony Forming Unit (CFU)/g
Escherichia coli, Most Probable Number
5 3 11 460 FDA-DoH, 2022
(MPN)/g
Salmonella/25 g 5 0 Absent FDA-DoH, 2022
Staphylococcus aureus, CFU/g 5 2 103 104 FDA-DoH, 2022
2 3
Vibrio parahaemolyticus, MPN/g 5 1 10 10 FDA-DoH, 2022
Vibrio cholerae/25 g Absent BFAR-DA, 2001a
Shigella/25 g Absent BFAR-DA, 2001b

n = number of sample units selected from a lot of food to be examined.

c = maximum allowable number of marginally accepted samples.
m = acceptable level of microorganisms determined by specific method.
M = level which when exceeded in one or more samples cause the lot to be rejected, as this indicates potential
health hazard or imminent spoilage.

TABLE 2
Maximum levels of heavy metals
Maximum level
Heavy metal Source
(mg/kg)
Lead 0.3 BAFS-DA, 2022
Mercury 0.5 BFAR-DA, 2001
Cadmium 0.5 BFAR-DA, 2001

TABLE 3
Size classification of live mangrove crabs
Body weight
(g)
Crab size class
Scylla serrata Other Scylla species
Male Female Male Female
Oversize > 1 000 > 700 > 500 > 400
Large 701–1 000 501–700 401–500 301–400
Medium 501–700 401–500 301–400 200–300
Small 200–500 200–400 200–300 –
Source: BAFS-DA (Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Standards - Department of Agriculture). 2023. Live, fresh chilled
and fresh frozen crabs – Product standard (PNS/BAFS 177:2023).

As per Executive Order No. 1016, Resolution No. 1, Series of 2013, Annex A – List
of prohibited and regulated products for export issued by the Department of Trade and
Industry–Inter-Agency Committee, live mangrove crabs (S. serrata) of less than 200 g
body weight (10 cm carapace length) are prohibited for export. Soft-shell crabs are not
included since these are traded in frozen form.

• Chilled or Frozen Crabs – Code of Practice [BAFS-DA, 2022 (PNS/BAFS

328:2022 - ICS 67.120.30)]

This PNS covers crabs marketed as live, fresh-chilled, or fresh-frozen. It applies to

species such as mangrove crabs (Scylla), crucifix crabs (Charybdis), blue swimmer crabs
(Portunus) from the family Portunidae, stone or king crabs from the family Lithodidae,
and other marine and freshwater crab species with similar physical characteristics.
The PNS outlines and details the requirements for facilities, hygiene practices,
handling procedures, and processing methods for chilled and frozen crabs. It also
Quality standard of mangrove crabs 275

addresses labour, community, and other social considerations related to the industry.
Furthermore, the PNS discusses potential hazards and defects associated with the
processing of chilled and frozen crabs.

• Fresh frozen soft-shell crab – Product standard [BAFS-DA, 2022 (PNS/BAFS

235:2022 - ICS 67.120.30)]

This 2022 PNS supersedes and replaces PNS/BAFS 235:2017, which had previously
been amended. The original standard on Soft-Shell Crab was developed by BAFS in
2017. However, in 2021, the Integrated Services for the Development of Fisheries and
Aquaculture, Inc. (ISDA, Inc.) proposed updates to address evolving food safety and
quality requirements. These updates include provisions on microbiological limits,
maximum levels of heavy metals, and maximum residue limits of veterinary drugs, as
well as revised standards for size classification, quality, and sensory attributes to align
with current regulatory and market demands. The key updates in this version are as
follows:
• exclusion of blue swimmer crab in the scope;
• amendment of size classification;
• updating of microbiological safety requirements and maximum level of heavy
metals;
• inclusion of quality and sensory attributes of raw soft-shell crab; and
• inclusion of maximum levels of veterinary drug residues.

The PNS applies to all the mangrove crab species presented as fresh frozen whole
soft-shell crab or fresh frozen dressed soft-shell crab intended for further processing
for human consumption.
There are only three size classifications for the soft-shell crabs as shown in Table 4.
Table 5 describes the quality and sensory attributes of fresh frozen whole and fresh
frozen dressed soft-shell crabs.

TABLE 4
Size classification of whole soft-shell crabs (preferably hatchery-reared crabs)
Body weight
Size Source
(g)
Large > 150
Medium 121–150 BAFS-DA, 2022
Small 100–120
Source: BAFS-DA (Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Standards – Department of Agriculture). 2022. Fresh frozen soft-
shell crab - Product standard (PNS/BAFS 235:2022 - ICS 67.120.30).

TABLE 5
Quality and sensory attributes of raw soft-shell crabs
Product forms
Descriptive
parameters Fresh frozen whole Fresh frozen dressed
Soft-shell crabs Soft-shell crabs
Appearance • Natural characteristic of the species. • Natural characteristic of the species.
• Complete body parts with the appendages • With one or more body parts
intact. removed or cut.
• Shell firmly attached to the body.
• Absence of deformities in the carapace and
appendages or any mechanical damage.
Texture Soft-shell with firm meat.
Odour No unpleasant odour (e.g. No ammonia-like odour, muddy smell, or any odour
uncharacteristic of the species.)
Source: Adapted from BAFS-DA (Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries Standards - Department of Agriculture). 2022.
Fresh frozen soft-shell crab – Product standard (PNS/BAFS 235:2022 - ICS 67.120.30).
276 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

The PNS defines and describes several key aspects, including the product and
process definition, essential composition and quality factors for both raw and final
products, food additives, contaminants, hygiene and handling practices, packaging
and labelling requirements, methods of sampling/examination/analysis, definition of
defects, and criteria for lot acceptance.

• Code of good aquaculture practices for shrimp and crab [BAFS-DA, 2017 (PNS/
BAFS 197:2017 - ICS 65.150)]

The Code of Good Aquaculture Practices (GAqP) for Shrimp and Crab provides
guidelines to prevent or mitigate risks associated with hazards during aquaculture
production, harvesting, and post-harvest handling of shrimp and crab, while ensuring
aquatic animal health and welfare. It is applicable to various aquaculture farms and
operations, including hatcheries, nurseries, and grow-out farms for shrimp and
mangrove crab. The code incorporates practices from the ASEAN Good Aquaculture
Practices for Shrimp Farming and the Good Aquaculture Practice Farmers Guidance
Workbook developed by BFAR under the European Union Trade-Related Technical
Assistance programme. It addresses key aspects of aquaculture production, including
food safety, animal health and welfare, environmental sustainability and socioeconomic
considerations.

• Establishment of traceability system for cultured finfishes and crustaceans —

Guidelines [BAFS-DA, 2022 (PNS/BAFS 338:2022 - ICS 67.120.30)]

This document serves as a guide in establishing a traceability system for cultured

crustaceans and finfishes that are marketed live, fresh chilled, or fresh frozen. This
covers operations from aquaculture inputs procurement, hatchery, nursery, grow-out,
marketing, post-harvest to end-product distribution, which correspond to the different
stages of the supply chain. The supply chain is further illustrated in Annex A of the
PNS (Generic supply chain for cultured finfishes and crustaceans).

PRODUCT STANDARDS IN THAILAND

• Soft-shell mud crab – Thai Agricultural Standard 7021 (TAS 7021, 2010)

The Thai Agricultural Standards Committee (TAS) has established a quality and
safety standard for soft-shell mud crabs to ensure consumer acceptance and enhance
competitiveness in the global market. Thailand exports soft-shell crabs to destinations
such as Australia, China, and the United States of America. The TAS standard
outlines the quality requirements for soft-shell crabs traded either fresh or frozen,
addressing key aspects such as product types and quality (minimum requirements)
and classification, sizing, product origin, packaging, contaminants and veterinary drug
residues, food additives, hygiene, labelling, official inspection and certification marks,
as well as methods of analysis and judgment criteria.
Notably, the TAS includes a greater number of size classifications for soft-shell
crabs compared to the PNS, as detailed in Table 6.
Quality standard of mangrove crabs 277

TABLE 6
Size classification of soft-shell mud crabs used in Thailand
Body weight Quantity
Size
(g/ind.) (ind./kg)
Special extra large > 200 3–4
Extra large > 150–200 5–6
Large > 120–150 7–9
Medium > 100–120 9–10
Small 70–100 > 10
Source: TAS (Thailand Agricultural Standard). 2010. Soft-Shell Mud Crab (TAS: 7021-2010). National Bureau of
Agricultural Commodity and Food Standards, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.

The levels of microbiological parameters identified by TAS in Table 7 is similar to

the microbiological safety requirements for frozen raw crab in the Philippine National
Standards (see Table 1).

TABLE 7
Microbiological criteria for soft-shell mud crab used in Thailand
Parameter n c m M
5 7
Total viable counts 5 3 5 × 10 CFU/g 10 CFU/g
Escherichia coli 5 3 11 MPN/g 500 MPN/g
Staphylococcus aureus 5 2 103 CFU/g 104 CFU/g
Salmonella spp. 5 0 Not found in 25 g
n = number of sample units for inspection from each lot.
c = maximum number of samples for which a quantity of microorganisms higher than the level specified is
allowed.
m = quantity of microorganisms allowable in the sample.
M = quantity of microorganisms found in the sample and is the reason for rejection of the lot.
CFU/g = colony forming unit per gram.
MPN/g = most probable number per gram.
When M is not specified, m and c shall be used as the criteria.

Source: TAS (Thailand Agricultural Standard). 2010. Soft-Shell Mud Crab (TAS: 7021-2010). National Bureau of
Agricultural Commodity and Food Standards, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.

PRODUCT STANDARDS IN MYANMAR

In 2018, Myanmar established technical regulations for the export and import of
fishery products, aligned with sanitary and phytosanitary requirements. These
regulations were developed through a collaborative effort involving the European
Union, Deutsche Zusammenarbeit, Myanmar’s Department of Fisheries (DOF), and
the Trade Development Program. The scope of these technical regulations (Myanmar
DOF, 2018) covers the following:

• Fishery Sector Operators – All entities involved in the production of fishery

products intended for export for human consumption, including:
– Primary production and associated activities, such as hatcheries, aquaculture
farms, feed mills, and feed importers or distributors.
– Fishing operations, including fishing vessels, carrier vessels, ice factories,
landing sites, auction halls, collection stations, and vehicles transporting fishery
products.
– Establishments for handling and processing fishery products.
– Independent cold storage facilities and warehouses used for storing fishery
products intended for export.
278 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

• Importers of Fishery Products – All operators in Myanmar importing fishery

products for domestic distribution or for further processing before export.
• National Competent Authority – The designated authority responsible for
developing enforcement and compliance programmes to verify and document that
all operators adhere to these regulations.

The technical regulations apply to all fishery products, including crabs, but
specifically exclude the production, handling, export or import of live bivalve products.

REFERENCES
BFAR-DA (Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources – Department of Agriculture).
2001a. Requirements for pre-processing and processing plants, the SSOP thereof and the
processing and quality requirements for shellfish. Fisheries Administrative Order 211,
Series of 2001. Quezon City, Philippines, BFAR-DA.
BFAR-DA (Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources – Department of Agriculture).
2001b. Rules and regulation on the exportation of fresh, chilled and frozen fish and
fishery/aquatic products. Fisheries Administrative Order 210, Series of 2001. Quezon
City, Philippines, BFAR-DA.
FDA-DoH (Food and Drug Administration – Department of Health). 2022. Guidelines
on the microbiological requirements and assessment of certain prepackaged processed
food products repealing FDA Circular No. 2013-010 entitled “Revised guidelines for the
assessment of microbiological quality of processed foods”. FDA-DOH Circular 2022-012.
Muntinlupa, Philippines, FDA-DOH.
Myanmar DoF. 2018 Technical regulations for export and import of fishery products
(Department of Fishery Directive No. 8/2018). Developed by the German Agency for
International Cooperation (Deutsche Gsellscheft fur Internationale Zusammenarbelt
[GIZ] GmgH). 77 pp.
The Mangrove Crab Technical Committee 2018. 2021 The Philippines Recommends
for Mangrove Crab. Los Baños, Philippines, Department of Science and Technology
- Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources Research and
Development (DOST-PCAARRD).
 279

Hard-shell mangrove crab farming

Emilia T. Quinitio
Integrated Services for the Development of Aquaculture and Fisheries, Iloilo City, Philippines

ABSTRACT
Mangrove crabs are grown in earthen brackish water ponds, pens or cages depending
on the site and type of culture system. Farming involves the long-term culture of
crablets to market size for 3–5 months, short-term culture (fattening) of lean crabs
for 15–30 days, or soft-shell crab production for 3–4 weeks for each batch. In the
grow-out culture of mangrove crabs for hard-shell production, polyculture of juvenile
crabs to market size with one or two other commodities in the pond is commonly
practised to maximize the utilization of the pond and enhance financial returns. These
may include fish species such as milkfish, siganid, tilapia, mullet, and spotted scat;
seaweeds; molluscs such as clams and oysters; and shrimps. Fattening of crabs for
1–2 weeks in communal or individual culture systems is done by some farmers to add
value to lean crabs. In the communal culture system, several lean crabs are stocked
in pond compartments, pens or cages. Pens and cages are set up in ponds, estuaries,
mangroves, sheltered coastal waters, shallow lagoons or bays. In the individual
culture system, crabs are stocked individually in compartmentalized bamboo cages,
perforated polyethylene containers or other improvised containers. Indoor vertical
farming utilizing the recirculating aquaculture system is also carried out for crab
fattening. Likewise, aquasilviculture or silvofisheries, which is the integration of the
culture of crab and other brackish water animals with the mangroves, is practiced in
some coastal areas. An area ranging between 500–2 000 m2 in a flooded mangrove
swamp is enclosed using bamboo or polyethylene netting. The occurrence of diseases,
abnormalities, and cannibalism are significant challenges in crab culture, posing
serious threats to its economic viability. These can be mitigated by using good quality
seedstocks, following good aquaculture practices, and by implementing effective
strategies to minimize cannibalism.

INTRODUCTION
Mangrove or mud crab (Scylla spp.) farming has long been established in the
Philippines (Quinitio, 2017). Initially, crab culture started unintentionally, with wild
seedstocks accidentally entering shrimp and fish culture ponds. Due to their suitability
for cultivation and ability to reach marketable size in shrimp or fish ponds, farmers
began intentionally stocking wild juvenile crabs at low densities alongside other
commodities. Currently, the majority of crablets used for farming are sourced from
the wild, with only 10–15 percent originating from hatcheries. Among the three Scylla
species commonly found in the country—Scylla serrata, Scylla olivacea and Scylla
tranquebarica – S. serrata is the preferred species for both hatcheries and grow-out
farms due to its larger size and ease of cultivation.
Mangrove crabs are raised in earthen brackish water ponds, pens or cages, depending
on site availability and the chosen culture system. Farming practices include long-term
culture, where juvenile crabs are grown to market size over 3–5 months; short-term
culture, or fattening, which enhances the condition of lean crabs in 15–30 days; and
soft-shell crab production, which takes approximately 3–4 weeks per batch. Crab
280 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

fattening can be performed using either communal or individual culture systems.

In communal systems, stocking density is kept low to mitigate the crabs’ natural
cannibalistic behaviour (The Mangrove Crab Technical Committee 2018, 2021).

CULTURE OF CRABS IN EARTHEN POND

Pond preparation – such as drying, liming, removing unwanted species, flushing
and applying fertilizers – is a common practice among many crab farmers. Proper
preparation is crucial, as the soil condition of the pond significantly impacts the quality
of the culture water. Therefore, thorough pond preparation is essential before stocking
crabs or other aquatic species. However, a small number of farmers fail to adhere
strictly to standard preparation practices, often due to the additional costs involved or
the limited availability of necessary supplies, such as lime, in their area.

Stocking
Initial stocking density in crab culture is low (800–1 000 ind./ha) compared to cultured
shrimp due to their cannibalistic behaviour. The duration of culture depends on
the initial size of crab juveniles at stocking. The larger the juveniles at stocking, the
shorter the duration of culture. Polyculture of juvenile crabs to market size with
one or two commodities (usually fish) in the pond is commonly practiced maximizing
the utilization of the pond. Herbivore (milkfish or siganid) or omnivore (tilapia)
fish (Figure 1) are grown together with crabs. A combination of three species is also
practiced but a lower stocking density is used for each commodity. Although growing
shrimps (Penaeus monodon) alongside crabs is generally discouraged due to their
shared susceptibility to similar diseases, such as white spot syndrome virus (WSSV),
some farmers still practice this combination to capitalize on the high market value of
both commodities. During the colder months (December-February), when WSSV is
prevalent, the stocking density of crabs is typically reduced to mitigate disease risks.
Juvenile crabs, stocked at 800–1 000 ind./ha, are often cultured alongside milkfish
fingerlings (1 000–2 000 ind./ha) or saline tilapia (1 000–2 000 ind./ha). Additionally,
seaweeds such as Gracilaria (Figure 2), which provide shelter, are sometimes grown
with crabs in ponds where salinity levels are favourable (20–28 ppt) (Trono, 1988).
In some cases, farmers adopt high stocking densities for mangrove crabs but thin
the population after 1–2 months to reduce competition and cannibalism. Polyculture
practices vary by region: in Bangladesh, S. olivacea are raised alongside tilapia or spotted
scat (Scatophagus) in brackish water ponds; in India, mud crabs are cultured with
mullet, tilapia, shrimp, oysters, clams or seaweeds. In Viet Nam, Scylla paramamosain
is polycultured with shrimp in mangroves or integrated with rice farming systems (Vu
Ngoc Ut, personal communication).
To prevent crab escapes, especially in ponds with low dykes, some farmers install
barriers made of bamboo or polyethylene netting as additional safeguards.

FIGURE 1
Fish such as milkfish (a), siganid (b) and tilapia (c) are cultured with mangrove crabs

a b c
©E.T. Quinitio

a a bb cc
a b c
Feeding management
The major food items for crabs are fish of various species, variety of molluscs including
small bivalves, cracked telescope snails or freshwater snails from rice fields, boiled
Hard-shell mangrove crab farming 281

corn and formulated feeds (Figure 3). FIGURE 2

Farmers prefer fish as feed for crabs Seaweed, Gracilaria, is sometimes grown with mangrove
because of the ease in preparation and crabs, which also serves as shelter
all parts of the fish are consumed. When
fish and molluscs are not available, the
crabs are fed boiled corn and animal
entrails to reduce feed cost. Crabs are
fed daily at 10 percent of their body
mass at the start of the culture period
and reduced gradually to 3 percent
as they grow to market size (The
Mangrove Crab Technical Committee
2018, 2021). However, many farmers
feed their crabs to satiation. Feeding
frequency varies from 1–2 times daily.
Feeding trays are fixed in such a way

©E.T. Quinitio
to monitor feeding consumption and
condition of the cultured animals. When !

FIGURE 3
Bivalves and other molluscs fed to mangrove crabs
Small bivalves (a), telescope snails (b), and freshwater snails from rice field (c)
!
a b c

©E.T. Quinitio
!

crabs are co-cultured with milkfish,

“lab-lab” – a complex mat of benthic FIGURE 4
Lab-lab grown in ponds as food for milkfish
algae, microorganisms, detritus, and
other organic matter that forms on the
bottom of ponds – is allowed to grow
abundantly after application of fertilizer
prior to stocking. This mat serves as
natural food for milkfish sometimes
also floating as patches on the surface
of the pond (Fortes and Piñosa, 2010)
(Figure 4).

Water management
Water is changed during spring tide or
whenever necessary. Water depth in
the pond is maintained above 50 cm.
©E.T. Quinitio

The condition of the crabs and water

are monitored regularly. Optimal water !
282 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

TABLE 1
parameters are maintained as much as possible by the farmers
Optimum water parameters for the
culture of mangrove crabs and fish
(Table 1). However, farmers that do not have a dissolved
oxygen meter, pH meter, test kits or nearby laboratories
Water parameters Value
where they can send the samples for analysis rely solely on
Temperature 27–31 °C
their observations based on several years of experience or by
Salinity 20–30 ppt
Dissolved oxygen 5 ppm using alternative simple and inexpensive tools or kits.
pH 7.5–8.5
Hydrogen sulphide 0.004 ppm Harvesting
Unionized ammonia 0.10 ppm Market size starts at 350 g for S. serrata or 200 g for S. olivacea
Nitrite 0.01 ppm
and S. tranquebarica. However, the desired weight for
Organic matter 1–10%
Transparency (Secchi disk) 20–30 cm S. serrata is 500 g or above in both local and international
Source: The Mangrove Crab Technical Committee
markets. Immature female crabs are increasingly being
2018. 2021 The Philippines recommends for harvested, provided they are sufficiently heavy. In ponds
mangrove crab. Department of Science and
Technology – Philippine Council for Agriculture,
or compartments, some crabs exhibit faster growth and can
Aquatic and Natural Resources Research and be harvested earlier than scheduled. Periodic harvesting of
Development (DOST-PCAARRD). Los Baños, market-sized crabs reduces competition for food and space,
Philippines.
as well as the incidence of cannibalism, allowing the smaller
crabs to grow faster. Partial harvesting is typically carried out using baited traps, which
are set and retrieved after several hours or the following day. Alternatively, during low
tide, the pond is partially drained, and as new water enters at high tide, large crabs
swimming toward the incoming water near the pond gate are scooped out.
Total harvesting is conducted once crabs and fish have reached market size. In most
polyculture systems, fish are harvested ahead of the crabs. Fish are usually gathered
during water exchange, as they tend to swim against the current and can be collected in
the catching pond or canal system using a seine net. For a complete harvest, the pond
is fully drained, and crabs and any remaining fish are collected manually. Undersized
or underweight crabs are either sold at lower prices or restocked in separate pond
compartments, cages, or pens for further culture or fattening.
Emergency harvesting may occur when high crab mortality is observed, often due
to white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) or other causes, necessitating immediate action
to minimize losses.

FATTENING OF CRABS IN PONDS, PENS AND CAGES

Often, 20–40 percent of the harvested crabs are found to have missing claws or walking
legs, be underweight (lean), or far too small. These crabs are deemed unsuitable for
the export market and are considered of low value in the domestic market. This issue
becomes more pronounced when crabs are stocked at higher densities. To address this,
some farmers engage in fattening or further culturing these crabs for 1–2 weeks, either
communally or individually, to enhance their market value. Lean crabs that are diseased
cannot undergo the fattening process and are excluded by farmers from subsequent
cultivation efforts.

Communal and individual culture systems

In communal culture system, several lean crabs are stocked in a pond compartment,
pen or cage. Pens and cages are set up in ponds, estuaries, mangroves, sheltered coastal
waters, shallow lagoons or bays. The cages may be floating or fixed (Figure 6). Crabs
are sometimes stocked at higher density, depending on their size, because moulting
frequency lessens as crabs increase in size. Crabs are harvested when fattened and
replaced again with lean but active crabs whenever available.
In other countries, crabs for fattening remain tied until they are harvested in
communal culture system to prevent cannibalism (Figure 5). In this way, retrieval of
crabs becomes easy. Feeding is not impeded by cheliped immobilization; however, the
holding period is generally short (about 1 week).
Hard-shell mangrove crab farming 283

In the individual culture system, FIGURE 5

crabs are stocked separately in Tied crabs stocked in cage for fattening in communal
compartmentalized bamboo cages, culture system
perforated polyethylene plastic
containers (like those used for soft-shell
crabs but larger, designed for fattening),
or other improvised containers such
as plastic crates, gallon containers or
baskets (Figure 6). To optimize pond
space, these cages or containers are
mounted on polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
or wooden frames and placed within the
pond, which may also house fish. This

©E.T. Quinitio
arrangement allows fish to graze on
filamentous algae growing on the walls !
of the cages or boxes, contributing to
pond ecosystem management.

FIGURE 6
High density polyethylene (plastic) boxes (a) and compartmentalized bamboo cages (b) positioned in
pond used for crab fattening in individual culture system

a b

©E.T. Quinitio
Crabs are also cultured in containers within indoor vertical farming systems that
utilize recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS). Some farmers modify RAS setups
using locally available materials to reduce costs, as purchasing a complete RAS setup
can be very expensive.

Feeding and water management

Crabs are fed with fish, molluscs, or other affordable protein sources readily available
in the area. The feed is prepared to match the size of the crabs’ mouths and is designed
not to fall through the holes at the bottom of the containers. Feeding is conducted once
or twice daily to satiation, with uneaten food removed from cages or pens before the
next feeding to maintain water quality.
Adequate water flow is essential, particularly when using cages, as it ensures proper
oxygenation and waste removal. To maintain optimal water circulation, periodic
inspections and cleaning of the cages are necessary to prevent the accumulation of
filamentous algae and other organisms that could obstruct water flow.

Harvesting
Harvesting is easier in the communal and individual culture systems because the crabs
are confined in smaller compartments or containers. Fattened crabs are selected, tied,
washed and classified before being brought to trading centres where the crabs are
further classified based on their quality.
 284 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 7
AQUASILVICULTURE
Mangroves enclosed with net for the culture of mangrove Aquasilviculture or silvofisheries,
crabs as in aquasilviculture integrates mud crab farming and
other aquatic species with mangrove
ecosystems (Figure 7) (Takashima, 2000;
Fitzgerald, 2000). In this system, the
flooded areas within mangroves are
enclosed using bamboo or polyethylene
pens ranging in size from 500 to 2 000 m².
The enclosures may be rectangular,
square or irregular in shape, depending
on the distribution of mangroves in the
area.
To facilitate feeding, monitoring and
sampling, catwalks or narrow bamboo
walkways are constructed in the middle
©E.T. Quinitio

of the pens. In some setups, overhang

! nets are installed at the top edges of the
pens to prevent escapes. Approximately 20 percent of the total pen area is designated as
canals to retain water during low tide, ensuring a continuous water source for the crabs.
Pens are ideally located in the lower part of the intertidal zone, where water remains
even during low tide. This is crucial because insufficient water levels during low tide
can negatively impact crab moulting and feeding. This setup is particularly suitable
for crab fattening, as the culture period is short (2–3 weeks). Additionally, the shorter
duration minimises moulting frequency, allowing for higher stocking densities during
the fattening process.
Although aquasilviculture has been adopted by many coastal communities,
numerous challenges have been reported (Dieta and Dieta, 2014). Many projects
struggled to succeed, particularly when aquasilviculture was used for long-term
culture, raising crabs from juveniles to market size. The extended culture period
increased the crabs’ exposure to predators and the likelihood of cannibalism, resulting
in significantly reduced yields for farmers.
Additionally, some aquasilviculture projects were established in unsuitable locations,
including areas with inappropriate mangrove species. Selecting the right mangrove
species is crucial for a successful site, as crabs require continuous submersion during
culture. However, certain mangrove species cannot tolerate prolonged submersion
of their aerial roots, leading to mangrove mortality – particularly in areas where low
dykes are built to retain water during low tide.
For example, Rhizophora species are typically found near flooding tides and rely
on branching stilt roots for oxygen and stability (Smithsonian Institution, 2024).
These roots suspend the trunk above water and feature lenticel openings that enable
oxygen uptake even when submerged. Similarly, mangrove genera like Avicennia,
Laguncularia and Sonneratia have pneumatophores – specialized aerial roots growing
from cable roots – that help the trees access oxygen in waterlogged conditions
(Smithsonian Institution, 2024).
Pens are best constructed in areas with mature mangroves that provide adequate
shade and protection against strong winds and typhoons, ensuring both the health of
the mangroves and the success of crab farming.

Feeding and water management

Algae, leaf litter, detritus, snails and other invertebrates are available in mangroves that
can serve as food for crabs aside from the food actively provided by the farmer (fish,
molluscs, etc.). Feeding is done once a day during high tide.
Hard-shell mangrove crab farming 285

Water exchange is maintained by ensuring a consistent flow of water in and out

of the pen. Any debris that accumulates around the pen, obstructing water flow, is
promptly removed. Canals are regularly maintained to ensure a minimum water depth
of 0.5 m. To prevent erosion caused by tidal fluctuations, some farmers install bamboo
frames around the canals or ditches, providing additional stability and protection
against water currents.

Harvesting
Selective harvesting is commonly practiced in aquasilviculture when market-sized
crabs are identified. Once the majority of the crabs have reached the desired size and
are fully fattened, a total harvest is carried out. This is done by deploying multiple
baited crab traps or by manually handpicking the crabs during low tide.

Problems encountered
The most common problems in aquasilviculture are the presence of predators that enter
the pens and prey on the cultured crabs, as well as the issue of poaching. Predators of
mangrove crabs include other species of crabs such as Thalamita spp., Varuna litterata,
and carnivorous fish like the Asian seabass, grouper, snapper and sea snake fish. Newly
moulted crabs are often the most vulnerable. Therefore, it is advisable to stock larger-
sized crabs to reduce the frequency of moulting. Predators can be effectively removed
during low tide to minimize losses. However, poaching – whether through the use
of crab traps or handpicking – is a common issue in setups that are not consistently
monitored or guarded by the farmer.

DISEASE AND HEALTH MANAGEMENT

The health and condition of crabs are closely monitored for any signs of disease,
abnormal behaviour, or unusual appearance. This proactive approach ensures that
necessary remedial measures can be implemented promptly to address any issues. The
use of quality seed stock and adherence to good aquaculture practices are essential to
preventing diseases and abnormalities that can compromise the economic viability of
crab farming. The following are common diseases and abnormalities observed in grow-
out ponds (The Mangrove Crab Technical Committee 2018, 2021):
• White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) – Caused by a rod-shaped double-stranded
DNA virus from the genus Whispovirus (Leu and Lo, 2008), WSSV can decimate
entire crab populations. It is prevented by avoiding the polyculture of crabs with
shrimp. Some farmers also avoid crustacean culture during colder months.
• Bacterial shell disease – This disease is caused by gram-negative, rod-shaped
bacteria such as Vibrio, Pseudomonas, Aeromonas or Spirillum, which digest chitin
following mechanical injury. Overcrowding and poor water quality exacerbate
the problem. Prevention involves maintaining optimal water quality and avoiding
overstocking.
• Hematodinium infection – This parasitic dinoflagellate infects the haemolymph
or haemocoel, damaging major organs and causing mortalities of up to 50 percent
(Li et al., 2008; Li, Li and Huang, 2021). Proper pond preparation and strict
biosecurity measures are critical for mitigating this infection.
• Shell fouling – A mixture of filamentous bacteria, algae, protozoans, and debris
causes shell fouling. This issue typically resolves after moulting.
• Stalked barnacle infestation – Stalked barnacles from the genus Octolasmis
colonize the gill chambers (Figure 8). In large numbers, they can impair oxygen
and carbon dioxide exchange, negatively affecting the crabs. Prevention and
control measures remain unknown.
• Acorn barnacle infestation – Barnacles from the genus Balanus adhere to the crabs’
shells. They can be removed by scraping or naturally eliminated after moulting.
 286 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

• Black gills or gill fouling – Caused

FIGURE 8
Stalked barnacles, Octalasmis (arrow), colonizing the gills by poor environmental conditions
of the mangrove crab such as high organic load and
heavy siltation, this condition
can be prevented through proper
pond preparation, including sludge
removal, and by maintaining
good water quality to prevent silt
accumulation that clogs the gills.
• Rusty discoloration – The ventral
side of the crab develops a rusty
appearance (Figure 9) due to low
soil pH. This can be prevented
by applying lime during pond
preparation to neutralize acid
sulphate soils.
©E.T. Quinitio

• Albinism – This condition, likely a

! nutritional disorder, is characterized
by whitish discoloration on the body
or legs (Figure 10). Providing feeds
FIGURE 9
Rusty colour of the ventral side of the mangrove crab due
rich in vitamins C and E can prevent
to acid sulfate soil in the pond or reverse albinism.

Thus far, reoviruses which have

been detected in India and caused
mass mortalities in mangrove crabs
(Shanmuganathan Kandan, personal
communication) has not been detected
in the Philippines.

MARKETING
Live mud crabs are sold to buying
©E.T. Quinitio

stations or traders, or directly to

! the consumers, including seafood
restaurants or exporters. From the
buying stations or traders, the bulk of
FIGURE 10
Albinism in juvenile mangrove crab
the crab stocks are sold to exporters.
Crabs are exported to China, China,
Hong Kong SAR, Republic of Korea,
Singapore, and Taiwan Province of
China.

REFERENCES
Dieta, R.E. & Dieta, F.C. 2015. The
Philippine National Aquasilviculture
Program. In: M.R.R. Romana-Eguia,
F.D. Parado-Estepa, N.D. Salayo &
M.J.H. Lebata-Ramos, eds. Resource
enhancement and sustainable aquaculture
©E.T. Quinitio

practices in Southeast Asia: Challenges

! in responsible production of aquatic
species: Proceedings of the International
Workshop on Resource Enhancement and
Hard-shell mangrove crab farming 287

Sustainable Aquaculture Practices in Southeast Asia 2014. Iloilo City, Philippines,

Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center/Aquaculture Department (SEAFDEC/
AQD).
Fitzgerald, W.J. 2000. Integrated mangrove forest and aquaculture systems in Indonesia.
In: J.H. Primavera, L.M.B. Garcia, M.T. Castaños, & M.B. Surtida, eds. Proceedings of
the workshop on mangrove-friendly aquaculture, 11–15 January 1999. Southeast Asian
Fisheries Development Center/Aquaculture Department (SEAFDEC/AQD). Iloilo
City, Philippines.
Fortes, N.R. & Piñosa, L.A.G. 2010. Community structure of phytoperiphyton in “lab-
lab” (Algal mat) in brackishwater ponds in relation to water depth. Philippine Journal of
Science, 139(1): 17–25.
Leu, J.H. & Lo, C.F. 2008. White Spot Syndrome Virus. In: B.W.J. Mahy & M.H.V. van
Regenmortel, eds. Encyclopedia of Virology. Third Edition. Amsterdam, Elsevier Ltd.
Li, Y.Y., Xia, X.A., Wu, Q.Y., Liu, W.H. & Lin, Y.S. 2008. Infection with Hematodinium
sp. in mud crabs Scylla serrata cultured in low salinity water in southern China. Diseases
of Aquatic Organism, 82:145–150.
Li, C., Li, M. & Huang, Q. 2021. The parasitic dinoflagellate Hematodinium infects marine
crustaceans. Marine Life Science and Technology, 3: 323–325.
Quinitio, E.T. 2017. Overview of the mud crab industry in the Philippines. In: E.T.
Quinitio, F.D. Parado-Estepa, & R.M. Coloso, eds. Philippines: In the forefront of the
mud crab industry: Proceedings of the 1st National Mud Crab Congress. Southeast Asian
Fisheries Development Center/Aquaculture Department (SEAFDEC/AQD). Iloilo
City, Philippines.
Smithsonian Institution. 2024. Mangroves. In: Ocean. Washington, DC, Smithsonian
Institution. [Cited 20 October 2023]. https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/plants-algae/
mangroves.
Takashima, F. 2000. Silvofisheries: An aquaculture harmonized with environment. In:
J.H. Primavera, L. M. B. Garcia, M.T. Castaños, & M.B. Surtida, eds. Proceedings of
the Workshop on Mangrove-Friendly Aquaculture, 11-15 January 1999. Southeast Asian
Fisheries Development Center/Aquaculture Department (SEAFDEC/AQD). Iloilo
City, Philippines.
The Mangrove Crab Technical Committee 2018. 2021 The Philippines recommends
for mangrove crab. Department of Science and Technology – Philippine Council for
Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources Research and Development (DOST-
PCAARRD). Los Baños, Philippines.
Trono, G.C. 1988. Pond culture of Gracilaria. Manual on Seaweed Culture. ASEAN/SF/
88 Manual No. 3. Manila, FAO.
 289

Towards sustainability in soft-shell

crab production

Soh Chee Weng & Mohd Adib Fadhil B. Azlan

Crab Universe Sdn. Bhd., Selekoh, Perak, Malaysia

ABSTRACT
Sustainability in soft-shell crab production necessitates the implementation of effective
management practices and practical solutions to address critical challenges essential
for the industry’s continuous progress. Key initiatives include securing the supply
of intermoult crabs through advancements in hatchery technologies and grow-out
operations, providing a strong foundation for achieving sustainability. Employing a
mangrove-friendly extensive polyculture approach not only supports crab grow-out
but also fosters mangrove reforestation and community engagement. Stocking pre-
moult crabs communally enhances operational efficiency by streamlining routine tasks
and reducing manpower needs. Integrating Caulerpa sp. in recirculating aquaculture
systems offers dual benefits: cost-effective nutrient-rich water treatment and the
production of commercially valuable seaweed as a secondary crop. Additionally,
adopting proper post-harvest handling procedures minimizes stress-induced mortality
in crabs, improving overall yield. Finally, exploring alternative feeds such as selected
insect species and fish provides sustainable options for meeting the nutritional demands
of soft-shell crab production. Together, these initiatives contribute to the long-term
viability and environmental stewardship of the industry.

INTRODUCTION
Soft-shell crab, distinguished by its pliable and expandable exoskeleton (Figure 1),
represents a natural life stage of the crab and has been consumed for over 150 years in
the United States of America (Oesterling, 1995). Over time, its popularity has grown,
making it a highly sought-after seafood worldwide, particularly in regions such as
Australia, China, Japan and Southeast Asia. Renowned for its unique, flavourful taste,
soft-shell crab is prepared using various culinary methods, including grilling, baking,
sautéing and deep-frying. Widely perceived as a healthy seafood choice, it is a rich
source of minerals, high in protein, and contains relatively low lipid levels (Gao, 2023).

FIGURE 1
Moulting process leading to the formation of a soft-shell crab
©S.C. Weng
290 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Despite its global appeal, the potential demand for soft-shell crabs remains under-
realized, primarily due to limited supply and inadequate marketing efforts. In Malaysia
and much of Southeast Asia, soft-shell crab production predominantly involves
the Scylla species – S. paramamosain, S. olivacea, S. serrata and S. tranquebarica.
Collectively known as mud crabs, these species are often referred to as mangrove crabs
for more market-friendly branding.
Soft-shell shedding operations typically utilize juvenile hard-shell or intermoult
crabs as raw material. These crabs are cultured until they moult, after which the newly
moulted individuals are promptly harvested and marketed as soft-shell crabs (Figure 1).
However, the soft-shell crab industry currently faces several challenges that hinder
its growth and sustainability. A key issue is the unpredictability of raw material supply,
driven by export restrictions on wild-caught juvenile intermoult crabs imposed by
neighbouring countries and declining harvests from local fisheries. Additionally, the
single-crab stocking systems used in moulting operations are labour-intensive and
operationally inefficient. The industry also faces significant post-harvest and post-
stocking mortality rates, which reduce overall yield. Furthermore, there is a lack of
effective measures for recycling nutrient-rich water and food waste, which impacts
environmental sustainability. Rising feed costs compound these issues, further
straining production viability. Addressing these challenges is essential to unlocking the
full potential of the industry.

SEAWEED-BASED RECIRCULATING AQUACULTURE SYSTEM FOR CRABLET

HATCHERY PRODUCTION
The ability of hatchery technologies to produce crablets in the desired quantity and
quality at specific times is fundamental to the sustainability of crab aquaculture. This
approach is particularly critical for soft-shell crab moulting operations, which demand
consistent, year-round supplies of intermoult crabs as raw materials. By reducing
dependency on wild-caught crabs, hatchery production enhances the stability and
sustainability of the industry.
Hatchery technologies offer several advantages that make them indispensable for
modern crab aquaculture. They allow for species-specific production, ensuring that the
desired crab varieties are cultivated efficiently. The quality of crablets is ascertainable,
providing uniform and predictable results that are critical for market demands. These
technologies also enable predictable production volumes, which can be scaled and
scheduled according to specific needs. Additionally, they provide an avenue for
selective breeding programmes, paving the way for genetic improvements and better-
performing crabs.
Compared to traditional larval rearing methods that depend on periodic water
exchanges, a seaweed-based recirculating aquaculture system (RAS) offers significant
improvements in larval performance (Figure 2). The continuous water treatment
maintains superior water quality, which directly enhances larval survival rates.
Additionally, Artemia has been shown to outperform enriched rotifers as a feed source,
resulting in significantly higher survival rates among larvae.
In the hatchery, newly hatched Z1 larvae of S. paramamosain are stocked at a
density of approximately 200 ind./L. During their initial growth stages, larvae are fed
the umbrella stage of Artemia. As the larvae develop, a combination of the umbrella
stage Artemia and particulate feeds is introduced to support their nutritional needs.
Harvesting of C1 crablets typically begins 21 days after stocking. Survival rates average
around 10 percent and can reach a maximum of 20 percent (Figure 3). This optimized
approach not only improves the consistency and quality of crablet production but also
aligns with the industry’s broader goals of sustainability and reduced reliance on wild
stocks.
 Towards sustainability in soft-shell crab production 291

FIGURE 2 FIGURE 3
Seaweed-based RAS enabled larval rearing tanks Hatchery-produced C1 Scylla paramamosain
crablets
©S.C. Weng

©S.C. Weng
MANGROVE-FRIENDLY EXTENSIVE CRAB POLYCULTURE
Hatchery-reared crablets are raised to marketable sizes using a mangrove-friendly
extensive polyculture system, a practice also widely adopted in Viet Nam. Degraded
mangrove habitats are restored by replanting mangrove trees and constructing and
dividing the area into culture ponds. The intricate root systems of the mangroves,
along with other vegetation, create ideal shelters for the crabs (Figure 4). These ponds
support the polyculture of crabs alongside other co-cultured species of fish and shrimp.
The ponds are connected to the sea through gates, allowing natural tidal flows
to replenish the ecosystem. This tidal exchange fosters the growth of natural food
sources such as bivalves, gastropods and polychaete worms, which benefit the crabs.
Depending on the crab stocking density and the natural productivity of the ponds,
supplementary feeding may be provided but is often optional.
Crablets are stocked either monthly or bi-monthly, ensuring a consistent supply for
the culture system. Harvesting, on the other hand, is conducted daily, typically using
traditional net traps. Alternatively, the crabs’ natural behaviour of swimming toward
water flow can be leveraged to optimize and streamline the harvesting process.
While most grow-out farmers prefer cultivating large hard-shell crabs weighing over
250 g, producing smaller crabs of approximately 120 g for soft-shell crab production
also offers distinct advantages (Figure 5):

FIGURE 4 FIGURE 5
Mangrove-friendly polyculture of hatchery- Crabs (120 g) grown from hatchery-produced
produced crablets C1 crablets
©S.C. Weng

©S.C. Weng
 292 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

• Faster turnover of crab stock – Smaller crabs take only 2–3 months to reach 120 g,
compared to 5–6 months needed to produce crabs weighing 250 g.
• Higher stocking density – Smaller crabs require less space, allowing for a higher
stocking density. More shelter options can be accommodated to minimize stress
and competition.
• Improved survival rates and yield – Shorter culture periods mean fewer cycles of
moulting, during which crabs are highly vulnerable. The survival rate ranges from
20–50 percent depending on various factors including cannibalism, predation and
poaching.

This grow-out system, characterized by its simplicity and low operational costs,
presents a viable economic opportunity for fishers and local communities. Participation
in grow-out operations can be further incentivized through buyback arrangements,
where soft-shell shedding operators supply crablets to participants and subsequently
purchase the marketable-sized crabs from them. This mutually beneficial arrangement
fosters economic engagement while reducing entry barriers for local stakeholders.

SEAWEED-BASED RAS SYSTEM FOR COMMUNAL SOFT-SHELL MOULTING

Crabs in the intermoult stage exhibit natural cannibalistic behaviour and are typically
housed in isolation within boxes, either in pond-based or indoor soft-shell shedding
systems. Alternatively, crabs can be stocked communally by restraining their chelipeds
to prevent injury (Figure 6).
Cheliped restraint can be achieved through various methods. One common
technique involves immobilizing the dactylus (the movable tip of the cheliped) with
a plastic fastener which is then secured to the lower section of the propodus. With
chelipeds restrained, crabs can be stocked communally at high densities, exceeding 100
individuals in a culture tank measuring approximately 75 × 300 m, or around 43 ind./m2.
Each tank is equipped with water inlets and outlets located at opposite ends.
Nutrient-rich water discharged from the tanks is treated using seaweed within a
recirculating aquaculture system (RAS) before being reused (Figure 7).

FIGURE 6 FIGURE 7
Communal stocking of crabs with restrained Shedding system using communal stocking in a
chelipeds seaweed-based RAS facility
©S.C. Weng

©S.C. Weng

Early pre-moult crabs are identified by the formation of new bristles which is seen
as a red line on the margin of the paddle segments of the swimming legs (Figure 8).
Late pre-moult crabs are characterized by a splitting gap along the posterior margin of
the carapace (Figure 9). Once detected, they are transferred to a shedding (or moulting)
tank containing water of reduced salinity. Deprivation of external sources of calcium
 Towards sustainability in soft-shell crab production 293

FIGURE 8 FIGURE 9
Early pre-moult crab with a red line on the margin Late pre-moult crab with a splitting gap of the
of the paddle segments of the swimming leg carapace
©S.C. Weng

©S.C. Weng
ions slows the mineralization and hardening processes of the newly formed exoskelton
(shell) of the soft-shell crab.
The ability to monitor the entire stock held within the culture tank at any one time
significantly simplifies routine tasks by:
• Facilitating efficient transfer – The detection and transfer of pre-moult crabs
from the culture tank to the shedding tank can be streamlined. These tasks, along
with the harvesting of soft-shell crabs from the shedding tank, can be performed
three to four times daily, significantly reducing the workload and requiring fewer
workers compared to systems where crabs are stocked individually.
• Streamlined feed management – Leftover feed, if any, can be removed collectively,
simplifying tank maintenance and ensuring cleaner conditions.
• Enhanced monitoring – The communal stocking system provides ongoing insight
into the general health and appetite of the crab population. This allows for timely
corrective actions and precise adjustments to feeding rates as needed, ensuring
optimal growth and wellbeing.

An important benefit of communal stocking is the ability to easily identify pre-

moulting female crabs by the presence of a coupling (intermoult) male crab. This
facilitates the large-scale harvesting of pre-moult crabs, commonly referred to as
“double-shell crabs”, which can be marketed as a viable alternative to traditional soft-
shell crabs.
Furthermore, manpower can be efficiently scheduled to accommodate peaks in
moulting activity, which typically occur 3–5 days before the full moon and new moon,
aligning with the waxing gibbous phase and the waning crescent phase of the lunar
cycle, respectively. This ensures sufficient labour is available during these critical
periods, optimizing productivity.

Water quality maintenance using a seaweed-based RAS system

Water quality in a soft-shell crab shedding system must be regulated to remain within
optimal parameter ranges.
Mangrove crabs demonstrate adaptability to a broad salinity range of 5–30 ppt.
However, they cannot tolerate a salinity of 0 ppt and typically perish within 5 days
under such conditions. Interestingly, they can survive indefinitely when provided
with an adequate mud substrate, which likely acts as a reservoir of essential minerals
necessary for their physiological needs.
Seaweed has proven to be an effective, natural, and cost-efficient method for
wastewater treatment. In soft-shell crab shedding systems, species such as Caulerpa sp.,
294 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Environmental
Desirable values
Gracilaria sp. and Chaetomorpha sp. are
parameter
effective in maintaining near-negligible
Salinity 15–25 ppt
concentrations of ammonia, nitrite and nitrate,
(or 30 ppt, if Caulerpa
spp. is used in the RAS) respectively, in the culture water (Figure 10).
pH 7.5–8.3 Caulerpa spp. (C. lentillifera and
Temperature: 28–30 °C C. racemosa), commonly referred to as sea
Dissolved oxygen > 5 ppm grapes, are widely consumed raw in salads
Ammonia < 0.5 ppm
across Southeast Asia and East Asia. Their high
Alkalinity 120 ppm
commercial value and potential as a functional
food make them highly attractive candidates
for aquaculture. These species are particularly well-suited for integration with
recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) in soft-shell crab production.
Moreover, seaweed species and their associated microbiomes are known to
synthesize a variety of antimicrobial compounds. These bioactive substances play a
significant role in mitigating the proliferation of potential pathogens, contributing to a
healthier culture environment (Pérez, Falqué and Domínguez, 2016).

FIGURE 10
Caulerpa sp. (a) and Gracilaria sp. (b) used as an effective water treatment component in a
recirculating aquaculture system

a b

©S.C. Weng
Minimizing mortality of crabs
One key advantage of locating the crab grow-out operation in proximity of a soft-shell
shedding facility is the increased efficiency of post-harvest transfers and handling.
This proximity significantly reduces post-stocking mortality, which can be as high as
40 percent when crabs are sourced from external distributors, compared to an average
of < 10 percent for crabs supplied from in-house grow-out ponds.
When sourcing crabs from distributors, it is critical to ensure proper handling,
transportation and holding practices, along with minimizing transfer times.
Recommended guidelines for post-harvest crab handling are detailed in a report by the
Australian Fisheries Research and Development Corporation (Poole et al., 2008). The
report highlights that the time of emersion (crabs out of water) during delivery and
handling contribute to stress and reduced survivability due to the following factors:
• Respiratory metabolic stress – Crabs are unable to obtain sufficient oxygen during
emersion.
• Ammonia accumulation – Toxic levels of ammonia build up within the crab’s
system.
• Dehydration – Loss of water exacerbates physiological stress.
• Physical handling disturbances – Handling shocks negatively impact the health of
the crabs.
• Airflow exposure – Air currents can exacerbate dehydration.
• Temperature fluctuations – Sudden changes in temperature increase stress levels.
Towards sustainability in soft-shell crab production 295

To mitigate these risks, it is recommended to incorporate a recovery phase in the live

mud crab distribution chain. This involves submerging the crabs in aerated water for
2–3 hours post-delivery to allow the excretion of accumulated ammonia. Subsequently,
the crabs should be held in fresh seawater tanks to facilitate full recovery before further
processing or stocking.
In soft-shell shedding systems, organic waste must be managed effectively to prevent
the proliferation of disease-causing organisms. Uneaten feed should be promptly
removed to avoid overloading the seaweed-based RAS water treatment system. Regular
cleaning of the culture tanks with freshwater is essential to remove biofilm buildup and
minimize organic waste accumulation, ensuring a healthier shedding environment.

Feeds and feeding

Sardines and trash fish (by-catch comprising juveniles of various fish species) are
commonly used as feed in soft-shell crab production. They are often delivered fresh
or frozen at -18°C. Frozen supplies need to be defrosted and washed with clean
freshwater before being cut into a suitable size.
The feeding rate for crabs should align with their appetite and can range from
10 percent of their body weight every two days to 10 percent of their body weight daily
or until satiation. A decline in appetite or cessation of feed intake may indicate either a
pre-moulting phase or compromised health in the crab.
The use of sardines and trash fish as feed is increasingly unsustainable due to their
declining availability, rising costs, and competition with human consumption. As
an alternative, formulated pellet feeds are being developed and evaluated for their
effectiveness in supporting growth, survival and moulting performance in crabs
(Lwin, 2018). Protein sources derived from plants and organisms lower in the trophic
food chain are particularly promising, as they can be produced using food waste,
contributing to sustainability.
Preliminary trials have demonstrated the viability of using black soldier fly pupae
(Hermetia sp.), crickets (Gryllus sp.), and guppy fish (Poecilia sp.) as cost-effective and
sustainable feed options in soft-shell crab production. Whole feed items are preferable
over cut feed to minimize nutrient leaching, which can degrade water quality within
the culture system.

SHORTENING THE INTERMOULT PERIOD

Several methods are available for inducing moulting in crabs, all of which aim to bypass
the intermoult stage by triggering hormonal changes that initiate the moulting process,
or ecdysis.
A comprehensive review of these moulting inducement techniques is provided by
Khor et al. (2021). The ideal moulting induction method should be cost-effective,
practical, and easy to implement. It should result in minimal or negligible mortality,
with no compromise in weight and size gains. Additionally, the method must ensure
limb completeness and adhere to humane treatment standards.
Shortening the duration of the intermoult stage is desirable as it will increase the
stock turnover and the production rate of soft-shell crabs, thus realizing higher profits.
A shorter intermoult stage will also result in lower production costs. However, it is
imperative that moult induction does not impart any negative effect on the nutritional
composition, texture and taste of the softshell crab.
A blind taste test comparing fried softshell crabs produced using natural moulting
and induced moulting by unilateral ablation showed that 75 percent of respondents
preferred the former which they described as the better-tasting product, having more
meat and a firmer texture (Figure 11 and Figure 12). The remaining 25 percent of the
respondents were not able to discriminate any differences, and none preferred the
latter.
 296 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 11 FIGURE 12
A succulent, golden-crisp fried soft-shell crab Soft-shell crab halves with full meat content
©S.C. Weng

©S.C. Weng
Consumer taste preferences for naturally moulted softshell crabs is a compelling
reason for shedding operators to reconsider the use of moult inducement methods.
Instead, shedding operators may prefer to focus on using a natural approach to
shortening the intermoult stage of crabs by the improvement of natural growth rates
through the continuous optimization of culture conditions, feed and feeding practices.

CONCLUSION
Soft-shell crab production offers both lucrative opportunities and the potential for
sustainability. While current challenges exist, they can be addressed through strategic
interventions and continuous improvements:
• Development of crab hatchery and grow-out operations
– Reduces dependency on the unpredictable supply of wild crabs, which are often
harvested using unregulated fishing practices.
– Supports the production of crablets and their grow-out through an extensive
polyculture approach, which not only promotes the replanting of mangrove
trees in degraded brackish areas but also involves local communities in the
process.
– Provides greater control over the quantity, quality, and timing of crab supplies
throughout the year.
• Optimization of soft-shell shedding systems
– Communal stocking of intermoult crabs improves operational efficiency and
reduces manpower requirements, enhancing overall system performance.
• Application of nature-based solutions
– Implements simple, sustainable and cost-effective solutions, such as the use of
seaweed in recirculating aquaculture system water treatment, contributing to
healthier and more efficient systems.
• Improved post-harvest handling and husbandry practices
– Reduces stress on crabs through improved handling and care, enhancing
survival rates and product quality.
• Development of sustainable, cost-effective feeds
– Supports the recycling of food waste to produce organisms at lower trophic
levels, offering a more sustainable feed source for crab farming.
• Development of new markets and marketing strategies
– Expands market opportunities and promotes the industry through effective
marketing, ensuring sustained demand and profitability.

These approaches not only addresses key challenges in soft-shell crab production
but also fosters a more sustainable and profitable industry.
Towards sustainability in soft-shell crab production 297

REFERENCES
Gao, W., Yuan, Y., Huang, Z., Chen, Y., Cui, W., Zhang, Y., Saqib, H.S.A., Ye, S., Li,
S., Zheng, H., Chang, Y., Ikhwanuddin, Mhd. & Ma, H. 2023. Evaluation of the
feasibility of harvest optimisation of soft-shell mud crab (Scylla paramamosain) from the
perspective of nutritional values. Foods, 12(3): 583.
Lwin, M.M.N. 2018. Development of diets for soft-shell mangrove crabs (Scylla spp.).
Auburn, USA, Auburn University. PhD dissertation.
Oesterling, M.J. 1995. Manual for handling and shedding blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus).
Special Report in Applied Marine Science and Ocean Engineering. No. 271. Gloucester
Point, USA, Virginia Sea Grant Program, Institute of Marine Science.
Perez, M.J., Falqué, E. & Domínguez, H. 2016. Review of antimicrobial action of
compounds from marine seaweed. Marine Drugs, 14(3): 52.
Poole, S., Exley, J.M.P. & Paulo, C. 2008. Maximising revenue within the NT mud crab
fishery by enhancing post-harvest survival of mud crabs. Project No. 2003/240. Brisbane,
Australia, Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries.
Waiho, K., Ikhwanuddin, M., Baylon, J., Jalilah, M., Rukminasari, N., Fujaya, Y. &
Fazhan, H. 2021. Moult induction methods in soft-shell crab production. Aquaculture
Research, 52(9): 4026–4042.
 299

Advancing mud crab farming:

precision aquaculture and future
tech needs

Colin Shelley
Scylla mud crab consultancy, Brisbane, Australia

INTRODUCTION
To date most mud crab aquaculture has been undertaken by small- and medium-sized
enterprises with limited capital investment. With demand outstripping the supply of
mud crabs, resulting in overfishing of wild stocks, the farming sector is beginning to
attract significant corporate interest. Greater capital investment will likely transform
the sector from one that is experience-based to one that is data-driven and knowledge-
based, following larger more established aquaculture sectors such as marine shrimp and
salmonids. As such, new trends in precision aquaculture will be utilized by and adapted
to the needs of the mud crab farming sector, whilst some species-specific tools will also
need to be developed.
This paper identifies both current and future technological needs of the mud crab
farming sector. Its purpose is to stimulate debate around the needs of the sector;
to share its requirements and opportunities they present for investors, aquaculture
technology suppliers and the R&D community to support the growth of the nascent
mud crab aquaculture sector.

PRECISION AQUACULTURE
Precision aquaculture introduces control-engineering principles (Antonucci and Costa,
2019) to the sector and the ability to better monitor, control and document biological
processes (Føre et al., 2018). This approach includes the Internet of Things (IoT), which
can be incorporated into decision support and farm management systems (O’Donncha
and Grant, 2019) to service aquaculture. A precision aquaculture ecosystem reduces
the need for subjective, experience-based decisions and replaces it with a data-driven,
evidence-based approach (Pounds, 2021).
While farm management software for hard-shell crabs has many similarities to
those developed for prawns or shrimp, systems for soft-shell crabs (SSC) need to be
specifically developed as the flow of raw materials between both production units is
different.

PRECISION AQUACULTURE IN MUD CRAB HATCHERIES AND NURSERIES

Water quality
Maintaining stable water quality parameters is considered critical for successful
mud crab larval culture. Monitoring of water quality parameters from multiple
tanks via sensors, linked via controllers to a digital dashboard are now common in
fish farming, is similarly required for mud crab hatchery systems. Key parameters
include temperature, salinity, pH, ammonia, nitrite, dissolved oxygen and ozone (in
recirculating aquaculture systems).
300 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Depth and height sensors can be used to monitor water levels throughout the
different components of a hatchery system and provide alarms to alert staff to any
issues regarding low water or overfilling situations.

Microbiome management
It is well documented that the main factor negatively impacting the survival of mud
crab larvae is bacterial in nature (Shelley, 2008; Dan and Hamasaki, 2015; Waiho et al.,
2018) and that the prophylactic use of antibiotics in hatchery protocols (Azam and
Narayan, 2013) has underpinned much of the early successes in mud crab larval rearing.
The use of probiotics, coupled with improved water quality management technologies,
such as UV and ozone disinfection, now support improved control of bacteria in mud
crab larval rearing. However, a detailed understanding of the microbiome of mud crab
larval systems is still in its infancy. Technologies such as microbiome fingerprinting
(e.g. Kytos) (Figure 1), next-generation sequencing (NGS) microbiome profiling
(e.g. Luminis) and (almost) real-time monitoring of bacteria and fungi (e.g. Bactiquant)
can now be used to examine relationships between bacterial numbers, types of bacteria,
bacterial diversity, water quality and larval survival. This will enable hatchery operators
to modify their feeding, disinfection and water management to optimize results and
potentially make timely interventions to improve larval productivity.

FIGURE 1
A mud crab microbiome reading showing higher bacterial numbers in tank biofilm
compared to rearing water
Biofilm Rearing water
2 000 000
Bacterial load (x 1 000 cells/ml)

100 000
80 000
60 000
40 000
20 000
10 000
8 000
6 000
4 000
2 000
1 000

100

10

0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
©C. Shelley

Cultivation period (days)

Recent analysis of the microbiome of shrimp larval systems has indicated that
probiotic dosing can be targeted to specific problems within the microbiome of tanks,
resulting in improved production (Kytos, personal communication, 2023). As mud
crab larvae are very prone to bacterial infections, such an approach will likely benefit
mud crab larval production.

Feed management
Feeding of mud crab larvae is almost entirely manual. Automated larval feeding systems
using pneumatic, peristaltic and mechanical technologies are now available to provide
both dry and live feeds to larval tanks. Feeding regimens can then be established based
on the optimal frequencies, times and quantities of feed required, without the need
for consideration of staff rosters and work shifts. This will reduce labour required for
feeding, prevent potential overfeeding of larvae and reduce the chances of human error.
Such systems enable multi-tank systems to be linked through controllers and actuators,
with different feeding programmes available for each tank.
Advancing mud crab farming: precision aquaculture and future tech needs 301

Larval and live feed counting

In the same way that quantity of fish in cages can now be assessed using visual and
Artificial Intelligence (AI) systems, there is a need to accurately count larvae during
culture. At present counting larvae is based on taking a few random water samples
from a tank and extrapolating the total number of larvae based on crude volumetric
assumptions. However, this is inherently inaccurate as mud crab larvae exhibit
schooling behaviour and move around tanks in response to various stimuli, resulting
in uneven distribution within the tank. Obtaining accurate counts will enable hatchery
operators to modify feeding regimens and water quality management to optimize
survival.

PRECISION AQUACULTURE IN POND FARMING

Water quality
A variety of automated and semi-automated sensing systems are already being used
in the pond aquaculture of shrimp and fish. To ensure the correct levels of oxygen
are maintained in ponds, oxygen readings can be linked to the actuation of paddle
wheels or other aeration devices, feeding programmes and alarms (e.g. Pond Master
by Oxyguard).
Critical water parameters for mud crab and tropical shrimp farming are the same.
In that sector, AI and IoT technology are already being combined with aquaculture
expertise to improve shrimp farm management (e.g. AquaEasy).

Feed management
Automated feeders can be utilized to distribute feed more evenly in grow-out
ponds. In addition to feeders operating based on quantity and time (e.g. eFishery),
it is likely that feeding algorithms can be determined for feeding based on acoustic
feedback. Such systems are already being used in shrimp farms where intelligent sound
filtering algorithms measure the feeding intensity of farmed shrimp in variable noise
environments, together with passive acoustic sensors (e.g. AQ1). Such systems can
maximize growth, reduce feed use, improve food conversion ratios (FCRs), reduce
labour costs, and potentially improve the environment by avoiding overfeeding, where
excess feeds will harm the environment.

Stock control
Technologies to count shrimp going into ponds, like fish counting technology
(e.g. Sincere Aqua), and technology for estimating the biomass of shrimp in the pond
(e.g. Minnowtech), are already facilitating stock monitoring in the shrimp sector. With
minor modifications, the same technologies can be utilized for mud crabs. One of
the most difficult aspects of managing mud crab farming is to monitor the number of
crabs in a pond during grow-out. At present, capture, tag and recapture techniques,
combined with weighing a subsample of stock can be used, but this can stress and
potentially damage stock through multiple trapping events. This is hard to justify and
costly from a farm labour perspective. Other technologies that could potentially be
incorporated into mud crab stock monitoring are remotely operated vehicles (ROVs)
or autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) which make use of infrared or reduced
light visual sensing systems similar to those being utilized to sense, count, and size fish
in salmon farming.

PRECISION AQUACULTURE IN SOFT-SHELL CRAB PRODUCTION

Work is already in progress with regard to the use of IoT in soft-shell crab
production, with water quality sensors, motion sensors and feeding systems being
developed to create “smart” farming systems (Pitakphongmetha, Suntiamorntut
302 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

and Charoenpanyasak, 2021). Work on automated production systems for SSC was
first highlighted in a patent awarded to Watermark Seafoods in 2004 (Patent WO,
2004/016077 A1), a “System for harvesting crustaceans”. An automated robotic camera,
linked to software on image analysis was utilized to sense when a crab had moulted;
this would then lead to the harvest of the SSC from its individual basket. A system
based on this patent, incorporating RAS technology, was built in Brisbane (Australia)
and operated for a few years in the early 2000s.
Over the last 20 years huge advancements in robotics, sensors and AI indicate that
a new system using similar technologies could be cost effective for future SSC farming
and would result in less labour requirements compared to the current labour-intensive
floating, or vertical, SSC systems.
With the floating SSC systems operating in countries such as Myanmar (Figure 2),
basic data collection usually consists of records of SSC harvested per day and
mortalities noted and removed. The average duration of each crab staying in the box
is not recorded. To improve data recovery from the process, a bar code system could
be employed. This would allow greatly improved collection of data, including time
from stocking to harvest or to mortality for each individual crab as well as feed used.
In addition, different fishers or traders supplying crabs for SSC could be traced. Some
work in Myanmar has already identified that there can be significant differences in the
survival rate of crabs from different suppliers, related to differences in logistics as well
as handling and packing. This level of information could be considered in certification
systems that require blockchain data to underpin traceability of products for specific
markets.

FIGURE 2
Floating soft-shell crab culture system in Myanmar

©C. Shelley

PRECISION AQUACULTURE IN POST-HARVEST PROCESSING

Currently, the “fullness” of mud crabs and their quality grading are based on manual
physical testing. Attempts have been made in recent years to use near-infrared
spectrometers (NIRS) and AI to grade live crabs based on their meat content. As
customers are prepared to pay a premium price for mud crabs that are full of meat
(not lean), a portable instrument that can quickly and cheaply provide this information
will likely become a standard tool for fishers, farmers, wholesalers and end users.
Commercialization of this technology is anticipated soon from work being undertaken
in Australia and Singapore (National Mud Crab Industry Reference Group, 2012.).
Advancing mud crab farming: precision aquaculture and future tech needs 303

Grading to prevent cannibalism

As in the early stages of fish culture, there is significant variation in growth within
each cohort of crablets (Figure 3). As such, grading of crabs by size during the nursery
phase prior to stocking in ponds, presents an opportunity to minimize cannibalism
by reducing the size variability within each pond. At present, there is no machine that
can be used specifically to grade crablets. Grading is most likely best applied between
systems, such as in moving from nursery to juvenile ponds, around C4 (15 mm
carapace width [CW], 0.4 g body weight [BW]), to C5 (20 mm CW, 1.0 g BW)].
Similarly, grading could also be useful when harvesting crabs from juvenile ponds for
either soft-shell production or hard-shell farming at approximately C10 (85 mm CW;
77 g BW). Grading can be done by weight, size, or both.

FIGURE 3
Variation in size of crablets produced from one nursery batch of Scylla serrata

©C. Shelley

Grading to separate sexes

If male and female crabs are not separated prior to reaching sexual maturity in the
pond, mating will result in energy used mostly for reproduction, rather than somatic
growth, which is more important from a farming perspective as crabs are sold primarily
by weight. Whilst visual sorting by sex is possible from as early as C6, waiting until
C10 means that crabs can be more easily sorted. Also sorting at this size corresponds
to the size at which crabs can be harvested to be put into SSC systems or into grow-out
ponds for hard-shell farming.
Technologies that can be used in automating sex grading of mud crabs include
robotics combined with AI and visual recognition software. To simplify the handling
process and stress involved with it, anaesthetics (e.g. Aqui-S) could be used to slow
down the crabs’ activity to make them easier to handle.
304 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 4
Packing frozen processed soft-shell mud crab in Myanmar

©C. Shelley
Grading by weight prior to packing
Technology for grading by weight is readily available from a range of food processing
equipment suppliers. These can enable accurate sorting of both SSC (Figure 4) and
hard-shell mud crabs. Relatively high-speed grading enables live products to be
harvested, graded and shipped in the shortest time possible, with minimal stress.

Packing
All live mud crabs are tied with string or vines to keep their claws tight against their
body and minimize the risk of injuring other crabs during transit and food service staff
handling them. This is a time-consuming and labour-intensive operation. In the future,
packing of crabs could be mechanized if methods to make the crabs less active can be
established (e.g. cooling or anaesthetics). Crabs could then be packed without tying
within a tight mesh bag, or similar design to hold them securely during transport.

FROM PRECISION AQUACULTURE TO AI AGENTS FOR MUD CRAB

AQUACULTURE
“An AI agent perceives its environment through sensors and acts upon that through
actuators” (Nguyen, 2023). Agents can be software alone or combined with hardware.
Commonly known examples of such systems that are already available for the public
include Siri and Alexa. In aquaculture, an example of a simple agent is a system that
controls the operation (switching on or off) of aerators in a pond in response to
oxygen levels measured by sensors. This is already commonly used in fish and shrimp
aquaculture.
A software agent for mud crab aquaculture would aid technicians and farmers,
similar to having on hand a consultant or extension support worker but has the
additional skill of knowing the current water quality parameters, feed levels, and
such via sensors and has access to all the historic data from the aquaculture facility.
In addition, the agent may have historic data from other farms to support its analysis.
Advancing mud crab farming: precision aquaculture and future tech needs 305

Such an agent can either be used to make autonomous decisions or provide options for
a farmer or technician to consider.
Agents could take autonomous action, via pumps, heaters, feeders, or other parts of
the hatchery, nursery or farm through actuators, some of which may be incorporated
or linked to robotic tools. AI agents can be incorporated into farm management
systems, helping to improve productivity, reduce waste and optimize environmental
performance and profitability. Recently, Bill Gates (2023) said in reference to AI
personal assistants: “Agents are smarter. They’re proactive – capable of making
suggestions before you ask for them.” He also predicted such systems would be
commonly used within the next 5 years.
Aquaculture, including the mud crab farming sector, will need to embrace both
precision aquaculture and innovations in AI and IoT to successfully compete in the
increasingly high technology game of protein production.

REFERENCES
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industry live mud crab grading scheme. Fisheries Research and Development Corporation
(FRDC) project (2011-225), Canberra. https://www.c-aid.com.au/wp-content/uploads/
Guide-to-Using-the-Australian-Industry-Live-Mud-Crab-Grading-Scheme.pdf
Antonucci, F. & Costa, C. 2019. Precision aquaculture: a short review on engineering
innovations. Aquaculture International, 28(1): 41–57.
Azam, K. & Narayan, P. 2013. Safe usage of antibiotic (Oxytetracycline) in larval rearing
of mud crab, Scylla serrata (Forsskål, 1775) in Fiji. World Journal of Fish and Marine
Sciences, 5(2): 209–213.
Dan, S. & Hamasaki, K. 2015. Evaluation of the effects of probiotics in controlling
bacterial necrosis symptoms in larvae of the mud crab Scylla serrata during mass seed
production. Aquaculture International, 23(1): 277–296.
Føre, M., Frank, K., Norton, T., Svendsen, E., Alfredsen, J.A., Dempster, T., Eguiraun,
H., Watson, W., Stahl, A., Sunde, L.M., Schellewald, C., Skøien, K.R., Alver, M.O. &
Berckmans, D. 2018. Precision fish farming: A new framework to improve production
in aquaculture. Biosystems Engineering, 173: 176–193.
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computers – And upend the software industry. In: GatesNotes – The blog of Bill Gates.
Kirkland, USA, The Gates Notes LLC. [Cited on 01 August 2023]. https://www.
gatesnotes.com/AI-agents.
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AI. Da Nang, Viet Nam. [Cited 02 October 2023]. https://www.neurond.com/blog/
understanding-the-concept-what-is-an-agent-in-ai.
O’Donncha, F. & Grant, J. 2019. Precision Aquaculture. IEEE Internet of Things
Magazine, 2(4): 26–30.
Pitakphongmetha, J., Suntiamorntut. W. & Charoenpanyasak, S. 2021. Internet of
things for aquaculture in smart crab farming. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1834.
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management/.
Shelley, C., Williams, G., Paterson, B. & Mann, D. 2008. Development of commercial
production systems for mud crab (Scylla serrata) aquaculture in Australia: hatchery and
nursery. FRDC Project No. 2000/210. Canberra, Fisheries Research and Development
Corporation.
Waiho, K., Fazhan, H., Quinitio, E.T., Baylon, J.C., Fujaya, Y., Azmie, G., Wu, Q., Shi,
X., Ikhwanuddin, M. & Ma H. 2018. Larval rearing of mud crab (Scylla): What lies
ahead. Aquaculture, 493: 37–50.
 307

Technological innovations in mud

crab aquaculture

Maria Rowena R Romana-Eguia,1, 2 Chona Camille Vince Cruz-Abeledo,2 Rachel

Ravago-Gotanco3 & Maria Carmen Ablan-Lagman1, 2
1
Practical Genomics Laboratory, Center for Natural Science and Environment Research De
La Salle University, Manila, Philippines
2
Biology Department, College of Science, De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines
3
Marine Science Institute, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines

ABSTRACT
With the advent of advanced genetics and genome sequencing techniques, as well as
computer and data science technologies, innovations to improve mud crab farming
have become more accessible for field application. This paper discusses several novel
science-based tools such as CrabADAPT, CrabSNP (single nucleotide protein),
CrabMOLT, CrabMAP and “Alinmango”, that have been developed by academic
and research institutions to help make mud crab seed production and farming less
challenging, thus enabling the growth of a sustainable mud crab industry.

INTRODUCTION
For years, the mud crabs or Scylla spp. have been produced through very conventional
techniques starting with the use of wild-sourced seedstock; identification of juvenile
crab species using morphology-based methods; nursery rearing in net cages within
pond systems and farming of juvenile in earthen or concrete ponds; crab fattening; and
polyculture of crabs in brackish water ponds and pens. In 2012, the Department of
Science and Technology (DOST) in the Philippines supported the implementation of
several research studies that focused on addressing known gaps in mud crab aquaculture
such as limited seedstock supply, poor larval survival, cannibalism, accurate species
identification at the juvenile stage, feed development, disease management, among
others – with the purview that novel, more advanced techniques (software applications,
IoT, genetics and genomics, and gene editing) can be developed through research
and later validated in the field for widespread adoption by crab farmers. This paper
describes the various novel science-based technologies aimed at improving mud crab
production.

CONSTRAINTS IN SUSTAINABLE MUD CRAB PRODUCTION

The supply of crablets still remains limited despite of the efforts to domesticate mud
crabs and enable the production of hatchery-bred seedstock (Figure 1). Various sizes
of crablets sourced from the wild are still widely used for farming and in some areas,
these are usually a mix of the three Scylla species found in the Philippines. Hence,
crab collectors, traders and buyers need to be familiar with traditional identification
methods which include examining the spines of chelipeds, claws, frontal spines, colour
and markings (Quinitio et al., 2018), while some consider the carapace width and size,
carapace texture, or behaviour patterns like walking movement (Orario et al., 2021).
Although the collection of wild crab seedstock remains a common practice,
identifying the early life stages of the preferred Scylla species, S. serrata, poses
significant challenges for the untrained eye. This difficulty arises from the diverse and
 308 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

nuanced morphological and meristic

FIGURE 1
Juvenile crabs used as seedstock in mud crab aquaculture characteristics used to differentiate
species. Adding to the complexity,
the morphological features of crablets
are often ambiguous, making accurate
identification even more challenging.
Beyond the need for species-specific
identification, the nursery rearing of
crab instars presents its own set of
difficulties, including high rates of
cannibalism, insufficient nutrition, and
suboptimal environmental conditions
(Syafaat et al., 2021). Effective strategies
for proper nutrition and health
management are critical for improving
growth and survival rates in this stage.
Similarly, in grow-out culture systems,
the development of low-cost diets and
©R.V. Castillo

! alternative feed ingredients is essential

for reducing costs while maintaining
productivity and sustainability in mud crab aquaculture.

ADVANCED TECHNOLOGIES IN MUD CRAB AQUACULTURE

Crabifier
This is a mobile application for juvenile crab species identification. With the advent
of computer-based technologies, an automated and a quicker method of species
identification for discerning differences in Scylla species has been developed via a
mobile-based system known as “Crabifier”. This is a scientifically sound alternative to
the traditional species identification method practised by crab collectors, traders and
farmers.
“Crabifier” is an android-based mobile application that uses convolutional neural
networks to analyse the shape of the crablets’ dorsal carapace to distinguish previously
identified subtle morphological differences (Vince Cruz-Abeledo, Ting and Ablan-
Lagman, 2018; Vince Cruz-Abeledo et al., 2021). The “Crabifier” identification tool
(Figure 2a) makes use of genetic barcodes based on ITS-1 PCR products unique to
the species of individual crabs as well as image analysis of the crown or the reference
frontal lobe spine shape (Vince Cruz-Abeledo, Ting and Ablan-Lagman, 2018). The
“Crabifier” can be downloaded for free onto any android phone and used in the field
(Figure 2b). The collector takes individual photos of juvenile mud crabs caught from
the wild and the application identifies the species.

IMPROVED NURSERY REARING USING NUTRITIONAL INTERVENTION

Nutrigenomics
Crab nursery rearing is commonly conducted outdoors in concrete tanks, lined ponds,
or net cages placed within brackish water ponds, where natural food sources are readily
available. Alternatively, indoor tanks can be employed to enhance seedstock production,
with biofloc technology offering potential benefits, as it has proven effective in shrimp
farming. However, its application for mud crabs remains unexplored (Syafaat et al.,
2021).
Feeds tailored specifically for crab farming can be developed based on the species’
nutrient requirements. Conventional feed formulation methods have demonstrated
Technological innovations in mud crab aquaculture 309

FIGURE 2
Android based “Crabifier” App used in juvenile crab species identification (a) and demonstrated on its
use to target users (b)

a b !!!

©C.C. Vince Cruz-Abeledo

success in improving the growth and survival of mud crabs. However, studies show
that diets entirely replacing natural feeds with commercial or specially formulated
feeds often underperform compared to diets combining natural and formulated feeds
or those relying solely on natural feeds such as trash fish, squid, molluscs, shrimp, or
slaughterhouse by-products (Millamena and Quinitio, 2000; Djunaidah et al., 2003;
Alava et al., 2007).
Advanced approaches such as nutrigenomics are now being explored to develop
more efficient feeds and feed additives. Nutrigenomics, defined by Alhoshy et al. (2022),
examines the effects of nutrients and dietary
bioactive compounds on gene expression.
FIGURE 3
It focuses on interactions between these Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) used as raw
nutrients and the genome at the molecular material for crab diet
level, which in turn influences cellular
responses and mediates gene expression.
Preliminary research on local raw materials
such as Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon),
water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes)
and banana peels (Musa acuminata) –
all containing β-glucan, a known
immunostimulant – has been conducted
by the Practical Genomics Laboratory
of De La Salle University, Philippines, in
collaboration with the Southeast Asian
Fisheries Development Center’s Aquaculture
Department (SEAFDEC/AQD) (Castillo,
2022; Joaquin, 2022) (Figure 3).
One study revealed that a diet containing
0.5 percent Bermuda grass for crab juveniles
increased nitric oxide (NO) concentration,
glutathione peroxidase (GPX) activity,
prophenoloxidase (proPO), and superoxide
dismutase (SOD) mRNA expression
levels. These markers indicated improved
©R.V. Castillo

immune response (Figure 4) (Castillo, 2022).

Similarly, incorporating water hyacinth !
 310 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 4
hot-water extract into juvenile crab
Preparation of 0.5 percent Cynodon dactylon crab diet diets significantly enhanced catalase
(CAT) activity and prophenoloxidase
(proPO) gene expression due to the
presence of β-glucan in the extract.
Both Bermuda grass and water hyacinth
contain β-glucan, which triggers a
cascade of immune defence mechanisms
in crabs (Joaquin, 2022).
Such findings underscore the
potential of nutrigenomics to expedite
the identification of feed ingredients
containing bioactive compounds. These
compounds, when incorporated into
crab diets, could not only enhance
immune defence but also positively
influence growth, reproduction and
overall development.

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
INNOVATIONS AND GENETICS
Mud crab research projects on genomics
ramped up when funds from the
Philippine Department of Science and
Technology (DOST) became available
in 2017 under a programme entitled
©B. Joaquin

“Harnessing emerging technologies for

! mangrove crab culture and resource
management: ‘omics approaches, web-
based and mobile computing technologies”. DOST included Scylla spp. in the list of
priority aquaculture commodities for research and development, others being tilapia,
milkfish, shrimps, prawns, mussels and oysters. This is the reason why innovations
such as the “Crabifier”, nutrigenomics-based evaluation of potential feed ingredient-
immunostimulants, genetic characterization of crab populations and selective breeding
came to the fore. Apart from these technology advancements, other projects included
the following (Romana-Eguia et al., 2019):
• CrabADAPT is a study investigating the genetic adaptability of specific mud crab
(Scylla serrata) populations to wider temperature ranges and climatic anomalies. A
key finding from this research emerged from comparative transcriptome profiling
of the heat stress response in S. serrata populations sampled from three Philippine
sites with distinct climate profiles.
The study revealed that western Philippine mangrove crab populations, such
as those in Bataan, exhibited a higher number of differentially expressed (DE)
genes in response to heat stress compared to eastern populations, such as those
in Cagayan and Bicol. This suggests that crabs from eastern regions, particularly
Cagayan, possess broader thermal tolerance and a greater capacity for acclimation
than their western counterparts.
These findings have significant implications for aquaculture and stock
management practices. For instance, crab farmers and hatchery operators could
prioritize using stocks from eastern Philippine populations, which are likely
to perform better under fluctuating and extreme thermal conditions, thereby
enhancing the success of breeding and farming operations in the face of climate
change (Shrestha et al., 2021).
Technological innovations in mud crab aquaculture 311

• CrabSNP is a study focused on identifying single nucleotide polymorphism

(SNP) variants linked to adult-sized immature female mangrove crabs and
identifying genome markers potentially associated with these phenotypes. This
research is particularly relevant because immature female mangrove crabs fetch a
premium price in the Philippine market.
One aspect of the investigation examined the effects of temperature stress on
fatty acid-specific proteins and the expression of heat shock protein 70 (HSP70)
in various S. serrata sex phenotypes. However, the study found no significant
differences in fatty acid profiles, protein levels, or HSP70 expression that could
be attributed to sex phenotype (Lilagan, 2018).
These findings suggest that factors other than sex phenotype influence these
molecular responses, highlighting the need for further research to uncover the
mechanisms behind phenotypic variations and stress responses in S. serrata.
• CrabMOLT is a study which investigated optimal salinity and temperature
combinations that favoured frequent moulting. If crabs moult frequently this is
an indication that the crab might belong to a fast-growing stock. Here, the ratios
of a moult-promoting hormone (ERK) to a moult-inhibiting hormone were
established for the different moulting stages of the mud crab.
• CrabMAP is an environmental guide map designed to identify suitable culture
environments for mud crab farming. Using Geographic Information System
(GIS) technology, it categorizes coastal sites based on their temperature profiles,
including areas with high temperature fluctuations and elevated temperature
levels, high temperature fluctuations with occasional low-temperature spikes,
and low temperature fluctuations with minimal temperature spikes. This detailed
mapping provides crucial information for farmers, helping them adopt climate-
smart practices in mangrove crab aquaculture. By selecting sites best suited to
the thermal tolerance of their stock, farmers can enhance productivity and build
resilience to climate variability.
• “Alinmango” is a computer technology-based innovation that provides some data
on major mud crab source sites and the environmental fluctuations that the crabs
experience in each of these areas.
• Recent studies have explored the molecular mechanisms underlying S. serrata’s
response to white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) infection using metagenomic and
transcriptomic approaches. Conducted by the Marine Science Institute of the
University of the Philippines in collaboration with SEAFDEC/AQD, this project
aimed to characterize the microbiome and transcriptome profiles associated with
the progression of WSSV infection. WSSV is a significant pathogen that affects
crustaceans, particularly shrimps and crabs.
The study revealed that in WSSV-infected mud crabs that survived the
infection, viral loads increased at 48 hours post-injection (HPI), peaked at
72 HPI, and subsequently decreased to levels similar to uninfected crabs by
96 HPI, maintaining these levels through 144 HPI. This suggests that S. serrata
can reduce WSSV viral loads during the late stages of infection, indicating a degree
of resistance to the virus. These findings also highlight the potential role of mud
crabs as carriers of WSSV.
To further investigate the host’s response, RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) was
used to analyse the transcriptome of S. serrata. Pairwise differential expression
analyses were conducted on genes expressed in the gills and hepatopancreas,
comparing infected and non-infected crabs at various time points post-injection.
The results provided valuable insights into the molecular mechanisms of the host’s
response to WSSV at the holobiont level, encompassing both the microbiome and
the host (Ravago-Gotanco, 2023).
312 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

These findings have practical implications for selective breeding programmes

aimed at improving the resilience and quality of mud crab seedstock and adult
crabs. By integrating genomics-based research, future efforts can better address
challenges related to WSSV resistance and enhance sustainable aquaculture
practices.

REFERENCES
Alava, V.R., Quinitio, E.T., de-Pedro, J.B., Priolo, F.M.P., Orosco, Z.G.A. & Wille,
M. 2007. Reproductive performance, lipids and fatty acids of mud crab Scylla serrata
(Forsskal) fed dietary lipid levels. Aquaculture Research, 38: 1442–1451.
Alhoshy, M., Shehata, A.I., Habib, Y.J., Abdel-Latif, H.M.R., Wang, Y. & Zhang, Z.
2022. Nutrigenomics in crustaceans: Current status and future prospects. Fish and
Shellfish Immunology, 129: 1–12.
Castillo, R.V.F. 2022. Immunomodulatory effects of Cynodon dactylon (Spermatophyta,
Poaceae) on juvenile mangrove crab Scylla serrata (Crustacea, Portunidae). Manila, De
La Salle University. MSc thesis.
Djunaidah, I.S., Wille, M., Kontara, E.K. & Sorgeloos, P. 2003. Reproductive performance
and offspring quality in mud crab (Scylla paramamosain) broodstock fed different diets.
Aquaculture International, 11: 3–15.
Joaquin, B.M.S. 2022. Water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes extract as a novel immunostimulant
for mangrove crab Scylla serrata. Manila, De La Salle University. MSc thesis.
Lilagan, C.A.I. 2018. Temperature stress effects on fatty acid, specific proteins, and HSP
expression in Scylla serrata mud crab sex phenotypes. Manila, De La Salle University.
MSc thesis.
Millamena, O.M. & Quinitio, E. 2000. The effects of diets on reproductive performance of
eyestalk ablated and intact mud crab Scylla serrata. Aquaculture, 181: 81–92.
Orario H.P., Cai, Q.W., Chua, J.K.C., Magpayo, E.S.N., Po, A.H.G., Sanchez, J.O.,
Perez, K.C.Q., Solis, K.J., Ngo, C.A.M & Vince Cruz-Abeledo, C. 2021. How Filipino
fishers use traditional knowledge in identifying species of juvenile mangrove crabs for
grow-out culture. Short Comm. The Philippine Journal of Fisheries, 28(2): 119–128.
Quinitio, E.T., Parado-Estepa, F.D. & De La Cruz-Huervana, J.J. 2018. Biology and
hatchery of mangrove crabs Scylla spp. Aquaculture Extension Manual No. 34 (Third
edition). Iloilo City, Philippines SEAFDEC/AQD.
Ravago-Gotanco, R. 2023. Molecular mechanisms underlying Scylla serrata response to
white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) infection: metagenomic and transcriptomic approaches.
Manila, DOST-PCAARRD (Department of Science and Technology, Philippine Council
for Agriculture and Aquatic Resources Research and Development).
Romana-Eguia, M.R.R., Lagman, M.C.A, Basiao, Z.U. & Ikeda, M. 2019. Genetic
research initiatives for sustainable aquaculture production in the Philippines. Journal of
Integrated Field Science, 16: 4–7.
Shreshta A.M.S, Lilagan, C.A.I., Guiao, J.E.B., Romana-Eguia, M.R.R. & Lagman,
M.C.A. 2021. Comparative transcriptome profiling of heat stress response of the mangrove
crab Scylla serrata across sites of varying climate profiles. BMC Genomics, 22: 580.
Syafaat M.N., Azra, M.N., Waiho, K., Fazhan, H., Abol-Munafi, A.B., Ishal, S.D.,
Syahnon, M., Ghazali, A., Ma, H. & Ikhwanuddin, M. 2021. A review of the nursery
culture of mud crabs, genus Scylla: Current progress and future directions. Animals,
11: 2034.
Vince Cruz-Abeledo, C.C., Ting, K. & Ablan-Lagman, M.C. 2018. Identification of a
species diagnostic character for instar and juvenile mudcrabs (genus Scylla). Aquaculture,
491: 205–209.
Vince Cruz-Abeledo, C.C., Solis, K.J., Angeles, A.D., Valdez, J.E.C., Ngo, C.A. &
Ablan-Lagman, M.C. 2021. Comparison of morphometric identification of species
in juvenile mangrove crabs (Genus Scylla) by automated and local approaches. Short
Comm. Aquaculture, 531: 735917.
 313

Enhancing post-harvest survival of

crabs within the Australian mud
crab fishery supply chain

Chris Calogeras1 & Sue Poole2

1
C-AID Consultants, Queensland, Australias
2
Sue Poole Consulting, Queensland, Australia

INTRODUCTION
The market of mud crab (Scylla sp.) in Australia is built on the sale of live product. This
is grounded around two key areas: “quality”, based on meat content (fullness) and shelf
life, based on an assessment of the mud crab’s post-harvest survival; and “liveliness”,
with greater liveliness a proxy for anticipated shelf life.
The industry along the supply chain continually have disputes around these
two parameters. Over time industry players developed tests to assess these parameters,
but all are subjective and there was no industry standard, although a number of
broadly accepted techniques are used. Over the past 20 years or more, the industry,
in collaboration with Australian government researchers, has sought to work towards
a more objective science-based approach to these tests by better understanding the
parameters that lead to, or can determine, meat content and liveliness, and how that
can be consistently measured.
This paper explores the 25-year journey of improving quality, post-harvest survival,
and vitality within the supply chain of the Australian mud crab fishery.

MUD CRAB SUPPLY CHAIN BACKGROUND

In Australia, mud crab is the basis of a highly valuable resource for commercial,
recreational and indigenous interests. Within the commercial sector, there are two major
areas of dispute along the supply chain. These relate to the meat content of mud crabs
(i.e. the fullness) and the liveliness of mud crabs (i.e. the shelf life of the crab – with
liveliness being a proxy for expected shelf life). Liveliness is the term that is used in the
crab industry and it relates to a range of factors, including a rapid response to stimulus.
Over time the industry had developed some general methods for testing both
aspects that were generally accepted but were subjective and open to dispute. Over
more than 20 years, catchers, supply chain partners, consumers and researchers have
been working to improve methods to determine fullness and improve the assessment
of quality and liveliness.
Mud crabs are often harvested from remote coastal locations in the northern half of
Australia – often with harsh environmental conditions and limited, if any, infrastructure
– and in less remote areas along eastern Australia. The majority of remote crab fishers
work from outboard powered dinghies and semi-permanent land-based camps where
the live crabs are stored prior to transport to market. Those operating in less remote
area will generally have a home base they return to daily.
The market is for live product only and the financial return gained is dependant on
meat content and liveliness of the crabs, as determined by the buyer at the purchase
point. The main markets in Australia are in the high population states of New South
Wales (NSW), mainly Sydney; and Victoria, mainly Melbourne, with Queensland also
314 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

being a major market. Reaching these markets from remote areas can result in a very
long supply chain from harvest to market.
An example of that supply chain, which is probably the longest and most extreme,
is shown in Figure 1 outlining the Northern Territory (NT) routes from the Gulf of
Carpentaria (GoC) crabbing area. The supply chain for mud crabs from the NT fishery
can be up to 15 days, with expectation of further survival of crabs at retail level and
to consumption point. The physical demand on the crabs can be extreme, as they are
transported and distributed packed dry in air.
There are multiple handling steps within these supply chains, with the extremes
highlighted in the NT route, as shown in Figure 1 and further detailed in Table 1.

FIGURE 1
Major supply chains paths in Australia from the Northern Territory

Harvesters Darwin

GoC

Restaurants

Local Wholesalers

Retail Perth

Sydney
Consumers
Interstate Melbourne

Dealers

Markets Retail

Restaurants Distributors

Consumers

Note: Refer to the disclaimer on the copyright page for the names and boundaries used in this map.
Source: Calogeras, C., Mayze, J. & Poole, S. 2012. Using industry expertise to build a national scheme for grading of live mud crabs. FRDC
2011-225, Final Report. Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.

Harvest location dictates the length of time the crabs are out of water (emersed) as
well as transport pathways. Capture is by baited pot from estuarine mangrove habitat,
rivers and adjacent mud flats in isolated locations. Crab pots are cleared as tides permit,
typically once per day as there can be a 2–10 m tide change twice per day depending
on location. Once taken from the pot, the crabs’ claws are usually tied against their
body and retained in the dinghy until all pots have been cleared – commonly this takes
around 2 hours.
There are different methods of tying the claws, but most crab fishers tie as shown
in Figure 2. This method is chosen as the mouthparts of the animal are still free and,
should the crab accidentally be lost overboard, the animal may still be able to feed
adequately to survive. Prior to packing, the crabs are allowed to purge for up to
24 hours so as to reduce excretory discharge when packed within a container.
In the dinghy, the crabs are held in a fish crate or lug box covered with a thick
dampened hessian sack. After clearing all pots, harvesters return to camp and crabs are
inspected for quality and limb loss. They are returned to plastic fish crates (Figure 2)
Enhancing post-harvest survival of crabs within the Australian mud crab fishery supply chain 315

and covered with damp heavy hessian FIGURE 2

sacking. If using lug boxes (Figure 3), Mud crab showing tied claws in a fish crate following
the sacking is carefully folded in an collection
interlocking manner to retain maximum
moisture for the crabs and to exclude
flies, which cause a major quality
problem when crabs have fly larvae
contamination.
Crab crates are stored in open air in
a damp cool shaded area; in the simplest
form this is under a tree or some form
of shade cover. More sophisticated
operations have screen storage sheds
with sprinkler systems to maintain
dampness (Figure 4). Crabs are held at
a camp location for up to 7 days and the

©C. Calogeras
sacking cover is checked regularly for
dampness and evidence of fly larvae.

FIGURE 3
Mud crab stored at a harvest camp in lug baskets

©C. Calogeras

FIGURE 4
Screened shed with sprinkler and water system
©C. Calogeras
 316 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Once a week the crates are loaded onto an open four-wheel drive vehicle and
transported out to Borroloola, a small town located in the Northern Territory (NT)
about 2 hours away from the main mud crab landing site. This transport stage includes
demanding four-wheel driving and rough road surfaces, imposing severe disturbance
on the crabs. At Borroloola the crab crates are transferred to a cool room (~16 °C).
Time of storage at this temperature varies according to truck pickup time co-ordination
(and weather). From Borroloola to Darwin, the crab crates are transported in a slightly
chilled truck for a period of around 15 hours on tar-sealed roads.
On arrival in Darwin, crabs remain in the truck with refrigeration switched off
for 2–5 hours. Crabs are then transferred inside an air-conditioned facility (~22 °C)
for grading and pack-out prior to air transport to market. Crabs are lightly cleaned
with town supply water to remove mud and debris. The condition of the crabs is then
assessed by experienced graders and categorized generally into the following grades
(Table 1).

TABLE 1
Commercial grades used for mud crabs in Australia
Grade Crab general appearance description
Grade A Lively, robust
Shell hardness, no flex
Grade B Lively, robust
Males – shell hardness, slight flex on both middle segments, more flex on outer segments
Female – shell hardness, slight flex on both sides and no flex in middle section
Grade C Lively, robust
Males – shell hardness, easily flexed on all segments
Female – shell hardness, easily flexed on both sides and some flex on middle section
One claw Lively but missing a claw
Slow Judged by eye and antennae movement, resistance exhibited from claws, legs to applied
gentle pressure
CUC Commercially unsuitable crab (soft shell, little meat present)
Discard Dead or diseased

Graded crabs are packed into waxed cardboard cartons which have small ventilation
holes at the sides of the carton. Crabs are packed bottom-end down with eyes and gills
upwards (Figure 5). Depending on crab size, there may be two layers within a carton
and these are separated by clean paper or cardboard. Once packed, cartons are held
briefly within the chilled facility ready for transport to the airport by truck or van, a
< 30-minute trip on tar-sealed roads.

FIGURE 5
Mud crabs packed out in a carton box for air transport to market
©C. Calogeras
Enhancing post-harvest survival of crabs within the Australian mud crab fishery supply chain 317

The mud crabs are flown out to interstate or international markets and this may
involve transfer to further flights according to the final market destination. Due to these
long supply chains and the multiple handling steps and temperature changes involved
in mud crab distribution in Australia, crab mortality at times reached 30 percent of
shipments. This equates to significant revenue loss for the industry as dead crabs are
rejected for sale at market.
In the following example (Table 2), the Wearyan River in the GoC to southern
markets is used to highlight one of the most demanding and lengthiest distribution
channels in Australia. It should be noted that when the supply chain distances and
timeframes are shortened (e.g. NSW northern coast to Sydney) the same variables are
in play, but the severity of each will most likely be lessened.
Although industry sectors throughout the supply chain implemented various
handling modifications to reduce high mortality rates, a coordinated and consistent
approach was ultimately needed.

TABLE 2
Mud crab supply chain handling stages using Northen Territory example
Supply chain stage Duration Activity
Harvest and removal 2–6 hours Physical disturbance from handling and tying of claws, boat noise
from trap and transport over water.
Landed at camp for < 7 days Crabs wrapped in damp hessian in crate.
short-term holding Dehydration, disturbance with daily checking condition of crabs.
Transport from camp 2–4 hours Crabs wrapped in damp hessian in crate covered with tarpaulin on
to truck pickup point back of utility vehicle or airconditioned vehicle.
Transported over “rough” rutted track.
Dehydration, movement, noise.
Holding storage at 2–12 hours Crabs wrapped in damp hessian in crate.
pickup point Storage overnight in 16 °C cool room or outside.
Dehydration, movement, noise.
Wholesaler processor 15–20 hours Arrival at distributor via refrigerated truck transport (1 100 km).
delivery Dehydration, movement, noise.
Grading and pack-out 2–8 hours Physical disturbance of crabs, dehydration.
in cartons
Air transport 5–20 hours Physical handling disturbance, noise, temperature.
Low temperature imposed on flight transport, or on arrival at
destination (e.g. NT temperature 30 °C and Sydney as low as 3 °C
during winter or > 40 °C in summer).
On-transport to 2 hours to Physical handling disturbance, noise, dehydration, temperature.
markets 4 days Low or high temperature imposed on delivery vehicle or end user.

KEY STRESS POINTS IN HANDLING CHAINS IDENTIFIED

How an individual crab responds to or deals with the stresses imposed during the
supply chain is directly dependent on the physiological condition of the crab. The
physical robustness of mud crabs is influenced by the animal’s health, moult cycle,
season and nutritional state. These parameters also strongly influence the individual
animal’s tolerance to stress imposed.
A crab in a weakened state will have less ability to tolerate any level of stress imposed
and will surrender to mortality more rapidly. Undernourishment during extended
handling and transport chains may also contribute to lowered stress tolerance and
during these periods, crab use its bodily energy stores, a process known as catabolism.
In crabs, blood protein reserves are used first, followed by the hepatopancreas and
eventually muscle. Starvation is unlikely to be a primary cause of mortality on its own;
however, over the long-term, it may contribute by reducing the animal’s ability to
tolerate stress. Key metabolic parameters used by researchers to measure stress level
experienced by the crab are pH, glucose, lactate and ammonia excretion.
318 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Harvest
At capture, removal of crabs from the mesh traps and subsequent on-board handling
can cause physical shell damage and limb loss. At this point, there is a requirement to
restrict aggressive behaviour inherent in mud crabs, thereby limiting physical damage
when crabs are in a confined space. Crabbers seek to minimize aggressive behaviour
and generally will tie the crab’s claws (see Figure 2) to minimize negative interactions
with other crabs and the harvesters.

Dehydration
For dry live transportation of mud crabs, the animals are taken out of the water. The
first effect is rapid dehydration with water loss equating to reduction in live animal
weight and hence less revenue return. Initial water loss results in animal weight loss
of around 4 percent within the first 60 minutes (Figure 6). During the first 24 hours,
further dehydration causing weight loss occurs (Figure 7). In order to minimize
dehydration, the crabs are kept moist by wrapping them in hessian and are kept in cool
shady place.

4.5
FIGURE 6
4.0 Dry in air
Cumulative weight loss from crabs during the first hour of emersion
Commercial practice
(%) loss (%)

3.5
4.5
3.0 Dry in air
4.0
weight lossweight

2.5 Commercial practice

3.5
2.0
3.0
CumulativeCumulative

1.5
2.5
1.0
2.0
0.5
1.5
0.0
1.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
0.5
Time (minutes)
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Time (minutes)

Source: Poole, S., Mayze, J., Exley, P. & Paulo, C. 2008. Maximising revenue within the NT mud crab fishery by enhancing
post-harvest survival of mud crabs. FRDC 2003-240, Final Report. Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.

FIGURE 7
Cumulative weight loss in mud crabs emersed for 24 hours
8

7
(%) loss (%)

86
5
7
weight lossweight

4
6
CumulativeCumulative

53

42
1
3

20
0 6 12 18 24
1
Time (hours)
0
Source: Poole, S., Mayze,
0 J., Exley, P. & 6
Paulo, C. 2008. Maximising
12 revenue within
18 the NT mud crab24
fishery by enhancing
post-harvest survival of mud crabs. FRDC 2003-240, Final Report. Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.
Time (hours)
Enhancing post-harvest survival of crabs within the Australian mud crab fishery supply chain 319

Metabolic processes
Crabs are aquatic animals and removing them from the aquatic environment for
extended periods is uncharacteristic, causing respiratory and metabolic stresses.
However, mud crabs are able to tolerate such treatment far more readily than many
other crab species.
Crabs are poikilothermic and therefore the metabolic rate is largely determined by
external environmental temperatures. Hence, the higher the temperature the greater the
metabolic rate and the more rapidly the crab will deplete its oxygen supply.
Mud crabs, similar to other crustaceans, exchange respiratory gases with the
environment through the gills. Oxygen is taken up from the water and the metabolic
end product, carbon dioxide, is excreted back to the water. When in water with low
oxygen saturation levels or when fully emersed (in air), mud crabs have to find a way
to “breathe” without an external supply of oxygen. They do this through anaerobic
respiration by switching metabolic systems to use alternative compounds to create
energy.
Such anaerobic glycolysis is utilized to meet the shortfall in oxygen uptake and
results in accumulation of lactic acid in the haemolymph and tissues. The combination
of aerobic and anaerobic metabolism can be sufficient to maintain energy levels within
the crab for essential existence and even allow some degree of vigour in mud crabs.
However, liveliness is reduced and the crab becomes semi-comatose. Additionally, the
end by-product of anaerobsis is ammonia which can accumulate in the blood to levels
rapidly toxic to the crabs (Figure 8).

FIGURE 8
Ammonia excretion rates by crabs after different periods of emersion
12

10

8
Ammonia (g/L)

6 Post 0 days
Post 5 days
4 Post 14 days
Post 21 days
2

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (minutes)

Source: Poole, S., Mayze, J., Exley, P. & Paulo, C. 2008. Maximising revenue within the NT mud crab fishery by enhancing
post-harvest survival of mud crabs. FRDC 2003-240, Final Report. Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.

Handling and disturbance during distribution chain

Anecdotal advice from experienced mud crab harvesters and wholesalers are to leave
them alone; keep them damp, keep them quiet and they’ll be fine! Handling and
transport chain studies undertaken indicate that the comment has substance and that
any form of disturbance, be it noise or movement, causes an instant and sometimes
extreme response within the crab.

Movement
While held at camp, mud crabs are usually checked daily for liveliness, mortalities
and to ensure claws remained tied by a gentle unwrap and sort, but without removing
animals fully from the crates. The check for dead crabs is particularly important as
upon death mud crabs release ammonia rapidly and this immediately affects other
320 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

crabs in the crate, stressing them to a level that can lead to mortality. In addition,
mortalities attract flies, and increases the chance of fly eggs being laid and subsequently
larvae developing.
Crabs receive a final sorting and grading just prior to being trucked out of camp for
further transport. In later steps of the supply chain, crated or boxed crabs are handled
and transferred several times through transport distribution steps. Further disturbance
arises from physical vehicle movement during transport.
Crab physiological response to strong or sudden movement is far more pronounced
than stress caused by being held emersed, as shown in Figure 9, with high blood lactate
levels in the mud crabs after they experience a sudden jolt movement.

FIGURE 9
Blood lactate levels in undisturbed (a) and disturbed crabs (b)

18
a)
a Control b)
b Drop
16

14
Lactic acid (mmol/L)

12

10

0
0 5 0 5
Time (hours) Time (hours)

Source: Poole, S., Mayze, J., Exley, P. & Paulo, C. 2008. Maximising revenue within the NT mud crab fishery by enhancing
post-harvest survival of mud crabs. FRDC 2003-240, Final Report. Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.

The effect of disturbance can also be seen when crabs experience constant movement
during transport in elevated temperatures, similar to that occurring when crabs are
transported on the back of an open-backed vehicle (Figure 10).

FIGURE 10
Excretion rates of ammonia by crabs subjected to different stresses
2.5

2.0
7 days emersion
1.5
NH3 (mg/ml)

1.5h physical disturbance at

elevated temperatures
1.0

0.5

0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time (minutes)

Source: Poole, S., Mayze, J., Exley, P. & Paulo, C. 2008. Maximising revenue within the NT mud crab fishery by enhancing
post-harvest survival of mud crabs. FRDC 2003-240, Final Report. Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.

50
45
40
 2.5
Enhancing post-harvest survival of crabs within the Australian mud crab fishery supply chain 321

2.0
7 days emersion
1.5

NH3 (mg/ml)
1.5h physical disturbance at
Breeze/wind elevated temperatures
The detrimental
1.0 effect of breeze on exposed crabs has common recognition among
experienced harvesters. Hence the industry practice of covering crabs with damp
hessian and 0.5
storing them in a draught-free condition is important.
Unfortunately, this practice is not always adopted further along the supply chain.
Within wholesale
0.0 and retail sectors, crabs can commonly be exposed to strong air
disturbances such as10fan-forced
0 20 30 conditioning,
air 40 50 60
regular 70 80 and 90
opening 100of doors,
closing
Time (minutes)
and storage positions affected by natural breezes.
Such air movement disturbances not only rapidly increase dehydration rate and
weight loss, there is also a strong metabolic response evidenced indicating higher stress
level in the crabs. The variability in individual crab reaction is illustrated in (Figure 11).

FIGURE 11
Blood lactate levels in crabs subject to breeze and wind
50
45
40
35
Lactic acid (mmol/L)

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 48
Time (hours)

Source: Poole, S., Mayze, J., Exley, P. & Paulo, C. 2008. Maximising revenue within the NT mud crab fishery by enhancing
post-harvest survival of mud crabs. FRDC 2003-240, Final Report. Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.

Noise
The effect of exposure to noisy environments is often mentioned by industry as a
contributing factor in crab mortalities. Generator units in close proximity to stored
crab at basecamp or in retail situations and even loud music or rowdy people are
reported to have detrimental effects on crabs. Indication that such noise disturbance
causes a metabolic response in mud crabs is illustrated by elevated glucose levels
(Table 3) suggesting increased metabolism and energy reserve use. From other research
undertaken it is shown that glucose levels between 1–3 mmol/L indicate a stress in mud
crabs. Glucose level response in crabs subjected to noise are at the lower end of this
range implying crabs were not unduly stressed. However, stress imposed by noise adds
to other stresses imposed and have a cumulative effect contributing to mortalities and
so should be minimized.

TABLE 3
Metabolic response in crabs subjected to noise disturbance
Blood glucose level
Crab treatment (mmol/L)
0 hours 48 hours

Control – crabs held quietly 0.16 ± 0.06 1.27 ± 0.77

Crabs subjected to noise 0.15 ± 0.07 1.75 ± 0.64

Temperature
Mud crabs are able to tolerate daily temperature fluctuations with little stress
imposition. It was observed that the temperature of crabs held in crates in shade
 322 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

with a damp hessian cover does not directly reflect the external temperature change
(Figure 12). This is likely due to temperature change occurring gradually and an
insulation effect from crab body heat within confined storage.
However, mud crabs are subjected to wide temperatures changes throughout the
supply chain (Figure 13) and transport steps including refrigerated transport or flight
transport imposes severe stress on crabs due to the sudden and extreme temperature
changes involved (Figure 14).

FIGURE 12
Temperature of mud crabs held in hessian wrapped crates at camp
28

26
28

12 24
26
(°C) (°C)

12 22
24
Temperature

20
22
Temperature

18
20

18 Ambient
16
Top
14 Middle
Ambient
16
Bottom
Top
12
14 Middle
Bottom
12 PM 12 AM 12 PM 12 AM 12 PM 12 AM 12 PM 12 AM 12 PM 12 AM 12 PM 12 AM 12 PM 12 AM
12
Time
12 PM 12 AM 12 PM 12 AM 12 PM 12 AM of day
12 PM (May)
12 AM 12 PM 12 AM 12 PM 12 AM 12 PM 12 AM

Time
Source: Poole, S., Mayze, J., Exley, P. & Paulo, C. 2008. of day (May)
Maximising revenue within the NT mud crab fishery by enhancing
post-harvest survival of mud crabs. FRDC 2003-240, Final Report. Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.

FIGURE 13
Temperature fluctuations
25 in the mud crab supply chain: from Wearyan River (GoC) to Darwin
Thurs Fri Sat Sun Mon Tues
24
25 borroloola chiller
Thurs Fri Sat Sun Mon Tues
15:45 Unload at processor
23
24 Darw in 6:45
leave camp chiller
borroloola
10:45
15:45 Unload at processor
22
23 Darw in 6:45
leave camp
(°C) (°C)

10:45
21
22
Temperature

13 20
21
Temperature

13 19
20

18
19

17
18
16:30
16
17 pack on truck
14:30
16:30
15
16 pack on truck
12:30 00:30 12:30 00:30 12:30 00:30 12:30 00:30 12:30 14:30
00:30
15
12:30 00:30 12:30 00:30 12:30 Time
00:30 12:30 00:30 12:30 00:30
Time
Source: Poole, S., Mayze, J., Exley, P. & Paulo, C. 2008. Maximising revenue within the NT mud crab fishery by enhancing
post-harvest survival of mud crabs. FRDC 2003-240, Final Report. Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.

35

35
30

30
(°C) (°C)

25
Temperature

25
emperature

20

20
 16:30
16 pack on truck
14:30
15
12:30 00:30 12:30 00:30 12:30 00:30 12:30 00:30 12:30 00:30
Time
Enhancing post-harvest survival of crabs within the Australian mud crab fishery supply chain 323

FIGURE 14
Temperature fluctuations in the mud crab supply chain: from capture to Brisbane via
air transport
35

30
Temperature (°C)

25

20

15

Mon Tues Wed Thurs Fri Sat Sun Mon Tues Wed
10
17/5/04 18/5/04 19/5/04 20/5/04 21/5/04 22/5/04 23/5/04 24/5/04 25/5/04 26/5/04
12:00 AM 12:00 AM 12:00 AM 12:00 AM 12:00 AM 12:00 AM 12:00 AM 12:00 AM 12:00 AM 12:00 AM

Date

Source: Poole, S., Mayze, J., Exley, P. & Paulo, C. 2008. Maximising revenue within the NT mud crab fishery by enhancing
post-harvest survival of mud crabs. FRDC 2003-240, Final Report. Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.

Aggressive behaviour
Mud crabs are naturally territorial and inherently aggressive in behaviour. These traits
are exacerbated when crabs are in close confines and such inherent behaviour results in
higher stress levels occurring (Figure 15) and often physical animal damage leading to
limb or haemolymph loss (Figure 16). Research undertaken in 2020 showed that stress
and aggression levels were lower in tied versus untied crabs.

FIGURE 15
Blood glucose levels in crabs with untied limbs in close confines
5

4
Glucose (mmol/L)

0
0 3
Time (hours)

Source: Poole, S., Mayze, J., Exley, P. & Paulo, C. 2008. Maximising revenue within the NT mud crab fishery by enhancing
post-harvest survival of mud crabs. FRDC 2003-240, Final Report. Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.

28
Commercial hold Dipped Sprayed

27

26
Temperature (°C)

25

24

23

22

21
 324 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 16
Modified handling for stress
Haemolymph loss from mud crab following aggressive reduction
interaction The natural environment for mud crabs
is seawater and when removed from this
environment and held dry in air, stress
occurs. As previously mentioned pH,
glucose, lactate and ammonia excretion
are the key metabolic parameters used
to measure stress levels. By developing
an understanding of the main steps in
the supply chain, where high stress is
imposed upon the live crab, modified
or alternative handling practices have
been developed. Table 4 provides a
Source: Poole, S., Mayze, J., Exley, P. & Paulo, C. 2008. Maximising revenue
comparison of the impacts of some key
©C. Calogeras

within the NT mud crab fishery by enhancing post-harvest survival of mud

crabs. FRDC 2003-240, Final Report. Fisheries Research and Development disturbances and stressors on blood
Corporation, Canberra.
lactate levels in mud crabs.

TABLE 4
Circulating lactic acid in mud crabs in response to stressors
Lactic acid
Treatment
(mmol/L)
At rest in holding tank 0.17
Emersed in damp hessian, 3 hours 7.83
“Annoyed” for 15 minutes 11.08
Breeze for 48 hours 35.88

Based on research and practical application the following practices have been shown
to reduce stress levels.

Limit aggression
The current commercial industry practice of holding crabs with claws tied tight to the
body in a crate with dampened hessian wrap is highly effective for minimizing stress
imposition on the animals. It is important that the crabs are checked regularly (every
1–2 days) and the hessian wrap remains constantly damp.

Limit disturbance
Disturbing crabs results in an immediate metabolic reaction with level of disturbance
dictating degree of reaction. Disturbance arises from all physical movements subjected
to the crabs including checking for dead and during grading, moving crates and packed
boxes of crabs during loading and unloading, transport movement, direct air flow, loud
noise, and crab behavioural aggression.

Limit rapid temperature changes

Based on multiple studies, it was concluded that slight lowering of the temperature
of crabs slows metabolism and induces a semi-comatose state which reduces imposed
stress reactions. However, temperature change must be gradual to be tolerated and not
sudden nor severe or go to too low a level. It was found that temperature reduction
should not be > 8 oC lower than the water temperature the crabs were harvested from.
No specific thresholds were able to be set, as harvest water temperature will vary
with geographic location, season and weather. Studies illustrated that holding crabs in
constant high humidity results in a steady temperature of the crabs (Figure 17).
 Glucose (
2

Enhancing1post-harvest survival of crabs within the Australian mud crab fishery supply chain 325

0
0 3
Time (hours)

5 FIGURE 17
Temperature of mud crabs held under different conditions
4 (times of water additions indicated by arrows)
Glucose (mmol/L)

28
3 Commercial hold Dipped Sprayed

27
2
26
1
Temperature (°C)

25

0
24
0 3
Time (hours)
23

22

21
28
Commercial hold Dipped Sprayed
20
27
29

30

31

1/

2/

3/

4/

5/

6/

7/

8/

9/

10

11

12

13

14

15
09

09

09

09

09

09

09

09

09
/0

/0

/0

/0

/0

/0

/0

/0

/0
8

/2

/2

/2

/2

/2

/2

/2

/2

/2

9
/2

/2

/2

/2

/2

/2

/2

/2

/2
00

00

00

00

00

00

00

00

00
00

00

00

00

00

00

00

00

00
7

7
26
7

7
Date
Temperature (°C)

25Poole, S., Mayze, J., Exley, P. & Paulo, C. 2008. Maximising revenue within the NT mud crab fishery by enhancing
Source:
post-harvest survival of mud crabs. FRDC 2003-240, Final Report. Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.

24

23
INCLUSION OF RECOVERY STEP IN THE SUPPLY CHAINS
Given22that mud crab supply chains in Australia can involve crabs harvested from
isolated locations with little infrastructure and very long transport distances, it is
inevitable
21 that the animals will endure accumulated stress. A possible way to reduce
12.0
high stress levels in crabs could be to include a “recovery step” alongCommercial
the chain. Several
20
methods 10.0
were explored for full or partial recovery of the animals. These included
29

30

31

1/

2/

3/

4/

5/

6/

7/

8/

9/

10

11

12

13

14

15

regular short dips, longer soaks, continual spray systems and full reimmersion for
09

09

09

09

09

09

09

09

09
/0

/0

/0

/0

/0

/0

/0

/0

/0
8/

8/

8/

/2

/2

/2

/2

/2

/2

/2

/2

/2

9/

9/

9/

9/

9/

9/
20

20

20

00

00

00

00

00

00

00

00

00

20

20

20

20

20

20

8.0
07

07

07

07

07

07

07

07

07

longer periods. For longer term tanking, water salinity of between 15–35 ppm is
NH3 (g/L)

Date
preferred 6.0
whereas fresh clean seawater, bore water, town water or rainwater could be
used along with prescribed measures around timing and temperature.
4.0
Both spray and dip methods appeared to produce crabs with lower stress levels
as assessed2.0 by ammonia excretion (Figure 18) than those held immersed as per
Dipped
Sprayed
0.0 FIGURE 18
Excretion 0of ammonia
10 by crabs
20immediately
30 after 40 50 following
re-immersion 60 14 days
70held
Time (minutes)
under different conditions
12.0
Commercial
10.0

8.0
NH3 (g/L)

6.0

4.0

2.0
Dipped
Sprayed
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (minutes)
Source: Poole, S., Mayze, J., Exley, P. & Paulo, C. 2008. Maximising revenue within the NT mud crab fishery by enhancing
post-harvest survival of mud crabs. FRDC 2003-240, Final Report. Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.
326 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 19
pH after emersion and recovery of individual crabs

7.9
Post-emersion (48h)
7.8 Post-emersion (48h) and
7.9
2h re-immersion
Post-emersion (48h)
7.7
7.8 Post-emersion (48h) and
2h re-immersion
7.6
pH

7.7

7.5
7.6
pH

7.4
7.5

7.3
7.4
Individual crabs

7.3
Source: Poole, S., Mayze, J., Exley, P. & Paulo, C. 2008. Maximising revenue within the NT mud crab fishery by enhancing
Individual crabs
post-harvest survival of mud crabs. FRDC 2003-240, Final Report. Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.

FIGURE 20
1.2
Ammonia excretion by crabs upon re-immersion after 3 days of air exposure
1.0
1.2

0.8
1.0
NH 3 (mg/ml)

0.6
0.8
NH 3 (mg/ml)

0.4
0.6

0.2
0.4

0.0
0.2
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (minutes)
0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (minutes)

Source: Poole, S., Mayze, J., Exley, P. & Paulo, C. 2008. Maximising revenue within the NT mud crab fishery by enhancing
post-harvest survival of mud crabs. FRDC 2003-240, Final Report. Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.

commercial practice. However, when assessing robustness and liveliness of the crabs
during the following 7 days, it was noted that many of the animals dipped for short
“dips” (1–5 minutes),
7 were weak and “slow” compared to crabs not dipped at all. Such
results suggested aEmersion
short (48h)
dip atiselevated temperatures
detrimental to the crabs rather than de-stressing them.
6 Re-immersion for 5 days after emersion (48h)
It is possible7that the dip triggers hormonal
temperaturesat elevated
response to initiate detoxification processes
Emersion (48h) at elevated temperatures
and this is not5 readily reversible after the crabs are taken out of the dip. Dipping also
(mmol/L)(mmol/L)

6 Re-immersion for 5 days after emersion (48h)

results in temperature fluctuations in the crabs while a constant spray system holds
temperaturesat elevated
4
their temperature
5 steady.
GlucoseGlucose

A similar 3situation could occur for sprayed crabs when they are packed dry for
4
the next transport
2
stage of the chain. When crabs are soaked for 2 hours with full
reimmersion in water, the blood pH increases towards that of rested crabs (Figure 19)
3

and this time21length is sufficient to allow excretion of ammonia (Figure 20). Seawater
was used for 0all dips, sprays and soaks but studies showed that the soak method was
also effective1 when using freshwater. However, longer freshwater immersion was
Individual crabs
detrimental. 0
Individual crabs
 0.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (minutes)

Enhancing post-harvest survival of crabs within the Australian mud crab fishery supply chain 327

FIGURE 21
Blood glucose levels in individual stressed crabs and after recovery in holding tank

7
Emersion (48h) at elevated temperatures
6 Re-immersion for 5 days after emersion (48h)
temperaturesat elevated
5
Glucose (mmol/L)

0
Individual crabs

Source: Poole, S., Mayze, J., Exley, P. & Paulo, C. 2008. Maximising revenue within the NT mud crab fishery by enhancing
post-harvest survival of mud crabs. FRDC 2003-240, Final Report. Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.

Longer emersion durations of several days were demonstrated to be the most

effective method, resulting in practically full recovery of the crabs as seen in Figure 21
where blood glucose levels have returned close to those of rested crabs.

QUALITY GRADING METHODS

Carapace pressure test

Within the supply chain the quality of a mud crab is commonly assessed by gentle
thumb pressure applied to the crab shell at specific points. This pressure test is a proxy
for meat content. The thumb pressure test is carried out as shown in Figure 22. The
top of the shell is used for female crabs and the underside for males. A fully hard shell,

FIGURE 22
Pressure applied to carapace for female (a, b) and male (c, d) mud crabs

a b
©Kura Sushi

©PR Times

c d
©C. Calogeras
©Kura Sushi
328 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

FIGURE 23
Total blood protein levels in mud crabs through moulting cycle
1.3650 120

1.3600 100

Total protein (mg/ml)

1.3550 80
Serum RI

1.3500 60
deceased
1.3450 40

1.3400 20

1.3350 0
-35 -28 -21 -14 -7 0 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56

Moult stage (d)

Source: Mayze, J., Poole, S., Exley, P. & Calogeras, C. 2016. Building precision into the Australian Industry Live Mud Crab
Grading Scheme (AILMCGS) through addressing grading and regional anomalies. FRDC Project 2014-218, Final Report.
Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.

that allows no indentation when pressure is applied, is generally considered as high-

grade crab (with some exceptions to this rule). Crabs that demonstrate shell flexing
with applied pressure are noted as lesser-grade animals. The method can be refined
by applying pressure to the underside of the crab at other segments, but this is only
applicable to male crabs and is not suitable for female crabs.
The pressure test is, however, inherently subjective in nature as degree of flex, if any,
is dependent on force applied and also how many times the test is repeated along the
supply chain, as the shell could potentially weaken or crack from repeated pressure.
Also, the degree of shell flex is closely related to moult cycle phase of an individual mud
crab – the more recent the moult the softer the shell. It was also found that the level of
total protein circulating in the animal’s blood is related to moult cycle (Figure 23) due
to the muscle replacement following shell shedding and re-hardening.
Measuring total protein in the crab blood provided an objective assessment method
and was found to align mud crabs within grades well. It proved a useful research tool
and can also present opportunity for use within the industry sectors to confirm grades
assigned.
However, correlating total blood protein to shell hardness assessment is not
definitive of top-quality crabs. This arises from crabs in the late-moult phase exhibiting
a fully hardened shell but still requiring up to a further 2 weeks for body muscle to be
fully replaced, i.e. the claws filling with meat. Hence a crab can be determined as top
quality by total protein (and shell hardness) methods, yet not be full of meat, similar
to claw meat fullness levels illustrated in Figure 24.
At the consumer end of the supply chain, such occurrences engender a strong
negative buyer reaction due to the disappointment of purchasing an expensive mud
crab that is found to have little meat upon consumption.
In an attempt to quantify “quality”, minimize disputes and improve customer
experiences, the industry with the support of researchers sought to codify a national
grading scheme via a national workshop held in 2012. As a result of the workshop a
general flow chart for grading mud crabs was developed to provide a clear grading
process that could be utilized nationally as the Australian Industry Live Mud Crab
Grading Scheme (AILMCGS) (Figure 25).
This approach aligned well with the system in place in the NT but not so with
some of the operators in other jurisdictions, which lead to some level of revision to
the scheme via future projects. It must also be noted that each jurisdiction has its own
set of rules on the taking, possessing or selling of mud crabs and each supply chain
Enhancing post-harvest survival of crabs within the Australian mud crab fishery supply chain 329

participant may also apply their own FIGURE 24

grading requirements depending on the Cooked meat fullness of mud crab claws
market segment they are targeting.

FURTHER ACTIVITIES
As consumer satisfaction and certainty
is critical for industry revenue return
and viability, further and ongoing
research has focused on the feasibility
of developing methods that would
predict the meat yield of cooked
mud crabs. Many technologies were
explored including haemolymph
protein–RI (refractive index), candling,
X-ray, ultrasound and near-infrared
technology in the form of near-infrared
spectroscopy (NIRS) (Table 5).
All of the methodologies showed
some level of applicability, but NIRS
demonstrated the most promise
(Table 6). The existing body of work
provided the basis for further research by
Queensland Department of Agriculture
and Fisheries (DAF) in developing

©C. Calogeras
Source: Calogeras, C., Mayze, J. & Poole, S. 2012. Using industry expertise to
build a national scheme for grading of live mud crabs. FRDC 2011-225, Final
NIRS assessment for applicability Report. Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.
across different Australian mud crab

FIGURE 25
Live mud crab grading scheme flowchart in Australia

©C. Calogeras

Source: Calogeras, C., Mayze, J. & Poole, S. 2012. Using industry expertise to build a national scheme for grading of live mud crabs. FRDC 2011-
225, Final Report. Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.
330 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

supply chain sectors. As such, NIRS is being further investigated through a current
Fisheries Research Development Corporation (FRDC) project that is developing non-
invasive methods to assess mud crab meat fullness using portable NIRS.

TABLE 5
Technologies explored to determine meat yield from live crabs
Methodology Considerations Outcome
Ultrasonics Assesses rates at which sound Acoustic information can provide a useful predictive
waves travels through a tool if a clear measurable signal could be obtained.
medium. Can be used to assess Ultrasound transducers are small and inexpensive,
physiochemical changes in the so are a technology potentially suited to practical
muscle of a mud crab at the deployment.
beginning and end of a moult
cycle. If signal clarity issues can be resolved evidence
shows acoustic measurements can predict meat
yield in terms of broad grade categories.
Candling Least technologically advanced Investigations indicated no obvious correlation
method. Involves putting a light between percentage meat yield of cooked claws
source underneath the crab and versus the illumination of the carapace and
then looking at the image that dominant claw.
comes out the top, similar to that Could be further investigated using other imaging
used in egg fullness tests. capturing techniques to see if enhancing the image
improves correlations.
X-Ray Electromagnetic radiation. Only suitable for a very large throughput of
product at major market facilities.
Not at all suitable for wider and geographically
dispersed locations.
Haemolymph Haemolymph collected from crabs RI values correlated to yield percentage traits, but
protein–RI via a syringe. Placed on hand held not to physical characteristics.
refractometer and RI assessed.
Near-infrared Muscle meat differs between hard- Preliminary results using hand held devices showed
spectroscopy and soft-shell mud crabs. positive results in separating mud crabs into
(NIRS) three classes: A, B, and C based on meat yield (see
Three components vary greatest;
moisture, NaCl and protein. Table 6 and Figure 24).
Irradiation causes some molecules Requires further research to refine method and
to change vibrations from one spectra collection platform, plus assessment
energy level to another. Energy is of sufficient number of mud crabs to enable
absorbed at a certain frequency construction of robust calibration models for
and this absorption is detected by predictive purposes.
NIRS instruments.

TABLE 6
Percentage correct classification assessed by shell hardness method and NIRS for predicting
mud crab grade based on percentage of cooked meat yield
Mud crab fullness assessment method
Grade (% correct)
(% meat yield from weight whole crab)
Pressure test NIR instruments

A (> 45%) 44 Up to 91
B (35–45%) 40 60–84
C (< 35%) 52 75–86
All grades combined (A, B, C) 48 86

CONCLUSION
Due to the close industry involvement in the work, adoption of improved handling
practices occurred readily with methods adapted to fit individual harvester operation and
respective supply chains. The research also engendered creation of a national AILMCGS
with the purpose of establishing consistency across states, territories and markets. This
scheme has been revised a number of times and is not a formal national standard.
Current practices still utilize thumb test technologies to provide guidance on
quality and the steps involved in determining liveliness are based on the stepwise
process identified in the AILMCGS. The existing body of research provided the basis
for further research by DAF developing NIRS assessment for applicability across
Enhancing post-harvest survival of crabs within the Australian mud crab fishery supply chain 331

different Australian mud crab supply chain sectors. Current research is also focused
on developing traceability systems within the mud crab supply chain from harvest to
consumer.

FURTHER READINGS
Calogeras, C. 2000. Towards a national strategy for mud crab research. Darwin Northern
Territory, 29–31 May 1999. Fisheries Report 48. Fisheries Research and Development
Corporation, Canberra.
Calogeras, C. 2007. Mud crab recruitment literature reviews – focusing on Scylla serrata.
National Mud Crab Fishery Research Strategy Workshop. Darwin Northern Territoy,
20 June 2007. Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.
Calogeras, C. & Buckworth, R. 2023. If you don’t know where you are going, you’ll end
up someplace else’ – Future proofing the Australian mud crab industry through improved
strategic direction. FRDC 2018-177 Final Report. Fisheries Research and Development
Corporation, Canberra.
Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry. 2020. Holding methods for mud
crabs. FRDC 2019-160, Final Report (Commercial in confidence). Fisheries Research
and Development Corporation, Canberra.
Mayze, J. 2012a. Alive and kicking. Selecting, preparing and cooking your live mud crab.
FRDC Project 2010/302 – Equipping the mud crab industry with innovative skills
through extension of best practice handling. Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and
Forestry, Canberra.
Mayze, J. 2012b. Alive and kicking. Best practice handling of live mud crabs for harvesters.
FRDC Project 2010/302 – Equipping the mud crab industry with innovative skills
through extension of best practice handling. Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and
Forestry, Canberra.
Mayze, J. 2012c. Alive and kicking. Testing live mud crab for meat fullness. FRDC Project
2010/302 – Equipping the mud crab industry with innovative skills through extension
of best practice handling. Canberra, Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry.
Mayze, J. 2012d. Alive and kicking. Recovery procedures – steps to increase longevity of live
mud crabs. FRDC Project 2010/302 – Equipping the mud crab industry with innovative
skills through extension of best practice handling. Department of Agriculture, Fisheries
and Forestry, Canberra.
Mayze, J. 2012e. Alive and kicking. Best practice handling of live mud crabs for retailers.
FRDC Project 2010/302 – Equipping the mud crab industry with innovative skills
through extension of best practice handling. Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and
Forestry, Canberra.
Mayze, J. 2012f. Alive and kicking. Tanking recommendations for live mud crabs. FRDC
Project 2010/302 – Equipping the mud crab industry with innovative skills through
extension of best practice handling. Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry,
Canberra.
Mayze, J. 2012g. Alive and kicking. Transport of live mud crabs to wholesalers and retailers.
FRDC Project 2010/302 – Equipping the mud crab industry with innovative skills
through extension of best practice handling. Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and
Forestry, Canberra.
Mayze, J., Poole, S., Exley, P. & Calogeras, C. 2016. Building precision into the
Australian Industry Live Mud Crab Grading Scheme through addressing grading and
regional anomalies. FRDC 2014-218 Final Report. Fisheries Research and Development
Corporation, Canberra.
Northern Territory Mud Crab Licensee Committee. 2011. Northern Territory code of
practice for the mud crab fishery. Darwin, Australia, Northern Territory Mud Crab
Licensee Committee
332 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Poole, S., Mayze, J. & Calogeras, C. 2012. Equipping the mud crab industry with
innovative skills through extension of best practice handling. FRDC 2010-302, Final
Report. Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.
Saunders, T., Johnson, D., Johnston, D. & Walton, L. 2021. Status of Australian fish stocks
report - mud crabs (2020). FRDC Project 2019-149. Fisheries Research and Development
Corporation, Canberra.
Wedding, B., Grauf, S., Wright, C., Exley, P. & Pavich, L. 2023. Developing a non-invasive
method to assess mud crab meat fullness using portable NIRS. FRDC Project 2018-089.
Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.
Wedding, B., Wright, C., Grauf, S. & Exley, P. 2019. Non-destructive assessment of
mud crab fullness. Agri-Science Queensland Innovation Opportunity, 2017. Brisbane,
Australia, Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries.
 333

Overview of management and

monitoring of mud crab fisheries in
Australia

Chris Calogeras1 & Rik C. Buckworth2

1
C-AID Consultants, Queensland, Australia
2
Sea Sense Australia Pty. Ltd., Queensland Australia and Charles Darwin University,
Northern Territory, Australia

ABSTRACT
Australia has highly regulated fisheries for mud crab which are managed by four different
states and territories. Each jurisdiction has its own regulatory framework, although all
have similar basic high-level regulations in place. Both recreational (for own use) and
commercial (to derive an income) fishers must comply with a raft of regulations. These
involve minimum size limits, gear restrictions, protection for females or berried crabs
and – for the commercial sector – limited entry plus extensive data and monitoring
systems. First Nation fishers are generally entitled to use the resources of an area of
land or water in a traditional manner. All Australian mud crab fisheries are currently
regarded as sustainable.
To maintain commercial catches within an overall harvest level, some jurisdictions
have ventured down the catch quota path, whilst others rely solely on input controls.
Data and compliance requirements continue to increase to meet the needs of
various stock assessment models being developed and to comply with management
arrangements, including driving data needs for harvest strategies. These arrangements
recognize economic and social values as well ecological sustainability.
These regulatory frameworks are relatively expensive to oversee, with the cost being
borne more and more by the commercial fishers as governments across Australia move
to cost recovery models. These heavy cost burdens and regulatory requirements may
be hard to support in countries that lack economic resources, or the social drivers
to approach their regulations in this manner. A cost benefit analysis of outcomes
from existing management arrangements in place in Australia would be a critical first
point before any jurisdiction should consider modelling their regime on an existing
Australian approach.
To contextualize the impacts of the various frameworks, this paper provides an
overview of the Australian crab fisheries industry, the regulatory frameworks, and the
monitoring and research programmes in place. The benefits, and drawbacks, of each are
briefly covered in the conclusion. Details in the paper are heavily drawn from report
outputs derived from a national workshop held in Australia in 2022. The workshop
was led by the authors and sought to identify key national management and research
need and directions via a Fisheries and Research Development Corporation (FRDC)
Project 2018/177 titled: “If you don’t know where you are going, you’ll end up
someplace else – Future proofing the Australian mud crab industry through improved
strategic direction” (Calogeras and Buckworth, 2023). A key finding from this project
related to the need to better understand the impacts of habitat disturbance, chemical
and ecological processes, and the roles each play in resource sustainability now and
into the future.
334 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Despite many commonalities, the Australian mud crab fisheries have no formal cross-
jurisdictional connectivity amongst industry, management or research and monitoring.
Overcoming this barrier could unlock many opportunities for improvement for
Australian mud crab fisheries.

THE AUSTRALIAN MUD CRAB WILD CAPTURE INDUSTRY

Species
FIGURE 1
Globally, mud crabs can be found from
Map of Australia indicating approximate distribution
boundaries for mud crabs
South Africa, east around the Indian
Ocean, through Southeast Asia to Japan,
Darwin and across the Pacific Ocean to Hawaii,
GoC
Fiji and Samoa. This includes Australia.
In Australia mud crabs are caught
Broome
in estuaries, tidal flats and mangrove
areas and are widely distributed across
northern Australia, extending from well
south of Broome in Western Australia
(WA) to Eden in southern New South
Wales (NSW) (Figure 1).
Of the four species of mud crab,
two are found in Australian waters:
Eden Scylla serrata (giant or green mud crab)
and Scylla olivacea (orange, brown or
red mud crab) (Gopurenko, Hughes and
Arnhem Land Keenan, 1999; Keenan, Davie and Mann,
1998). The former constitutes more than
Note: Refer to the disclaimer on the copyright page for the names and 99 percent of the commercial catch of
boundaries used in this map.
mud crab in the Northern Territory
Source: Geospatial Information Section of the United Nations.
https://www.un.org/geospatial/mapsgeo (NT), and the entire commercial catch in
NSW and Queensland (Qld). S. olivacea
is a very minor component of the NT catch in discrete areas, occurring extremely
rarely in the Gulf of Carpentaria (GoC) and the Australian east coast. In WA it appears
to be a large proportion of the catch.
Genetic evidence suggests that there are at least two biological stocks of S. serrata in
Australian waters. One identified stock is to the west of Torres Strait, while the other
is to the southeast. These stocks are commonly referred to as the northern Australian
and the east-coast biological stocks, respectively. For management purposes, the mud
crab fisheries in the Gulf of Carpentaria (GoC) are also managed respectively by the
NT and Qld as a separate stock.
Female mud crabs in Australia are reported to migrate offshore during October to
December to release their eggs. The planktonic larval stage can last for several weeks,
which might facilitate gene flow between areas, depending on local oceanography. The
extent of connectivity between areas is not well known.
Mud crabs are fast growing and short lived, with longevity believed to be up to
4 years. A green mud crab matures at about 110 mm carapace width (CW) and a brown
at about 90 mm. Mud crab can grow to a size of up to 150 mm CW within 1 year,
depending on environmental conditions.
The levels of recruitment of mud crab fisheries fluctuate considerably – most likely
due to environmental influences such as rainfall, run off levels and water temperature –
which impact spawning success and larval survival through to recruitment (Hay et al.,
2005; Meynecke et al., 2010; Halliday and Robins, 2007). Annual mud crab harvests
vary between and within years, dependent on recruitment, seasonal catchability and
levels of fishing effort.
Overview of management and monitoring of mud crab fisheries in Australia 335

There are significant differences in the relative performance of the six Australian
fisheries operating across the two currently identified biological stocks of green mud
crab. This suggests that despite apparent larval connectivity within those stocks, there
are different exploitation rates on components of the adult stock in different areas and/
or there are environmental and ecological variances that may impact stock size.
Importantly in Australia, there is no fishery for the collection of crablets or juvenile
mud crabs – this is strictly prohibited in all jurisdictions and is a pillar of every
management regime in the country. There is currently no mud crab aquaculture taking
place in Australia, so any future development in this sector will rely on hatchery-
produced seed stock.

OVERVIEW OF AUSTRALIAN FISHERY OPERATIONS

Each fishery in Australia is operated in a different regulatory and operational
environment. To provide context, a brief outline of each of the jurisdictional
fisheries follows. Greater detail on each jurisdiction’s fisheries’ status, operations
and management arrangements can be found at the relevant government or industry
websites or via the Status of Australian Fish Stocks 2020 Report (Piddocke et al., 2021).

Northern Territories (NT)

The Northern Territory coastline, including its islands, spans approximately 11 000 km
(Geoscience Australia, 2024), and mud crabs can be found and caught along its entire
length. This coastline remains relatively undisturbed. There are 49 licences issued, each
with entitlement to two 30-pot units. There are only about 30–35 crabbers. Crabbers
use 60–120 pots per operation, which they check and bait at least daily. Most operations
are single-fisher based and occasionally a crew member may be taken on to assist if crab
numbers are very high, or as part of a succession process.
NT fishers operate from dinghies between 5.0–7.2 m in length, powered by petrol
outboard motors ranging from a single 40 hp to twin 250 hp, depending on fishing
range.
• When trapped, legal crabs are retained, tied, and stored on board the vessel in
hessian lined fish lug boxes. The NT requires crabbers to sort their crabs as soon
as possible and release unwanted or illegal crabs, including undersized, berried
females and what are termed Commercially Unsuitable Crab (CUC) back to the
water and tie any retained crab before they return to land. CUC are those crabs
deemed to be soft in the shell (intermoult) and illegal to retain. Shell hardness and
softness is used as proxy for meat content and is based on shell pressure tests.
• Some crabbers operate as day trippers back to a base camp and others live on
their dinghies or mother craft for 5–6 days at a time, crabbing up to 200 km from
a base camp. Remote crabbers may stay away from Darwin for 6 or more months
depending on access, weather conditions and crab numbers.

On return to base camp, crabs are stored short-term and transported back to
Darwin weekly for consolidation. This distance ranges from a 2-hour drive for the
closest crabbers, a 1 000 km trip from the GoC, or a 1- or 2-day barge trip from
Arnhem Land (see Figure 1). Crabbers aim to catch a minimum of one basket of crabs/
day (around 30 kg) for a 60-pot operation to maintain their fishing ventures.

Queensland (Qld)
The coastline is around 13 300 km and mud crab are found, and can be caught, along
the whole length. The coastline in the GoC and northern Qld remain relatively
undisturbed, except around areas where there is developed residential, commercial,
farming and resource utilization.
336 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Catch quota was introduced in September 2021 for Qld GoC and East Coast
entitlements, with a minimum quota requirement of 1.2 t required to be able to harvest
mud crab. This led to a need to access additional quota from other quota holders for
those who wished to continue to crab but did not receive the necessary minimum quota
holding.
There are around 380 crab entitlements allowed to use 50 pots each. However, for
a range of market, operational and stock reasons, there is a large amount of potential
latent effort (i.e. unused entitlements). Qld crabbers generally fish from dinghies
between 4.0–6.0 m in length, powered by petrol outboard motors ranging from
60–70 hp. Most operations are single-fisher based and occasionally a crew member may
be taken on to assist.
Crabbers use 50–100 pots per operation, which they check and bait at least daily.
Retained crabs are generally tied and stored on board the vessel in crates or lug boxes.
Most crabbers operate as day trippers back to a base camp, or home, where crabs are
stored short-term, and then transported to markets. Professional crabbers aim to catch
at least 3 t of crab/year/50 pot operation.

North South West (NSW)

The coastline is around 2 100 km and mud crabs are mainly found and caught in the
northern parts of the state, accounting for around 50 percent of the whole length.
This coastline is the most disturbed of all jurisdictions due to residential development
and associated infrastructures to service resource sector needs and agricultural
operations.
NSW is a catch quota-based fishery with an Interim Total Commercial Access
Level (ITCAL) set at 206.3 t prior to the transition to full total allowable catch (TAC)
management. The ITCAL was implemented in 2017–2018 and the declared TAC will
remain the same for each financial year up to 30 June 2024. Total catch reported to date
has not exceeded 70 percent of the allocated TAC.
There are around 280 fishing businesses (FB) that hold mud crab quota.
Approximately 75 percent of quota is held by 50 fishing businesses with between
40–60 percent reported utilizing quota over the last 3 years. The 2020–2021 season
was impacted by COVID-19 and saw a reduction in participation. NSW fishers may
undertake multiple fishing methods under their various entitlements.
Fishers who wish to take mud crabs must have a minimum holding of 125 shares
which equates to an allowance of 10 pots. For each additional 10 shares, fishers can
utilize an additional one pot, e.g. 125 shares = 10 pots, 135 shares = 11 pots, 300 shares
= 27 pots and so on. The fishery has seen a significant restructure arising from the move
to quota. Most fishers have 10 pots, there are a few that have about 20, a “handful” with
approximately 50 pots, and a “couple” with around 70 pots. There are also investors in
the fishery who have people working their entitlements using 20–50 pots each.
NSW crabbers generally fish from dinghies between 5.0–6.0 m in length, powered
by petrol outboard motors ranging from 30–80 hp. Most operations are single fisher-
based and occasionally a crew member may be taken on to assist. Most crabbers
operate as day trippers back to a base camp, or home, where crabs are either stored
short-term, or transported to markets or co-ops. Some use holding tanks.

Western Australia (WA)

The coastline is around 20 800 km and mud crabs are found, and caught, in the
northern parts of the state, accounting for almost half of the WA coastline length. The
coastline in this region remains relatively undisturbed except in areas linked with the
resources sector and residential development. WA practices limited access fishery with
three 200-pot commercial licences and a 600-pot allocation for aboriginal use. The
three 200-pot licences can be split (sold) into six 100-pot licences. Pot allocation to
Overview of management and monitoring of mud crab fisheries in Australia 337

aboriginal communities has yet to be confirmed and is waiting for research to provide
biological, spatial and relative abundance data.
WA crabbing is at such a low level it is not possible to determine what best suits
the fishery and fishers over time. Currently, most of the commercial licence holders
are those that lease their pots to operators and use a mothership with smaller tenders
servicing the pots. Catch has remained below 20 t with a high latent effort due to
limited and sporadic fishing.

REPORTED CATCHES
The Australian market generally demands live mud crabs, and there are no oversea
competitors in the domestic market space due to federal biosecurity legislation which
prohibits the import of live mud crab into Australia (DAFF, 2016; DCCEEW, 2024).
Australian markets are therefore not impacted directly by international volumes as the
domestic live market is only accessible to Australian fisheries. Export markets though
are impacted by international supply and demand.
Over the last couple of decades, annual reported total national commercial
production has ranged from 1 100–2 000 t, with Qld producing around 70 percent, NT
20 percent, NSW 10 percent and WA less than 0.5 percent (Figure 2).

FIGURE 2
Australian mud crab reported production (t) by jurisdiction – 1996 to 2021
2021 WA and NSW production are estimates
2 500

WA
2 000 NSW
NT

QLD
1 500
Total catch (t)

1 000

500

0
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20

In Australia, mud crabs are mainly sold in the NSW, Melbourne, Victoria and
Qld markets, targeting Asian-based cuisine and demographics, and for the whole
steamed/boiled crab market, often for non-Asian consumers. Historically the majority
of product is destined for the food service restaurant sector rather than for home
consumption, although COVID responses and lock downs shifted this focus slightly.
Within Australia there is competition in the various markets from producers in NT,
Qld and NSW, based on availability, quality, price and sex of the mud crab. Qld is the
major supplier (but only of male crabs) whilst all other jurisdictions allow the sale of
female crabs. WA is a minor player at this stage.
Demand for mud crab is strong within Australia, but as the market relies on a live
product it is relatively easy to oversupply, and this can lead to decreased prices when
all jurisdictions are supplying at the same time. Small volumes are exported, mainly to
338 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

China, China, Hong Kong SAR, and Singapore. In the past, there were also significant
sales to Malaysia and the United States of America.

COMMERCIAL REGULATORY FRAMEWORKS

All states and the NT operate under some form of limited entry access with associated
gear and catch controls for the commercial sector. Table 1 provides a high-level
summary.

TABLE 1
Summary of Australian commercial mud crab management arrangements
Regulation WA NT Qld NSW

Total allowable No No 770 t East ITCAL (2017–2024)

commercial catch 108 t GoC 206.3 t
in place
Limited entry Yes Yes Yes Yes
Licence numbers or Three commercial 49 Approximately 380 280 fishing
access holders licences. businesses
Aboriginal
commercial
licences (not yet
allocated).
Effort limits – pot Yes Yes Yes Yes*
numbers 200 per Effort units, 50 pots per licence Linked to fishing
commercial. minimum shares. Minimum
600 total for First two 30-pot units. 125 shares.
Nation fishers.
Gear restrictions Yes Yes Yes Yes
Male-only harvest No No Yes No
Protection of Yes Yes Yes Yes
berried females
Protection for soft- No Yes No No
shell crabs
Minimum carapace Width Width Width Length
size limits Green 150 mm Male 140 mm Male 150 mm 85 mm
Brown 120 mm Female 150 mm
Management No Yes Yes Yes
zones Western and Eastern and GoC No transfer of
GoC** traps between
regions.
Spatial closures Yes Yes Yes Yes
Temporal closures No No No No
Management plan Draft Yes No (regs) No (regs)
Harvest strategy Draft Yes Yes No
Data collection Monthly catch Monthly catch Daily catch effort Daily catch, effort.
systems effort paper effort paper logbooks. Real-time quota
logbooks.*** logbooks. reconciliation.
e-logs No e-logs e-logs e-Fisher app e-logs
available****
E-monitoring No Trialling No No
Vessel monitoring Yes Yes Yes No
systems (VMS)
Notes:
* Can use other methods to take crab in the Estuary General Fishery such as mesh netting, etc.
** GoC = Western Gulf of Carpentaria Mud Crab Fishery (WGCMCF); Western = Arafura West Mud Crab Fishery
(AWMCF).
*** In an exemption-based fishery, fishers were required to submit research logbooks with finer scale daily info and
transect spatial data, etc. Since the fishery converted to managed status, these are no longer compulsory.
**** Can provide catch and effort logbooks, market returns and nil returns electronically through CatchLogs software.
Overview of management and monitoring of mud crab fisheries in Australia 339

SUSTAINABILITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STATUS REPORTING

There are six identified management units across Australian mud crab fisheries, these
are:
• NT – Arnhem West Mud Crab Fishery (AWMCF) and the Western Gulf of
Carpentaria Mud Crab Fishery (WGoCMCF);
• Qld – Gulf of Carpentaria (GoC) and East Coast;
• NSW – Estuary General Fishery (EGF) which allows the take of mud crab; and
• WA – Kimberley Crab Managed Fishery (KCMF).

Each of these six mud crab units in Australia, as identified by Status of Australian
Fish Stocks (SAFS) 2020, can be assessed in a number of ways to determine their
sustainability and environmental performance.

Four key indicators are:

1. If it has a Wildlife Trade Operation (WTO) approval. If you want to export
Australian native wildlife, including seafood, for commercial purposes, it must
come from an approved WTO. This indicates that it is harvested within an
approved management arrangement approved by the Commonwealth Department
of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water (DCCEEW).
2. The fishery sustainability status as provided in the SAFS 2020 report. This report
brings together available biological, catch and effort information to report on the
status of Australia’s key wild catch fish stocks (see current status in Table 3).
3. Whether a formal Harvest Strategy is in place (A Harvest Strategy is a framework
that specifies pre-determined management actions in a fishery for defined species
[at the stock or management unit level] necessary to achieve the agreed ecological,
economic and/or social management objectives).
4. If it has third party accreditation such as Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) or
Friends of the Sea.

Table 2 shows the status of these indicators by jurisdiction and fishery unit.

TABLE 2
Sustainability indicators for each jurisdiction’s fisheries
Indicator WA NT Qld NSW
SAFS KCMF sustainable AWMCF and GoC and East EGF
WGoCMCF Coast sustainable*
sustainable sustainable
WTO status No WTO until 21 WTO until 27 May WTO until 31
August 2026 2022. Revoked as March 2022
conditions unmet
Harvest strategy No** Yes Yes No
Third party No – MSC Pre- No No No
certification assessment 2014
Notes:
* Pre 2020 there was uncertainty around the use of excess gear, lack of biomass estimate, or fishing mortality rates.
** A draft Harvest Strategy has been developed.
340 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

TABLE 3
Mud crab stock status in Australia in 2020
Jurisdiction Fishery 2016 2018 2020 Indicators

WA KCMF Sustainable Sustainable Sustainable Catch, effort, catch rate

NT AWMCF Sustainable Sustainable Sustainable Catch, effort, catch rate
NT WGoCMCF Transitional – Sustainable Sustainable Catch, effort, catch
depleting rate, biomass, fishing
mortality
QLD GoC Sustainable Sustainable Sustainable Catch, effort, catch
rate, biomass, fishing
mortality
QLD East Coast Sustainable Sustainable Sustainable Catch, effort, catch rate,
fishing mortality
NSW EGF Undefined Undefined Sustainable Catch, catch rate,
biomass, fishing
mortality
KCMF = Kimberley Crab Managed Fishery; AWMCF = Arnhem West Mud Crab Fishery; WGoCMCF = Western Gulf of
Carpentaria Mud Crab Fishery; GoC = Gulf of Carpentaria; EGF = Estuary General Fishery.
Source: Piddocke, T., Ashby, C., Hartmann, K., Hesp, A., Hone, P., Klemke, J., Mayfield, S., Roelofs, A., Saunders, T.,
Stewart, J., Wise, B. & Woodhams, J. 2021. Status of Australian fish stocks report 2020. University of Tasmania. Report.
https://hdl.handle.net/102.100.100/495213

RESEARCH AND MONITORING

Over the last 20 or so years, over 30 research projects have been funded by the
FRDC alone to investigate impacts of environmental and oceanographic drivers on
recruitment, increasing profitability, improving gear, bycatch reduction, product
handling and management evaluations. In addition, individual agencies have been,
and continue to, collect a large amount of biological and fisher-related information,
generally based on commercial fishers catches and movement. Much of this data are
collected to better inform management decision making and aid in compliance.

Catch, effort and operational data collection

The fineness of scale and regularity of data collection varies for a range of jurisdictional
and operational reasons. Logbooks can be paper sheets where the information is
written by hand and then entered onto a data base or via an electronic application called
an eLog or an App where the data are recorded digitally and then straight to a database
if the system is properly set up. Completion of logbooks is mandatory. Common data
collected are:
• who fished?
• under what authority (licence, quota holding etc)?
• when fished?
• fishing vessel details.
• location(s) fished?
• days fished and pot pulls, where applicable?
• type and amount of fishing gear used.
• volumes and possibly numbers caught.
• bycatch details?
• where offloaded?
• where sold?

This information is collected, entered into databases, and analysed routinely. The
collected data is used for two main purposes:
• to provide biological and operational information, and statistical data to assist
fisheries scientists, managers and other interested parties; and
• to assist enforcement to meet management and regulatory requirements.
Overview of management and monitoring of mud crab fisheries in Australia 341

Data systems can be relatively expensive to run and often are partially cost-
recovered from industry.

Vessel Monitoring System

Vessel Monitoring System (VMS) is used in NT, Qld and WA. This satellite surveillance
system allows the real time monitoring of where each fishing vessel is at a given time
based on pre-set (but adaptable) polling schedules (i.e. polling is how often the VMS
unit is “pinged”). VMS allows compliance and management agencies to monitor vessel
identification, geographical position, date and time of position, course and speed.
Each vessel must have its own VMS unit, linked to a satellite system and there must
also be a “back room” to monitor data, instigate compliance action and adjust protocols
as required by the authorities. Vessels must be able to maintain power continually to
operate the unit. VMS systems can be relatively expensive to run and are often cost-
recovered from industry.

Electronic monitoring
E-monitoring is used or is being considered for adoption in some jurisdictions.
These systems use video cameras, and potentially sensors, capable of monitoring and
recording fishing activities which can be reviewed later to verify fishers’ logbooks
relating to catch and possible interactions with Threatened, Endangered and Protected
Species (TEPS).
The practicality of these systems on small fishing vessels is a matter of conjecture at
this time, but as technology improves small-scale systems will become more available.
E-monitoring systems can be relatively expensive to run and are often cost-
recovered from industry. The cost of agency staff physically viewing many hours of
data is a significant expense, although a benefit is that it is considered an alternative
to having a physical observer on board to watch and record fishing operations. The
possible development of AI solutions in the future may reduce costs.

Compliance and enforcement

Each fishery jurisdiction has either its own compliance unit or uses a branch of a
broader police, or other compliance force, to undertake fishery compliance within
its jurisdiction. Under formal arrangements, compliance can also be undertaken by
another jurisdictions force, indigenous ranger groups and/or compliance officers from
other agencies such as national or marine park rangers.
Generally, compliance strategies utilize intelligence, or targeted activities, to ensure
that fishers and others along the supply chain (transporters, buyers, processors and
marketers) are complying with the various regulations pertinent to their specific
fishery.
General task relates to inspecting fishing vessels, gear, licences and catches and
patrolling waters and ports. In addition, compliance is also undertaken on those
transporting seafood, processing and selling it to ensure the integrity of the supply
chain and limit illegal sales. A trusted sound compliance programme is an integral
component of a comprehensive fisheries management program. Aspects of compliance
may be cost-recovered from industry.

Physical monitoring
Along with compliance officers, most jurisdiction have some form of physical
onboard observer that can watch and record details of fishing operations. They can be
government employees or third party contracted staff, but importantly they should
be independent specialists trained in sampling techniques including the collection of
biological samples, sex and size of animals, bycatch, environmental observations and
interactions with TEPS.
342 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

This data is often the only independent data collected in many fisheries and provides
a valuable source of information to complement other material such as logbooks and
research data that are used in fisheries management. Observer programmes can be
very expensive, depending on the amount of at-sea time required, and are often cost-
recovered from industry.

Stock assessments
The above data, along with environmental, ecological and economic data can be
computer-modelled to provide estimates of a range of fishery performance measures.
Stock assessments are quantitative models that estimate fish population size and how it
is affected by fishing and other factors and can inform the management process about
fishery performance, regulations and future research needs. Assessment outputs can be
factored into fishery management decision-making processes.
These models, or stock assessments, should form the basis for the management
decision-making process and development of TAC or Total Allowable Effort (TAE)
for use in quota systems or as part of monitoring and adjusting the performance of the
fishery against key performance indicators.
These indicators may be a part of a formal harvest strategy, an Ecological Risk
Assessment (ERA) or some other third-party requirement such as complying with
WTO or certification conditions and requirements.
It should be noted that fisheries are part of dynamic systems and subject to change
with, or without, fishing activity due to environmental and other drivers. Good
models can incorporate these variations. These matters are still being worked on in the
Australian context for mud crab fisheries. Aspects of undertaking stock assessments
may be cost-recovered from industry.

MANAGEMENT PLANS AND REGULATIONS

All commercial fisheries in Australia are regulated under specific fishery legislation,
fishery acts, management plan, regulations or some form of executive order.
WA, Qld and NSW currently manage their fisheries via regulations and orders.
The NT has a formal Management Plan (DOF, 2006) for its mud crab fishery which
basically aligns with what are regulations for the fishery. Section 5 of the plan directs
the Director of Fisheries to undertake certain actions, in the form of a formal review,
if certain triggers around catch levels, effort changes, median size, by-product levels or
ecosystem impacts are detected. WA developed a draft Management Plan in 2018 but
is yet to be implemented (DPIRD, 2018).

HARVEST STRATEGIES
Harvest strategies have become an integral part of the Australian fishery management
landscape over the last decade or so. NT and Qld have formal harvest strategy processes
for management of mud crab and are in development in NSW and WA. Conceptually, a
harvest strategy is a plan for stating how the catch taken from a stock will be adjusted
year-to-year, depending on the size of the stock, the economic or social conditions of
the fishery, conditions of other stocks, and perhaps the state of uncertainty regarding
biological knowledge of the stock (Hilborn and Walters, 1992).
The following section provides a brief overview of harvest strategies and draws from
key areas developed under FRDC Project 2010/061 National Guidelines to Develop
Fishery Harvest Strategies (Sloan et al., 2014) (see Figure 3).
Harvest strategies essentially involve an iterative process that leads to the development
of a framework that government, fishers and key stakeholders will respond to various
conditions before they occur. This is achieved by bringing together key research,
monitoring, assessment, management and operational considerations and information
that impact or guide the activities and impacts on a fishery.
Overview of management and monitoring of mud crab fisheries in Australia 343

FIGURE 3
Harvest strategy overview

Source: Sloan, S., Smith, A., Gardner, C., Crosthwaite, K., Triantafillos, L., Jeffries, B. & Kimber, N. 2014. National
guidelines to develop fishery harvest strategies. FRDC Report – Project 2010/061. Fisheries Research and Development
Corporation, Canberra.

The aim of the strategies is to identify predetermined actions to achieve agreed

ecological, economic and social management objectives. Rather than being ad hoc,
knee-jerk actions in a context of urgency, tactical management responses to various
conditions can be carefully evaluated and pre-agreed among stakeholders.
Harvest strategy development should follow a number of steps that seek optimal
outcomes including implementation and adoption. These include defining the fishery,
stakeholder engagement mechanisms, developing clear, measurable and robust
performance indicators and undertaking periodic reviews and updates of the strategy.
Performance indicators built into the harvest strategy are used to track a fishery’s
performance against key defined objectives. The indicators are established to show
how the fishery is performing in respect to reference points.
Reference points set benchmarks to which the fishery’s performance can be
assessed to let managers, researchers, fishers and other stakeholders see if the fishery is
performing below, above or at the level required for sustainable operation. Depending
on the performance, reference points are linked to trigger points which should have
clear decision rules in place that guide the management actions in response to the status.
These actions might, for example, provide adjustment to catch rates, exploitation levels
or some other performance measure.
There are three common types of reference points:
• Target Trigger Limit – where the fishery is, should be, or should be when
operating well.
• Trigger Reference Point – this point is when the fishery is operating below the target
and is an early warning that action may be required to stop the fishery moving to an
area where you don’t want it to be and move it back towards the target.
• Limit Reference Point – is when the fishery is not achieving its objectives and
significant action is required to return the performance of the fishery to an
acceptable level, toward the trigger and eventually target reference point.
344 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Each of the NT and Qld governments have a general fishery harvest strategy policy
and operate their mud crab fisheries under a corresponding harvest strategy.

NT harvest strategy overview

Since 2017 the NT has operated under a Management Framework for the NT Mud
Crab Fishery with a review set after 5 years of operation (DPIR, 2017). The harvest
strategy is an important component of the framework.
The primary biological performance indicator for the NT Mud Crab Harvest
Strategy is commercial retained Catch Per Unit Effort (CPUE), under the assumption
that CPUE is indicative of stock biomass. CPUE levels, based on those of recent years,
indicate the reference points. The upper trigger point indicates that the stock is above
the target level and a high level of exploitation will not impact sustainability of the
stock. The lower trigger point indicates that the fishery spawning biomass has declined
with a potential risk to sustainability, and a reduction harvest is required.
A secondary indicator is derived from a fishery assessment model (a delay-
difference model) (Grubert et al., 2019), which informs the target level as well as
providing additional guidance for decision rules. The Target Reference Point is the
desired annual level of performance from the fishery whilst the limit reference point
indicates that the spawning stock biomass has declined to a point where recruitment
levels are significantly reduced and a substantial reduction in harvest is necessary.

Qld harvest strategy overview

Since 2016, Qld has had a mud crab harvest strategy (DAF, 2021). The aim of this
harvest strategy is to manage the fishing mortality of mud crabs by setting a TAC
at a level that allows the stock to achieve specified biomass targets. The primary
performance indicator in this harvest strategy is exploitable biomass of legal-size male
mud crabs – the portion of a stock’s biomass that is available to be harvested.
The Target Reference Point specifies the exploitable biomass level at 60 percent
relative to the unfished state. The Limit Reference Point (20 percent of the exploitable
biomass) is the point where the risk to the stock is unacceptably high, and at which the
stock is defined as overfished. Initial TACs for the fishery were based on population
modelling (Northrop et al., 2019) and future harvest strategy decisions will be based
on biomass estimates.

WA and NSW harvest strategy status

WA has developed a draft harvest strategy and associated control rules have been
developed that set limits, threshold and performance indicators based on commercial
catch rate. The strategy is yet to be adopted.
NSW is partnering with commercial, recreational and aboriginal cultural fisheries
across the state to develop tailored harvest strategies. It should be noted that the
Australian National Harvest Strategy Guidelines are currently under review to assess
impacts of new developments in fisheries management and science, including in
relation to stock assessments, quantitative decision rules and ecosystem-based fishery
management. This review seeks to resolve complex issues and balance shared access and
competing interests. Amongst other matters the review will seek to address broader
issues including the relationship and function of harvest strategies in addressing
cultural interests, ecological issues (e.g. habitat degradation, pollution and climate
change), and marine conservation areas.

FORMAL CONSULTATIVE MECHANISMS

Jurisdictions utilize a range of formalized groups or committees to provide expert
advice or as a consultative mechanism. Each jurisdiction has its own arrangements
which may include one or more of the following:
Overview of management and monitoring of mud crab fisheries in Australia 345

• Management Advisory Committees (MACs), provide advice to agencies on a

number of matters relating to specific fisheries. These can include input on scientific
and economic status of fish stocks, impacts of fishing on the marine environment
and operational matters, where relevant. Members are from commercial industry,
policy, conservation, government agencies, research, recreational, charter, or
indigenous sectors. Appointments can be via a statutory approach and may or
may not be provided sitting or other fees.
• Resource Assessment Groups (RAGs) are research and scientific committees.
Their main function is to review scientific data and information and provide
advice to agencies on the status of fish stocks, fishery economic and fishery
impacts on the marine environment. Experts in the field of fisheries science and
economics are key members along with experience from industry members and
other interest groups.

Along with these groups, other options include, working groups, advisory groups,
expert panels, stakeholder forums, research committees and seeking formal public
comment.

OTHER MEASURES
Conserving mud crab primary habitat, including mangrove forests, seagrass beds and
mud flats, is critical to supporting their populations. This is becoming more apparent
as research shows strong and varied relationships with environmental drivers that
indicate the potential for impact of environment/habitat-driven variation in fishery
performance (Robins et al., 2020).
Developing a better understanding of the impacts of habitat disturbance, chemical
and ecological processes, and the roles each play in resource sustainability now and
into the future will become a greater focus moving forward.

CONCLUSION
Australia produces mud crabs across four jurisdictions, but each is managed differently.
Nevertheless, all these fisheries focus on adult crabs (no crablets or juveniles are fished)
and each of the fisheries have further strong input control frameworks.
The input control systems have the advantage that sustainability is largely protected,
irrespective of the information that might be required for more explicit control of
the fishery, and these fisheries are all regarded as sustainable. This is an important
underlying value of the Australian mud crab fisheries. The implementation or
development of harvest strategies in WA, NT, Qld and NSW means that agencies are
elaborating management and monitoring systems that move beyond sustainability, to
take account of economic and social values as well.
Two jurisdictions, QLD and NSW, respectively, have or are moving to TAC and
individual transferable quota (ITQ) management. The NT industry has resisted such
approach.
Given that mud crab fisheries are typified by strong, environmentally driven
variation, a complexity that will no doubt be exacerbated by climate change, this
will require greater emphasis on understanding the dynamics of these fisheries and
greater reliance on monitoring information, as well as the development of formal stock
assessments. These management developments should be aimed at improving the value
of the fisheries in biological, economic and social terms. It is important, however,
to understand that such system improvement necessitates trade-offs between those
improved values, and the increased costs of monitoring and assessment, and controlling
the fishery.
Mud crab fisheries across Australia depend on the same species and cater to
similar markets, creating significant shared challenges and opportunities. Common
346 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

issues include the need for better information gathering, improved data analysis, and
comprehensive stock assessments. Additionally, there is potential for enhancing catch
value through advancements in handling practices, marketing strategies, and reducing
compliance and management costs.
Despite these shared interests, the absence of formal cross-jurisdictional collaboration
between industry stakeholders, management agencies, and research bodies presents a
major barrier. Establishing stronger connectivity across jurisdictions could foster the
exchange of knowledge, streamline processes, and unlock substantial opportunities for
improvement in the sustainability and profitability of Australian mud crab fisheries.

REFERENCES
Calogeras, C. & Buckworth, R. 2023. If you don’t know where you are going, you’ll end
up someplace else - Future proofing the Australian mud crab industry through improved
strategic direction. Final Report FRDC Project 2018–177. Fisheries Research and
Development Corporation, Canberra.
DAF (Department of Agriculture and Fisheries). 2021. Queensland mud crab fishery harvest
strategy: 2021–2026. State of Queensland, Australia. https://www.publications.qld.gov.au/
ckan-publications-attachments-prod/resources/34cbfc55-a89e-4422-9b8f-3d75cb216df4/
mud-crab-harvest-strategy.pdf?ETag=ce3279ac2e07c0dd3d8f69c5439880c0.
DAFF (Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry). 2016. Biosecurity Import
Risk Analysis guidelines. In: DAFF. Canberra. [Cited 5 November 2023]. https://www.
agriculture.gov.au/biosecurity-trade/policy/risk-analysis/guidelines.
DCCEEW (Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water.
2024. Live Import List. In: DCCEEW. Canberra. [Cited 10 October 2023]. https://www.
dcceew.gov.au/environment/wildlife-trade/live-import-list.
DPIRD (Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development). 2018. Draft
management plan for the Kimberley crab managed fishery, May 2018. Government
of Western Australia. https://www.fish.wa.gov.au/Documents/management_papers/
fmp291.pdf.
DOF (Department of Agriculture and Fisheries). 2006. Northern Territory of Australia
- Mud crab fishery management plan 2006. Department of Agriculture and Fisheries,
Northern Territory Government, Australia. 25 pp. https://legislation.nt.gov.au/
Legislation/MUD-CRAB-FISHERY-MANAGEMENT-PLAN-2006
DPIR (Department of Primary Industry and Resources). 2017. Management framework
for the northern territory mud crab fishery, June 2017. Northern Territory Government,
Australia. 54 pp.
Geoscience Australia. 2024. Border lengths - States and territories. In: Geoscience Australia.
Symonston, Australia. [Cited 20 October 2023]. https://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-topics/
national-location-information/dimensions/border-lengths.
Gopurenko, D., Hughes, J. & Keenan, C. 1999. Mitochondrial DNA evidence for
rapid colonisation of the Indo – West Pacific by the mud crab Scylla serrata. Marine
Biology, 134(2): 227–233.
Grubert, M., Walters, C., Buckworth, R. & Penny, S. 2019. Simple modelling to inform
harvest strategy policy for a data-moderate crab fishery. Marine and Coastal Fisheries,
11(2): 125–138.
Halliday, I. & Robins, J. 2007. Environmental flows for sub-tropical estuaries: understanding
the freshwater needs of estuaries for sustainable fisheries production and assessing the
impact of water regulation/compiled. Final report FRDC Project No. 2001/022. Fisheries
Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.
Hay, T., Gribble, N., de Vries, C., Danaher, K., Dunning, M., Hearnden, M., Caley,
P., Wright, C., Brown, I., Bailey, S. & Phelan, M. 2005. Methods for monitoring the
abundance and habitat of the northern Australian mud crab (Scylla serrata). Fishery
Report No. 80. Final Report FRDC Project 2000/142.
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Hilborn, R. & Walters, C. 1992. Quantitative fisheries stock assessment: Choice, dynamics
& uncertainty. New York, USA and London, Chapman and Hall.
Keenan, C., Davie, P. & Mann, D. 1998. A revision of the genus Scylla De Haan, 1833
(Crustacea: Decapoda: Brachyura: Portunidae). The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, 46(1):1–
29.
Meynecke, J., Yip Lee, S., Grubert, M., Brown, I., Montgomery, S., Gribble, N.,
Johnston, D. & Gillson, J. 2010. Evaluating the environmental drivers of mud crab
(Scylla serrata) catches in Australia. Final Report FRDC Project 2008/012. Fisheries
Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.
Northrop, A., O’Neill, M. & Robins, J. 2019. Towards an initial quota for the Queensland
mud crab fishery. Brisbane, Australia, Queensland Department of Agriculture and
Fisheries.
Piddocke, T., Ashby, C., Hartmann, K., Hesp, A., Hone, P., Klemke, J., Mayfield,
S., Roelofs, A., Saunders, T., Stewart, J., Wise, B. & Woodhams, J. 2021. Status of
Australian fish stocks report 2020. University of Tasmania. Report. https://hdl.handle.
net/102.100.100/495213
Robins, J., Northrop, A., Grubert, M., Buckworth, R., McLennan, M., Sumpton,
W. & Saunders, T. 2020. Understanding environmental and fisheries factors causing
fluctuations in mud crab and blue swimmer crab fisheries in northern Australia to inform
harvest strategies. Final Report to the Fisheries Research and Development Corporation
for Project Number 2017/047
Sloan, S., Smith, A., Gardner, C., Crosthwaite, K., Triantafillos, L., Jeffries, B. &
Kimber, N. 2014. National guidelines to develop fishery harvest strategies. FRDC
Report – Project 2010/061. Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, Canberra.
 ANNEXES

1. WORKSHOP PROSPECTUS 351

2. WORKSHOP AGENDA 353

3. LIST OF PARTICIPANTS 356

4. EXPERT PROFILES 358

5. WORKSHOP OPENING AND CLOSING REMARKS 368

6. GROUP PHOTOGRAPH 370

7. CERTIFICATE OF PARTICIPATION 371

 351

Annex 1 – Workshop prospectus

FAO EXPERT WORKSHOP ON THE STATUS, TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS, AND
INDUSTRY DEVELOPMENT NEEDS OF MUD CRAB (SCYLLA SPP.) AQUACULTURE

27–30 NOVEMBER 2023 – SINGAPORE

BACKGROUND
The four widely distributed species of mud crab, Scylla spp., are under increasing pressure from
overfishing throughout their distribution, with the notable exception of Australia. Crabs of all sizes
are being harvested for farming, fattening and direct consumption. Anecdotal market information
reflects decreasing average sizes of mud crabs from most countries and increasing raw material
costs, reflecting unsustainable fishing and capture-based aquaculture practices.
Whilst mud crab hatchery techniques have been developed, this sector is in its infancy in most
countries, other than the Philippines and Viet Nam, where they are well established. With relatively
few hatcheries in most other mud crab producing countries, they are yet to scale sufficiently to
support large-scale development of mud crab aquaculture. Different approaches to hatchery and
nursery development are being used.
Market demand for live, hard-shell mud crabs, is greater than supply. China, together with
countries with a sizeable Chinese diaspora and other Asian countries favour this aquatic food and
consume mud crabs of a large range of sizes from 100 g to over 1 kg.
Soft-shell crabs (SSC) are mainly processed, individually wrapped in a variety of sizes from
9–14 cm in carapace width and 40–>200 g in weight and frozen for international shipping via
containers. The market for SSC is quite different, with key markets in the United States of America,
Japan, and the European Union, where their most common use is in Asian cuisine, although they
are adaptable to most cuisines. As the size of SSC is generally rather small, a greater number of
crabs is required by the market.
Hatchery-based production will be essential for the sector moving forward if production is to
grow to meet current market demand and support future opportunities for the development of
more value-added products.
This workshop brings together recognized international experts in their fields to share their
research, industry practices and innovations, as well as mud crab faming challenges and needs
from different countries. Through the workshop, possible strategic directions, practices, and
recommendations discussed would help those interested in building and supporting a sustainable
mud crab aquaculture sector. Whilst there have been many small mud crab workshops and
meetings over the last couple of decades, including a workshop held at the Rajiv Gandhi Centre
for Aquaculture in India in 2013, the last major international seminar on mud crab culture and
trade was held in Thailand in 1991. The upcoming event in November 2023 will provide a much-
needed update on the current mud crab farming and production status other than potential mud
crab-centric development options for the sector.
352 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

The workshop is organized and funded by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations (FAO) under its Blue Transformation (BT) initiative (www.fao.org/3/cc0459en/
cc0459en.pdf) which aligns to the 2021 Declaration for Sustainable Fisheries and Aquaculture
of the FAO Committee on Fisheries (COFI) and FAO’s Strategic Framework 2022–2031. The
BT vision recognizes that resilience in aquatic foods supply and sustainable production form
an integral part of the solution to mitigate hunger and malnutrition. The three key objectives of
the BT initiative are to support sustainable development of aquaculture; ensure effective capture
fishery and aquaculture farm management and finally to develop all aquatic food value chains with
the aim of reducing production losses and wastes. In addition, facilitating market accessibility for
the products/produce and raising awareness of the consumer on the value of aquatic foods are also
important aspects for fulfilling the objectives of the BT initiative.

OBJECTIVES
The objectives of the workshop are to:
• Provide an update on the status of the mud crab aquaculture sector in key production
countries.
• Present and discuss biological and technological innovations.
• Discuss and provide guidance on best mud crab aquaculture practices and operations including
hatchery, nursery, grow-out, processing and distribution of live hard-shell and soft-shell mud
crabs.
• Highlight and recommend future opportunities and potential solutions to meet the needs of
the mud crab aquaculture sector.

PRESENTATIONS, DISCUSSIONS AND OUTPUTS

The presentation arrangements of the workshop will be as follows:
• Submission of country status papers on mud crab production will be made prior to the event.
Concise summaries of key points will be presented and discussed at the workshop.
• Presentation and discussion of key technical topics on mud crab aquaculture.
• Country and technical papers along with key technical and policy recommendations will be
collated into a workshop proceeding and published online by FAO.

ORGANIZERS AND STEERING COMMITTEE

The workshop is organized by the Food and Agriculture organization of the United Nations
(FAO) (https://www.fao.org/fishery/en) in collaboration with the Aquaculture Innovation Centre
(AIC) in Singapore (https://www.tp.edu.sg/aic). Support is provided by the Mud Crab Workshop
Steering Committee comprising representatives from Scylla Mud Crab Consultancy, Integrated
Services for the Development of Aquaculture and Fisheries Inc., and the Universiti Malaysia
Terengganu.

PARTICIPANTS
Mud crab experts and researchers from Australia, Bangladesh, China, India, Japan, Malaysia,
Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Viet Nam.
 353

Annex 2 – Workshop agenda

FAO EXPERT WORKSHOP ON THE STATUS, TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS, AND

INDUSTRY DEVELOPMENT NEEDS OF MUD CRAB (SCYLLA SPP.) AQUACULTURE

27–30 NOVEMBER 2023 – SINGAPORE

DAY 1 27 NOVEMBER 2023

08.00-08.30 Lee Chee Wee, AIC Welcome remarks
Alessandro Lovatelli, FAO
Time Topic: International mud crab industry
Speaker
status reports
08.30-08.50 Colin Shelley Global overview of the mud crab production
sector
08.50-09.10 Vu Ngoc Ut Status Report – Viet Nam
09.10-09.30 Yushinta Fujaya Status Report – Indonesia
09.30-09.50 Kandan Shanmuganathan Status Report – India
15 mins Coffee break

10.05-10.25 Md. Mojibar Rahman Status Report – Bangladesh

10.25-10.45 Haihui Ye Status Report – China
10.45-11.05 Emilia Quinitio Status Report – Philippines
11.05-11.25 Andrew Ng Status Report – Myanmar
11.25-11.45 Sukree Hajisamae Status Report – Thailand
11.45-12.05 D. Chan, M.F.M. Hanafiah, Status Report – Singapore, Malaysia and Japan
T. Sanda
12.05-12.30 Moderator: Colin Shelley Discussion of country status reports
90 mins Lunch break

14.00-14.20 Rowena Eguia Domestication and selective breeding

14.20-14.40 Hongyu Ma Domestication and the future of genetically
improved mud crabs
14.40-15.00 Sukree Hajisamae Broodstock management
15 mins Coffee break

Working Group: Broodstock

15.05-16.00 Moderator: Muhammad WG-1: Broodstock selection, quarantine, quality,
Ikhwanuddin Abdullah health management and biosecurity measures
16.00-17.00 Moderator: Muhammad WG-2: Broodstock maintenance/management,
Ikhwanuddin Abdullah feeds, treatments of crabs/egg mass
17.00-18.00 Moderator: A. Lovatelli Day-1 Working Groups discussions and
recommendations
19.30 Official Dinner
354 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

DAY 2 28 NOVEMBER 2023

Time Speaker Topic: Mud crab hatchery, larviculture and
nursery production
08.30-09.05 Tran Nguyen Duy Khoa Hatchery and nursery systems: Viet Nam
09.05-09.40 Emilia Quinitio Hatchery and nursery systems: India, Bangladesh
and Philippines
09.40-10.20 Waiho Khor Review of larval rearing and seed production
15 mins Coffee break

Working Group: Hatchery production

10.35-11.35 Moderator: Colin Shelley WG-3: Larval rearing
11.35-12.35 Moderator: Colin Shelley WG-4: Larval culture system design
85 mins Lunch break

14.00-14.20 Nguyen Thi Bich Ngoc Juvenile nutrition for soft-shell crabs and
functional foods
14.20-14.40 Noratat Prachom Mud crab nutrition, feeds and management
14.40-15.00 Diana Chan Crab health and nutrition management
15 mins Coffee break

Working Group: Megalopa to crablet nursery

management
15.15-16.15 Moderator: Waiho Khor WG-5: Megalopa to crablet management
16.15-17.15 Moderator: Rowena Eguia WG-6: Nursery and juvenile production
17.15-18.00 Moderator: Fanny Day-2 Working Groups discussions and
Yasumara & Arefin Rahman recommendations

DAY 3 29 NOVEMBER 2023

08.00-11.00 FIELD VISIT
12.00-12.45
– Oceania LLP and Aquaculture Innovation Centre (AIC) R&D farm.
– AIC research facility tour at Temasek University.
Lunch break

Time Speaker Topic: Value chains, marketing and farming

systems
Value chain and marketing
14.00-14.20 Alvin Seah Value chain, marketing and the international
trade in hard-shell mud crab
14.20-14.40 Andrew Ng Value chain, processing and the international
trade in soft-shell mud crab
14.40-15.00 Emilia Quinitio Quality standards of mud crabs
15 mins Coffee break
Workshop agenda 355

Farming systems
15.15-15.35 Emilia Quinitio Hard-shell crab farming systems
15.35-15.55 Soh Chee Weng Sustainability in soft-shell crab production

15.55-16.15 Colin Shelley Precision aquaculture and the future technology

requirements of the mud crab aquaculture
sector
16.15-16.35 Rowena Eguia Mud crab aquaculture, including innovations in
use of apps and nutrigenomics
16.35-18.00 Moderator: Padmanabhan Day-3 discussions and recommendations
Saravanan & Diana Chan
19.30 Official Dinner

DAY 4 30 NOVEMBER 2023

Time Moderator/Speaker Topic: Farming systems, value chains,
conservation, and future needs

Working Group-7: HARD-shell crab farming

08.00-09.30 Moderator: Emilia Quinitio Hard-shell crab farming systems
15 mins Coffee break

Working Group-8: SOFT-shell crab farming

09.45-11.15 Moderator: Colin Shelley Soft-shell crab farming systems
11.30-11.50 Chris Calogeras Hard-shell crabs: Harvest and post-harvest
technology, transportation, packaging, quality
control and maintenance and mortality
reduction in mud crab value chains
90 mins Lunch break

13.30-14.00 Chris Calogeras Effective management and monitoring of mud

crab fisheries
14.00-14.30 Moderator: Diana Chan Working Group-9: Management, conservation
and transportation

15 mins Coffee break

Working Group-10: Future industry needs

14.45-17.00 Moderator: Waiho Khor Training, R&D and future technology
requirements
17.00-17.30 Moderator: Colin Shelley Day-4 Working Groups discussions and
recommendations

End of Workshop
17.30-18.00 Lee Chee Wee, AIC Closing remarks and handling of attendance
Alessandro Lovatelli, FAO certificates
Photo-taking
356 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Annex 3 – List of participants

AUSTRALIA INDONESIA
Chris CALOGERAS Yushinta FUJAYA
C-AID Consultants Faculty of Marine Science and Fisheries
38 Lake Ridge Court Universitas Hasanuddin
Lake Macdonald Jalan Perintis Kemerdekaan Km 10
Queensland 4563 Tamalanrea Makassar
chris@c-aid.com.au yushinta.fujaya@unhas.ac.id
Colin Charles SHELLEY
JAPAN
Scylla Mud Crab Consultancy
38 Stonehawke Place, The Gap Tetsuya SANDA
Queensland 4061 Fisheries Division
colin@scyllamcc.com Japan International Research Center for
Agricultural Sciences
BANGLADESH 1-1 Ohwashi, Tsukuba
Ibaraki 305-8686
Mhd Mojibar RAHMAN
sandat0483@jircas.go.jp
District Climate Change Coordinator
United Nations Development Programme
MALAYSIA
Dhaka
mojibar.ripon@gmail.com Mhd Ikhwanuddin bin ABDULLAH
Institute of Tropical Aquaculture and Fisheries
CHINA Universiti Malaysia Terrengganu
Kuala Terrengganu 21030
Hongyu MA
ikhwanuddin@umt.edu.my
Marine Biology Institute
Shantou University Mohd Fazhan bin MOHD HANAFIAH
243 Daxue Road, Shantou City Institute of Tropical Aquaculture and Fisheries
mahy@stu.edu.cn Universiti Malaysia Terrengganu
Kuala Terrengganu 21030
Haihui YE
fazhan@umt.edu.my
College of Fisheries
Jimei University KHOR Waiho
43 Yindou Road Institute of Tropical Aquaculture and Fisheries
Xiamen 361021 Universiti Malaysia Terrengganu
hhye@jmu.edu.cn Kuala Terrengganu 21030
waiho@umt.edu.my
INDIA
SOH Chee Weng
Kandan SHANMUGANATHAN Crab Universe Sdn Bhd
Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Aquaculture 5087, Tebuk Imam Tasir
MPEDA Aquaculture Technology Incubation Sungai Tiang Baroh
Centre 36200 Selekoh, Perak
3/197, Poomphar Road, Karaimedu sohcheeweng@gmail.com
Sattanathapuram PO
Sirkali, Mayiladuthurai MYANMAR
Tamil Nadu 609 109
Andrew NG
kandan@mpeda.gov.in
SG Crabs World Ltd (Myanmar)
rgcaho@gmail.com
HJT Foods Sdn Bhd (Malaysia)
13 Jalan Legenda 2, Legenda @Southbay
11960 Bayan Lepas, Penang
andrew.ng@hjtfoods.com
List of participants 357

PHILIPPINES Alvin SEAH

Ocean Keris
Maria Rowena EGUIA
37 Lor Semangka
Biology Department
Singapore 698938
College of Science
alvin_seah@hotmail.com
De La Salle University
2401 Taft Avenue, Malate
THAILAND
1004 Metro Manila
maria.rowena.eguia@dlsu.edu.ph Sukree HAJISAMAE
mreguia@alum.up.edu.ph Faculty of Science and Technology
Prince of Songkla University
Emilia QUINITIO
181 Charoenpradit Road
Integrated Services for the Development of
Rusamilae Muang
Aquaculture and Fisheries Inc
Pattani 94000
Block 1, Lot 47, First Avenue
Sukree.h@psu.ac.th
Ledesco Village, Jaro
Iloilo City, 5000 Iloilo Noratat PRACHOM
etquinit@yahoo.com Fish Feed Technology Development Centre
etquinit@gmail.com Faculty of Fisheries, Kasetsart University
50 Ngam Wong Wan Road, Chatuchak
SINGAPORE Bangkok 10900
Noratat.p@ku.th
Diana CHAN
Aquaculture Innovation Centre
VIET NAM
Temasek Polytechnic
Block 8A, Unit 01-04 NGUYEN Dieu
21, Tampines Avenue 1 Research Institute for Aquaculture No. 3
Singapore 529757 2 Dang Tat, Nha Trang
Diana_Chan@tp.edu.sg Khanh Hoa
dieuria3@gmail.com
LEE Chee Wee
Aquaculture Innovation Centre NGUYEN Ngoc
Temasek Polytechnic Research Institute for Aquaculture No. 3
Block 8A, Unit 01-04 2 Dang Tat, Nha Trang
21, Tampines Avenue 1 Khanh Hoa
Singapore 529757 ntbngoc33@gmail.com
LEE_Chee_Wee@tp.edu.sg
TRAN NGUYEN Duy Khoa
Mhd Arefin RAHMAN College of Aquaculture and Fisheries
Aquaculture Innovation Centre Can Tho University
Temasek Polytechnic Campus II, 3/2 Street
Block 8A, Level 1, Unit 01-04 Xuan Khanh, Ninh Kieu
21, Tampines Avenue 1 Can Tho City
Singapore 529757 tndkhoa@ctu.edu.vn
Md_Arefin_Rahman@tp.edu.sg
VU Ngoc Ut
Fanny YASUMARU College of Aquaculture and Fisheries
Aquaculture Innovation Centre Can Tho University
Temasek Polytechnic Campus II, 3/2 Street
Block 8A, Level 1, Unit 01-04 Xuan Khanh, Ninh Kieu
21, Tampines Avenue 1 Can Tho City
Singapore 529757 vnut@ctu.edu.vn
fanny_yasumaru@tp.edu.sg
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF
Saravanan PADMANABHAN
THE UNITED NATIONS
Aquaculture Innovation Centre
Temasek Polytechnic Alessandro LOVATELLI
Block 8A, Level 1, Unit 01-04 Aquaculture Production and Technology
21, Tampines Avenue 1 (NFIAT)
Singapore 529757 Fisheries and Aquaculture Division
psaravan@tp.edu.sg Terme di Caracalla
00153 Rome, Italy
Tel.: +39 06 57056448
alessandro.lovatelli@fao.org
358 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Annex 4 – Expert profiles

Chris CALOGERAS has over 30 years of fishing and seafood industry

experience including senior government management positions, operations
manager at an export-focused seafood company and the last 20 years
as Director of C-AID Consultants. His qualifications include resource,
fisheries and business management as well as seafood processing. For
the Australian Government Dr Calogeras has managed aquatic resource
programs covering fishery management, marine parks, data management
and collection, education, legislation, recreational research, and numerous
external projects. He specializes in inshore tropical species and has been
involved in over 50 national and international projects. He is recognized
both nationally and internationally for his mud crab work, particularly
supply chain management to maximize survivability and quality. Dr Calogeras chaired the Northern
Territory Mud Crab Licensee Committee and provided leadership and capacity across the Australian
industry. Key projects involved upskilling several aquaculture operators to optimize mud crab quality
and survivability in Fiji, the Federated States of Micronesia, Madagascar, Malaysia and trial farms in
Australia. He led projects to build knowledge and equip industry with best practice handling skills to
improve economic returns along the supply chain. He also led projects to build an Australian system
for grading live mud crabs to bring consistency and quality. In 2022, his contribution to industry saw
him inducted into Seafood Industry Australia’s Hall of Fame.

Colin SHELLEY has been working on mud crab aquaculture since 1992,
initially leading R&D at the Darwin Aquaculture Centre and collaborating
with other Australian and overseas research groups. He has established
mud crab hatcheries in Fiji, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Federated States
of Micronesia, and the United Republic of Tanzania, and has been the
CEO of two mud crab farming companies producing hard- and soft-shell
mud crabs. In 2011, he co-authored the first FAO manual on mud crab
aquaculture. His international mud crab aquaculture consultancy Scylla™
supports all aspects and components of the value chain of hard- and soft-
shell aquaculture and has worked on mud crab farm development in Africa,
Central and Southeast Asia, and the Pacific. His current interests include improving soft-shell mud
crab production systems, developing mud crab feeds, and incorporating RAS technology into mud
crab aquaculture systems.

Mhd Mojibar RAHMAN obtained his PhD from Bangladesh Agricultural

University in 2022 and has 14 years of experience in R&D. He is currently
engaged with the Local Government Initiatives on Climate Change (LoGIC)
project, a multidonor collaborative initiative in Bangladesh coordinated
by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) that focuses on
strengthening community-based climate change adaptation solutions. Dr
Rahman supports and manages the livelihood diversification portfolio
considering local climate drivers and the disaster risks of vulnerable coastal
communities. As a livelihood officer he has provided technical support
and training in mud crab aquaculture including the preparation of training
material and sustainable farming guidelines. Prior to joining UNDP, he provided consultancy services
to various development agencies mostly on mud crab fattening, nursery and grow-out, as well as
preparing the Seafood Risk Assessment Review for Scylla serrata in Bangladesh commissioned by
the Hong Kong Sustainable Seafood Coalition (HKSSC). For 8 years he worked with WorldFish in
Dhaka as the coordinator of a large mud crab culture initiative, which resulted in the production of
technical and operational manuals on different crab nursery technologies whilst building awareness
among crab harvesters and traders on the importance of conservation measures.
Expert profiles 359

Hongyu MA is a professor at Shantou University, China. He also serves

as the director of Guangdong Provincial International Joint Research
Center for the Development and Utilization of Marine Varieties at the
South China Sea Region. He is a co-founder of the Shantou University–
Universiti Malaysia Terengganu (STU–UMT) Joint Shellfish Research
Laboratory, the vice-chair of the Technological Innovation Platform of
Chinese Mud Crab Industry, and the director of the Agricultural Science
and Technology Professional Committee of Guangdong Young Scientists
Association, China. With his expertise in the field of crustacean biology and
breeding, Professor Ma is a recipient of the Thousand Talents Program for
Support of Top-notch Young Professionals, and the Leading Talent Project of Special Support Plan
of Guangdong Province. Professor Ma primarily focuses on marine biotechnology and breeding and
aquaculture of mud crabs. He has obtained 25 scientific research grants, with 5 at the national level
and 14 at the provincial and ministerial level. He has published more than 100 scientific papers and
holds 13 national patents, along with 12 utility models and one software copyright. His contributions
in the field of crab aquaculture have earned him over ten scientific and technological awards,
including the second prizes of the Shanghai Scientific and Technological Progress Award, the China
Industry University Research Cooperation Innovation Achievement Award, and the Invention and
Innovation Award of the China Association of Inventions.

Haihui YE has been a faculty member at the College of Fisheries, Jimei

University (JMU), China, since 2020. Before joining the university, he
served as lecturer, associate professor and professor at Xiamen University,
China, where he obtained his PhD in marine biology. His research interests
include the development of culture techniques for commercially important
crustaceans and marine ornamentals, ecophysiology and behaviour of
crustacean larvae and juveniles, and the physiology, reproductive biology
and molecular endocrinology in crustaceans. He has been engaged in the
fundamental research and aquaculture technology of the mud crab (Scylla
paramamosain) for 27 years. He currently leads a research team focusing
on the mud crab aquaculture and breeding at JMU. Dr Ye has published 160 publications in peer-
reviewed scientific journals and holds 17 national patents on mud crab aquaculture.

Kandan SHANMUGANATHAN is currently the director of the Rajiv

Gandhi Centre for Aquaculture (RGCA), the research and development
arm of the Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA),
Government of India. The RGCA currently operates 13 projects nationwide
focusing on aquaculture diversification (including mud crab) as well as
providing auxiliary services to the shrimp sector with the establishment
of the first Aquatic Quarantine Facility (AQF) for Litopenaeus vannamei
and Penaeus monodon, the Broodstock Multiplication Centre (BMC)
for Litopenaeus vannamei, and the Nucleus Breeding Centre (NBC) for
P. monodon. Dr Shanmuganathan is a mariculturist who has worked for
MPEDA since 1995. He was instrumental in the development of shrimp aquaculture in Gujarat State
from 1995 to 1998. He has been involved in several coastal community-based mud crab projects
throughout the country as well as in the RGCA’s mud crab hatchery project since 2004. To date the
Centre has established the only commercial crab hatchery producing Scylla serrata seeds in India,
which has been patented by the Government of India. He was the coordinator of the country’s first
International Seminar on Mud Crab Aquaculture and Fisheries Management (ISMAF) held in 2013.
He has published more than 36 research papers in peer-reviewed journals and is the author of several
books on aquaculture. He is a member of the policymaking body on aquaculture and related subject
matter in India.
360 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Yushinta FUJAYA is a professor at Hasanuddin University in Makassar,

Indonesia. She obtained her BSc in Fisheries from the same university in
1988, followed by a MSc and PhD in Reproductive Biology from Bogor
Agricultural Institute, Indonesia, in 1996 and 2004, respectively. Her
doctoral research project revolved around the reproduction process of
mud crabs. Since becoming a lecturer, Professor Fujaya has been actively
engaged in numerous aquaculture research and community development
activities. In 2008, she patented a technology innovation for soft-shell
crab production, achieved using herbal extracts. Her research work
and findings have been presented and published widely at national and
international fora. Professor Fujaya served as speaker at the International
Symposium on Fisheries Sustainability in Rome (2019), the National Seminar on Sustainable Crab
Cultivation Management hosted by the Maritime Coordinating Ministry of Indonesia (2018), and
the International Workshop on Portunid Crab Cultivation and Sustainable Fisheries in Malaysia
(2016). Notably, in 2022, she received a Fulbright award as a visiting researcher in the United States
of America to study management and conservation of blue crabs in the Chesapeake Bay region. In
the same year she played a key role in the development of the Indonesian Fisheries Management
Plan for Mud Crab (Scylla spp.). Professor Fujaya actively contributes to community development
as an instructor and trainer to increase the technical skills of mangrove crab fishers. In addition to
her academic role, Professor Fujaya also serves as the administrator of the Indonesian Aquaculture
Society, holds the director position of the Indonesian Aquaculture Professional Certification
Institute and is the executive editor of Akuakultura Indonesiana, the official journal of the Indonesia
Aquaculture Society.

Tetsuya SANDA is a scientist at the Production Engineering Division,

Aquaculture Research Department of the Fisheries Technology Institute,
National Research and Development Agency, Fisheries Research and
Education Agency in Japan. At the Yaeyama Field Station (Ishigaki Island)
his research revolves around production engineering of mud crabs and
sea cucumbers. He engages in the development of production techniques
for mud crabs, focusing on challenges including cannibalism and thermal
adaptation. He specializes in aquaculture and crustacean ecology. In 2023,
he was appointed as a member of the Japan International Cooperation
Agency (JICA) funded project focusing on mud crab aquaculture in
Bangladesh. Dr Sanda obtained his PhD in 2023 at the Graduate School of Tokyo University of
Marine Science and Technology (TUMSAT).

Mhd Ikhwanuddin bin ABDULLAH serves as the director of the

Institute of Tropical Aquaculture and Fisheries at Universiti Malaysia
Terengganu. With over 3 decades of work in the fields of crustacean
biology, reproduction, fisheries and aquaculture, he has emerged as a
prominent figure in his field. His expertise centres around fisheries and
aquaculture of economically significant crustacean species, including mud
crab, tiger prawn, giant freshwater shrimp and the blue swimmer crab.
He also served as a member of the National Technical Committee for the
Malaysian Department of Fisheries on the portunid crab aquaculture and
capture fishery programme, marine shrimp population enhancement and
conservation programme, and the South China Sea Fisheries Refugia Initiative. He has authored over
280 research publications, numerous books and book chapters, and seven policy papers. Under his
guidance, 18 PhD and 25 MSc students have successfully graduated, contributing to the continued
growth and development of the sector. Through a series of structured knowledge transfer programs
and consultancy projects, Professor Mhd. Ikhwanuddin maintains a close partnership with local
aquaculture communities so to improve their understanding of sustainable fishery and the adoption
of sustainable mud crab culture techniques and farming practices.
Expert profiles 361

Mohd Fazhan bin MOHD HANAFIAH, a senior lecturer at the Institute

of Tropical Aquaculture and Fisheries, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, has
dedicated over 10 years to the study of mud crabs. He completed his PhD in
Aquaculture, focusing on the characterization of wild mud crab population
dynamics and the hybridization of mud crabs in captivity. During his
4-year postdoctoral tenure at Shantou University in China, he utilized
mitogenome analysis, orthologous gene study, and partial nuclear gene
sequences to clarify the ambiguity surrounding Portunidae subfamilies.
Currently, Dr Hanafiah is working on the adaptability of crustaceans,
including mud crab broodstock and larvae, to different environmental
external factors such as salinity and temperature resulting from global climate change. He employs
a multi-omics approach in this research. He is also involved in the genetic and selective breeding
of crustaceans and has contributed to the development of a Broodstock Multiplication Centre in
Malaysia for mud crabs, tiger shrimp and other crustacean species. Dr Hanafiah has contributed
significantly to the planning of Malaysia’s first mud crab seed production centre, collaborating closely
with industrial partners and other experts in mud crab cultivation. In addition, his research also
delves into the genetic diversity of other portunid crabs and penaeid shrimps, and the development
of hybrid mud crabs and new penaeid shrimp culture species.

KHOR Waiho is a senior lecturer at the Institute of Tropical Aquaculture

and Fisheries, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Malaysia. After obtaining
his PhD in Aquaculture at same university, he spent 2 years as a
postdoctoral researcher at Shantou University, China. He works on the
biology and physiology of crustaceans, particularly on the mud crab genus
Scylla. His work aims to fully incorporate mud crabs into aquaculture
settings, providing a new commodity to Malaysia’s aquaculture sector
and alleviating stress on natural crab resources due to the increasing
scale of capture fisheries. Dr Khor’s focus is on core processes such as
reproduction, moulting and growth to accelerate the integration of mud
crabs into the aquaculture sector. He is also currently investigating the impact of climate change
on the overall growth and reproduction of crustaceans. Dr Khor has strong international linkages
with globally renowned researchers, and this is reflected in his publications and collaborations.
Throughout his academic career, he has published over 80 Web of Science (WoS) papers and serves
in the editorial board of several journals, including Biodiversity and Conservation, PeerJ and PLoS
One. In his commitment to ensuring the sustainable management of mud crab resources, Dr Khor
has spearheaded knowledge transfer initiatives aimed at enlightening local communities about the
significance of size-specific fishing practices and replenishment programs. This endeavour not only
improves the wellbeing of these communities but also plays a role in advancing food security.

Soh CHEE WENG has a multidisciplinary techno-commercial background

in research, applications support, nature conservation, marketing and
export sales while attached with companies including Beckman-Coulter,
the World Wide Fund for Nature, Fonterra, Ancom and Texchem. He
has an honours BSc in Microbiology from the National University of
Singapore and a MSc in Fisheries Biology from Buckingham University,
the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. While
with Texchem for 15 years, he also embarked on the development of
hatchery technologies for the mangrove crab (Scylla spp.) to ensure the
sustainability of the soft-shell crab production of the company. He had
study attachments with the Southeast Asian Fisheries Department Center (SEAFDEC) at Iloilo City,
the Philippines, and the Fisheries Research Agency of Japan (FRA) at the Tamano and Noto Stations.
Subsequently he conducted joint collaborations with Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) in Penang,
Can Tho University (CTU) in Viet Nam and with the Myanmar Sustainable Aquaculture Programme
(MYSAP) at Labutta, Myanmar. In 2018, he established and operated a mangrove crab hatchery and
engaged in community education and development of extensive crab farming at Labutta, Myanmar.
362 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

In 2021, he co-founded and set up a vertically integrated mangrove crab aquaculture operation, Crab
Universe, in Perak, Malaysia. His area of interest is in the application of nature-based solutions to
hatchery, grow-out and soft-shell shedding of the mangrove crab (Scylla paramamosain).

Andrew NG is the director of business development at SG Crabs World

which, together with its affiliated companies in Myanmar, represents
the world’s largest and longest-standing producers of soft-shell crabs
(Scylla serrata). The companies collectively produce 300 tonnes of soft-shell
crabs annually that are exported to the international market. In his role at
SG Crabs World, Dr Ng leads the sales and marketing activities to expand
the company’s global buyer network. Additionally, he is responsible for
developing and executing the corporate strategy to expand the business,
while adhering to the company’s values in product excellence, sustainability
and social responsibility. In his previous industry roles, Dr Ng was a
managing consultant and practice lead at Lumanity, a biopharma strategy consultancy firm based
in the United States of America and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland,
where he advised clients on the scientific, commercial and regulatory opportunities and challenges
for innovative, next-generation medicines in various therapeutic areas. Dr Ng earned his BSc and
PhD at the State University of New York at Buffalo, the United States of America, where he led
collaborations with the University of Pennsylvania in deploying a leading proteomics platform
to characterize genes that regulate bone development and skeletal aging. During this time, he also
worked within the university’s Business Entrepreneur Partnerships team to help in the spin-out of
academic technologies. In this role he performed an assessment for cell and gene manufacturing in the
Buffalo Niagara Region to support a New York State economic initiative.

Rowena ROMANA-EGUIA is an Associate Professorial Lecturer at

the De La Salle University, Manila, after retiring as a geneticist from the
Aquaculture Department of the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development
Center (SEAFDEC/AQD) where she worked for 40 years. She has a BSc
in Zoology from the University of the Philippines, an MSc in Genetics
from Swansea University, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland, and a PhD in Agricultural Science (Fish Population
Genetics) from Tohoku University, Japan. Her field of interest is primarily
on the applications of DNA-markers in the genetic characterization of
commercially important aquaculture species such as tilapia, milkfish,
abalone, mangrove crabs and tropical Anguillid eels for biodiversity conservation, aquatic genetic
resources management as well as marker-aided selective breeding. While at SEAFDEC/AQD, she
participated in projects on the domestication of the mangrove crabs as well as the evaluation of
the genetic diversity of both wild and hatchery stocks of Scylla serrata for use in selective breeding
schemes. She has also worked in collaboration with the Practical Genomics Laboratory of the De La
Salle University on the comparative transcriptome analysis of heat stress responses in mangrove crabs
obtained from sites with varying climate profiles. Recently, the same team completed nutrigenomic
studies on local natural sources of immunostimulants for use in improving the survival of farmed
crabs during the nursery phase.

Emilia TOBIAS-QUINITIO obtained her BSc and MSc in Fisheries from

the University of the Philippines and her PhD in Fisheries Science from
Hokkaido University in Japan. She worked at the Aquaculture Department
of the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC/AQD)
for 41 years until her retirement as senior scientist in 2017. Her professional
career focused on shrimp and crab biology, breeding and domestication;
seed production and hatchery operation; the reproductive physiology of
shrimps and crabs; crab nursery and grow-out operation; crab fattening;
soft-shell crab production; and crab hatchery layout and construction,
including mud crab training activities. She has been involved in the drafting
Expert profiles 363

of fisheries ordinances and regulations on mud crab exploitation, and in the development
of the Philippine National Standard for crustaceans and other fishery products. She
became the country’s programme coordinator of the National Mud Crab Science and
Technology programme funded by the Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic
and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCAARRD). She has provided
consultancy services to different national and international development agencies on mud
crab aquaculture. Dr Quinitio has published 75 papers in local and international refereed
journals, proceedings and manuals on shrimp and crab culture. She is a recipient of local
and international awards and became the R&D leader for Mindanao State University-
Maguindanao under the R&D Leadership Program of the National Research Council of
the Philippines.

Diana CHAN has a PhD in Microbiology from the National

University of Singapore. Since 2007, she has led the way
in enhancing aquaculture expertise by establishing the first
aquaculture training diploma and industry-focused research and
services at Temasek Polytechnic. Her mud crab research started
as a marine conservation project under the Marine Life Fund
from Resorts World Sentosa in 2011. As deputy director of the
Aquaculture Innovation Centre (AIC), Dr Chan strengthened
mud crab culture by setting up the AIC R&D farm for mud
crab research in 2019. Given the local limitations on land,
resources and workforce, her research centres around the idea of “achieving more with
less.” This involves leveraging innovation and advanced technologies to minimize the
use of land, water, energy and labour, while reducing both feed and farm production
costs. Her research revolves around the development of feeds using alternative protein
and lipid sources, with a particular focus on repurposing processed food waste and other
biomass into valuable ingredients for pellet feed production, catering to the dietary needs
of crablets during moulting and adult crabs during spawning. Beyond this, her research
interests encompass topics ranging from prophylactic treatments for adult crabs to crab
genetics and broodstock development, along with the development and implementation
of protocols for disease diagnosis and prevention. Diana has been working with standards
development organizations to develop aquaculture standards since 2018. She is currently
collaborating with a local university and a commercial entity in developing an innovative
integrated system for advancing soft-shell crab production as well as collaborating with
the Asian Institute of Technology in aquaculture welfare research.

LEE Chee Wee holds the position of centre director at the

Aquaculture Innovation Centre, serves as the technology
advisor at Temasek Polytechnic, and acts as the co-director
for the Centre for Aquaculture Research, Innovation and
Education at Nanyang Technological University. He earned
his BSc and MSc degrees from McGill University, Canada, and
later obtained his PhD from the University of Alberta, Canada.
Dr Lee was distinguished as a recipient of the Alberta Heritage
Foundation Scholarship for Medical Research. Following
his academic pursuits, Dr Lee completed his postdoctoral
fellowship at Yale University School of Medicine, the United States of America, and
subsequently embarked on his academic career at the YLL School of Medicine, National
University of Singapore, where he currently holds the position of adjunct associate
professor. Notably, he has been recognized as an honouree of the Singapore Spirit of
Enterprise and is a graduate of the General Management Program at Harvard Business
School. Dr Lee has served as a board member of the Intellectual Property Office of
Singapore (IPOS) and contributed to the development of the intellectual property
competency framework for IPOS. His expertise extends to various life science companies
364 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

and organizations, including the Asian Development Bank and Japan Shangri-La Medical
Group. Additionally, Dr Lee is a founding member of the International Anti-aging and
Regenerative Medicine Organisation based in Japan.

Mhd Arefin RAHMAN is a senior research executive at

Aquaculture Innovation Centre (AIC), Temasek Polytechnic,
Singapore. He has been involved with aquatic animal nutrition
research for 7 years. He has a BSc in Fisheries and an MSc
in Aquaculture from Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman
Agricultural University, Gazipur, Bangladesh, and a PhD from
Prince of Songkhla University (PSU), Hat Yai, Thailand. His
primary research interest is in developing sustainable aquafeed
using alternative feed ingredients for economically important
aquatic animals such as the Asian seabass, tilapia, shrimps,
mud crab and crayfish. His PhD studies focused on fish oil replacement in the Asian
seabass diet. As a research assistant at PSU, Dr Rahman worked on the production of
insect meals and researched on their use in fish diets. As a member of the R&D team at
AIC, he is focusing on developing formulated diet for mud crab to produce high-quality
broodstock and enhance moulting during the grow-out stage in recirculating aquaculture
systems.

Fanny Ayumi YASUMARU holds a PhD in Biological

Oceanography from the University of Sao Paulo and an
MSc in Aquaculture from the Federal University of Santa
Catarina, Brazil. Since 2019, she has served as the research
and services manager at the Aquaculture Innovation Centre.
Dr Yasumaru’s extensive research experience primarily focuses
on fish and shrimp nutrition, encompassing feed formulation
and production, feed and feeding performance studies, as well
as feed analysis and digestibility assessments. Currently, she is
actively involved in investigating alternative proteins derived
from both plant- and animal-based biomass for fish meal replacement. Furthermore,
Dr Yasumaru has conducted research on mud crab feed development, emphasizing feed
texture and customized forms tailored for moulting and growth performance. Beyond
her research commitments, she co-teaches courses on Singapore Standards in Good
Aquaculture Practices.

Saravanan PADMANABHAN earned his PhD in Medical

Microbiology and conducted postdoctoral research at the Center
for Biologics Evaluation and Research (CBER) in Bethesda,
the United States of America, as well as at the Department
of Anatomy, National University of Singapore. With over
25 years of experience in medical and applied microbiology,
he is a member of ISO technical committees ISO/TC281/
WG3, ISO/TC206/WG9 and ISO/TC8/SC2 of the Standards
Development Organization, as well as the Singapore Chemical
Industry Council Limited (SCIC). Presently, he serves as a lead
scientist at the Aquaculture Innovation Centre (AIC), focusing on aquatic animal health.
He leads research and service projects on preventive and diagnostic solutions as well as
disease investigation of aquatic animals, including finfish and crustaceans. His current
research interests include oral vaccines, on-site molecular diagnostics and biodegradable
therapeutic alternatives to antibiotics. Dr Saravanan has collaborated with AIC teammates
on induced spawning in mud crab Scylla serrata, conducted egg quality checks through
physical and microbiological methods, and trained the AIC team in disease investigation
techniques. He was involved in treating sick crabs using chemotherapeutics, antibiotics
Expert profiles 365

and organic plant extracts for shell disease and gill fouling or parasites. Currently, he is
focused on mud crab prophylactic treatment approaches, including the rapid oxidative
degradability of compounds.

Sukree HAJISAMAE was born in a traditional fishing village

in the Pattani Province in southern Thailand. Although now
trained as an aquaculture technologist and fisheries ecologist,
his initial fascination with mud crabs started back during his
childhood when he used to catch mud crabs and fattened
them in plastic containers. Currently his research is focused
on aquatic ecology and fish biology while at the same time
he is actively involved in fish farming. In 2016, he explored
opportunities in mud crab culture and found several technical
and academic gaps, especially in the knowledge encompassing
the whole supply chain. With a colleague, after consulting with several experts and
engaging in extensive discussions with crab scientists and farmers, he started the first
research project focused on the development of a mud crab aquaculture system in
the province of Pattani, Thailand. Upon completion of the project, they continued to
develop a business model for the whole supply chain of mud crab production. Apart
from the development of several crab farms in the region, the main success within these
projects has been the consistent production of high-quality berried female mud crabs
through this newly developed system. These accomplishments positioned them as the
main mud crab broodstock supplier in Thailand, receiving ongoing support from the
Thai Government to expand their work to other provinces across the country. Moreover,
alongside his colleague, he is actively engaged in research on the ecology and biology
of mud crabs, contributing fundamental knowledge to support mud crab fisheries and
aquaculture in Thailand.

Noratat PRACHOM earned his PhD from Tokyo University

of Marine Science and Technology, specializing in Fish
Nutrition, and holds a MSc in the same field from the Asian
Institute of Technology, Thailand. Currently serving as the
director of the Fish Feed Technology Development Centre
at Kasetsart University, Thailand, Dr Prachom is at the
forefront of advancing innovative solutions in fish nutrition.
His research is centred on exploring nutrient availability and
digestibility, particularly in the context of replacing traditional
fish meal with biomass derived from diverse sources. This
encompasses the valorization of food waste, utilization of
insect meal, chicken by-products and various other biomass options to enhance fish and
crustacean growth performance. Dr Noratat extends his research interest to the field of
mud crab nutrition, contributing valuable insights to optimize growth performance in
these crustaceans.

NGUYEN Dieu is a researcher working at the Research

Institute for Aquaculture 3 (RIA 3) in Viet Nam. He obtained
his Aquacultural Engineering degree from Nha Trang Fisheries
University in 1997 and then joined the mud crab hatchery
production (Scylla sp.) research group. In 2002 he successfully
implemented a project on the artificial seed production of
the mud crab, Scylla paramamosain, in Khanh Hoa and other
northern provinces in Viet Nam. The project received the
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Global
Award as well as the Viet Nam Science and Technology
Innovation Award (VIFOTEC). Since 2003, he has overseen
366 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

several national projects on the transfer of mud crab seed production technology to
coastal provinces where mud crab aquaculture is commercially practised. In 2011, he
worked as a mud crab specialist in New Caledonia. Beside his work with mud crabs,
Nguyen Dieu is also engaged in research and technology transfer projects on blood
cockle, Pacific oyster, abalone and sweet snail seed production and farming.

NGUYEN Thi Bich Ngoc is a senior researcher at the Research

Institute for Aquaculture 3 (RIA 3) in Viet Nam where she has
been working for 29 years. Her field of research is on live food
and nutrition of commercially important aquaculture species
such as crabs, shrimps, abalone and Babylon snails. From
2011 to 2014 she undertook her PhD work on “Commercial
mud crab Scylla serrata: study on growth, energy and protein
requirement of juveniles in the view to develop pelleted feed
for crab farming in New Caledonia.” In RIA 3 she led several
research projects including one on “Formulating effective
pellet feed for producing soft-shell crabs” supported by the Vietnamese Ministry
of Agriculture and Rural Development, and the recently completed project on the
“Application and development of soft-shell crab (Scylla sp.) farming fed on formulated
feed in Can Gio District, Viet Nam” funded by a technology development programme
of Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam. Since 2020, she has worked as a technical consultant
for hard- and soft-shell crab farming and soft-shell crab feed formulation. Her current
applied research team oversees the technology transfer of soft-shell crab production,
based on hatchery-produced seed.

TRAN NGUYEN Duy Khoa is an MSc graduate in

Aquaculture from the College of Aquaculture and Fisheries,
Can Tho University, Viet Nam. He subsequently obtained his
PhD in the same field from Kagoshima University in Japan.
He is currently a senior lecturer at Can Tho University. He
is an aquaculturist with 14 years of practical experience in the
development of sustainable aquaculture systems, operation and
management of crustacean hatcheries and farms. He currently
works on diet optimization, the development of larviculture
techniques, and seed production of mud crab, giant freshwater
prawn and several commercially important marine fish species. He has been involved in
several mud crab and shrimp development projects in Viet Nam and Malaysia.

VU Ngoc Ut is currently the rector of the College of

Aquaculture and Fisheries, Can Tho University. He obtained
his PhD in 2002 at the University of Bangor, the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, with the
dissertation entitled “Assessment of feasibility of stock
enhancement of mud crab Scylla paramamosain in the Mekong
Delta, Viet Nam”. He has been involved in many mud
crab aquaculture activities including two large EU-funded
projects on “Mud crab larviculture” and “Culture of mud crab
Scylla sp.” from 1998 to 2005. The findings from these projects
have been successfully applied and introduced throughout the Mekong Delta, where mud
crab culture dependency on wild seed has been dramatically reduced. Recently, Professor
Vu supervised a PhD student who has completed his dissertation on “Study on the
application of ozone in mud crab (Scylla paramamosain) seed production”, an important
alternative to the antibiotics commonly used in mud crab hatcheries. He has supervised
over 50 MSc and 8 PhD students and has been teaching and conducting research on
Expert profiles 367

water quality management, live food production, aquatic ecology, biodiversity and
biomonitoring. Professor Vu has led more than 20 research projects both in scientific
research and education at national and international levels. He has published over
140 papers as the main author and co-author in national and international peer-reviewed
journals.

Alessandro LOVATELLI, an aquaculturist, obtained his BSc

and MSc from the universities of Southampton and Plymouth
(the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland),
respectively. He joined the Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations (FAO) in 1987 working initially in
Southeast Asia and then in Latin America and the Caribbean.
In 1993 he headed the aquaculture and fisheries component of
a large European Union project in Viet Nam. He then joined
the European Commission Rehabilitation Programme for
Somalia to provide technical advice in fishery and aquaculture.
In 1997 he rejoined FAO working in Central and Eastern Europe and then moving to
FAO’s headquarters. In 2016 he was posted in the Regional Office for Latin America
and the Caribbean before returning to Rome in 2020. His work over the years has
included the gathering, compiling and sharing of best farming practices and innovations
focused on important and emerging aquatic farmed species. He has achieved this through
the organization of technical expert workshops, publication of training material, field
consultations and training activities. He further promotes the exchange of farming
experiences through technical meetings and in collaboration with regional fisheries
and aquaculture management organizations. He actively engages with countries in
developing policies and incentives to ensure the sustainable expansion of aquaculture.
In 2011 he commissioned and contributed to the preparation of the first FAO technical
manual on mud crab aquaculture, and in 2023 he commissioned the preparation of the
second edition of this manual that will include the farming advances presented at the
FAO and Aquaculture Innovation Centre (AIC) mud crab expert workshop held on
27–30 November 2023 in Singapore.
368 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Annex 5 – Workshop opening and

closing remarks

OPENING AND CLOSING REMARKS DELIVERED BY DR LEE CHEE WEE,

DIRECTOR, AQUACULTURE INNOVATION CENTRE, DURING THE FAO TECHNICAL
WORKSHOP ON MUD CRAB AQUACULTURE HELD IN SINGAPORE FROM
27–30 NOVEMBER 2023.

OPENING REMARKS
The domain of mud crab farming stands at the edge of an extensive knowledge landscape
that is marked by discernible gaps that currently hinder the achievement of sustainable
cultivation practices. Recognising the magnitude of these knowledge deficiencies is
crucial, and we understand that a singular workshop cannot comprehensively address
the myriad challenges inherent in the industry.
Nevertheless, one of the primary objectives of this workshop is to initiate
collaboration and bring together experts from across the globe to share their insights,
experiences, know-hows, technological advancements, as well as business acumen,
trade practices and much more. While the workshop serves as a pivotal platform for
knowledge exchange, it is imperative to delineate its inherent limitations. The intricate
and diverse challenges confronting mud crab farming and the supply chain demand
a sustained and collective endeavour extending beyond the temporal confines of this
week-long workshop.
We envisage this workshop will act as a catalyst sparking a global network of
expertise sharing, technology transfer and collaboration. The aim is to gradually
bridge the knowledge gaps and to establish the groundwork for developing sustainable
supply of mud crabs through responsible cultivation practices, harvest and post-
harvest technologies, innovations, and eco-friendly approaches. I would like to extend
our profound gratitude to each participant for dedicating time and expertise to this
workshop. The intensity of our collective efforts here reflects your dedication to
enhancing the transformation of the mud crab industry by addressing its production
and entire value chain.
Furthermore, our heartfelt appreciation extends to the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and organizing committee for their
invaluable support and guidance. The FAO’s commitment to assembling world experts
in Singapore underscores the global significance of addressing technical challenges
within the mud crab industry. We are sincerely grateful for the Organization’s
dedication to fostering knowledge exchange and international cooperation.
In conclusion, the privilege of hosting this meaningful workshop at the Aquaculture
Innovation Centre at Temasek Polytechnic fills me with delight. We take pride in
contributing to this collective endeavour aimed at addressing the technical challenges,
supply chain issues, as well as farming practices and processing issues faced by the
mud crab industry. As we engage in fruitful discussion over the next four days of the
workshop, let us remain mindful of the potential impact that our collective efforts can
have on transforming the mud crab industry into a sustainable and prosperous one.

CLOSING REMARKS
As we come to the close of this international mud crab workshop, I want to take a
moment to reflect on the incredible journey that we have shared over the past few
days. The openness in sharing your knowledge and techniques was truly amazing
Workshop opening and closing remarks 369

and inspiring during the workshop. It has been a privilege to gather with experts,
practitioners, and enthusiasts from around the world, all united by the same passion
for advancing mud crab aquaculture.
Throughout our sessions, we have explored innovative practices, shared valuable
research findings, and tackled the challenges facing our industry value chain from
production to markets. From hatchery techniques to sustainable farming strategies
and post-harvest techniques and processes, each discussion has contributed to a deeper
understanding of how and what we can do to enhance our practices and ensure a
prosperous future for mud crab farming and commercialization.
I want to extend my heartfelt thanks to our speakers for their enlightening
presentations and to all participants for your active engagement. Your insights and
experiences have enriched our discussions and will undoubtedly shape the path
forward.
Let us carry the knowledge gained here back to our communities and continue
to foster collaboration among our networks. Together, we can build a sustainable
aquaculture sector that not only meets market demands but also preserves our precious
marine ecosystems.
As we conclude, I encourage all of us to stay connected. Share your successes,
challenges and innovations with one another. Our collective efforts can lead to
meaningful change in mud crab aquaculture.
Thank you once again for your participation and commitment. Safe travels home
and I look forward to seeing the impact of our shared knowledge in the field.

Thank you.

Dr Lee Chee Wee

Director, Aquaculture Innovation Centre
Singapore
370 Status, technological innovations, and industry development needs of mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture

Annex 6 – Group photograph

GROUP PHOTOGRAPH OF ALL THE EXPERTS ATTENDING THE FAO MUD CRAB WORKSHOP
HELD IN SINGAPORE FROM 27–30 NOVEMBER 2023.

©FAO/AIC
Seated: Susila Krishnasamy, Khor Waiho, Colin Shelley, Emilia Tobias-Quinitio, Alessandro Lovatelli,
Chee Wee Lee and Diana Chan.

Middle row: Fanny Ayumi Yasumaru, Yun Tzu Huang, Nguyen Thi Bich Ngoc, Md Arefin Rahman,
Rowena Romana-Eguia, Nguyen Dieu, Sukree Hajisamae, Yushinta Fujaya, Kandan Shanmuganathan
and Vu Ngoc Ut.

Back row: Ng Rongxin, Haihui Ye, Mhd Mojibar Rahman, Andrew Ng, Hongyu Ma, Chris Calogeras,
Mohd Fazhan bin Mohd Hanafiah, Soh Chee Weng, Saravanan Padmanabhan, Noratat Prachom, Mhd
Ikhwanuddin bin Abdullah, Tran Nguyen Duy Khoa and Tetsuya Sanda.
 371

Annex 7 – Certificate of participation

CERTIFICATE OF PARTICIPATION AWARDED TO ALL EXPERTS WHO ATTENDED THE FAO

MUD CRAB WORKSHOP HELD IN SINGAPORE FROM 27–30 NOVEMBER 2023.

Certificate of Participation
to

…………………………………………..
For active and invaluable participation during the

FAO Mud Crab Expert Workshop

27–30 November 2023
Organised by:
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
&
Aquaculture Innovation Centre, Singapore

_______________________________________ _______________________________________
Alessandro Lovatelli Lee Chee Wee, PhD
Aquaculture Officer Centre Director
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) Aquaculture Innovation Centre (AIC)
 FAO FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE PROCEEDINGS 73
Status, technological innovations,
and industry development needs of
mud crab (Scylla spp.) aquaculture
FAO Expert Workshop
27–30 November 2023
Singapore

The FAO Expert Workshop on Mud Crab Aquaculture

convened international experts to address critical challenges
and opportunities in the cultivation of Scylla spp. mud crabs.
Topics focused on assessing current industry status,
advancements in hatchery and nursery technologies, and
sustainable farming practices. The workshop emphasized the
need for hatchery-based production to meet global demand
and reduce reliance on wild seedstock.
Key recommendations focused on broodstock genetic
improvement, formulated feed development, and enhanced
water quality and biosecurity measures. Innovations in larval
rearing techniques, advanced disease management strategies,
and optimized farming systems were thoroughly covered.
Discussions also highlighted the importance of improving value
chains through better handling, packaging and post-harvest
standards.
The workshop stressed sustainable fisheries management and
mangrove habitat conservation as priorities for supporting mud
crab populations. Collaborative efforts in training, research, and
international knowledge exchange were identified as essential
for future growth of the aquaculture sector.
The workshop proceedings, aligned with FAO’s Blue
Transformation initiative, offers actionable insights to foster a
sustainable and resilient mud crab aquaculture sector, thereby
enhancing global food security and supporting the livelihoods
of producing communities.

ISBN 978-92-5-139558-5 ISSN 2070-6103

9 789251 395585
CD3976EN/1/01.25