ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
HISTORY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
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CAIE IGCSE HISTORY

Germany: War reparations under the Treaty of Versailles

1. Was the Treaty of Versailles (132 billion gold marks); Hyperinflation and economic
collapse during the early 1920s.
fair? Britain and France: War debts to the USA caused long-
term financial strain.
USA: Emerged as a leading economic power and creditor
1.1. The first world war- outcomes and nation due to wartime loans.
impacts Destruction: Infrastructure, agriculture, and industries
were heavily damaged in France, Belgium, and other war
Political Impacts zones.

Fall of Great Empires: Monarchies in Germany, Austria- 1.2. Road to Peace

Hungary, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire collapsed.
Rise of Bolshevism: Bolshevik Revolution in Russia (1917) The Paris Peace Conference- the “Big Three”
led to the establishment of the Soviet Union, spreading
fear of communism across Europe.
New Nations Created: Empires' collapse led to the
creation of new states (e.g., Poland, Czechoslovakia,
Yugoslavia) under principles of self-determination.
Weakening of Colonial Powers: European colonial
empires began to lose authority as colonies questioned
imperial rule after the war.

Social Impacts
Loss of Life: Approximately 16 million deaths,
devastating the workforce and families in Europe.
Physical and Psychological Trauma: Soldiers returned
with severe injuries and "shell shock" (early PTSD),
creating long-term societal challenges.
Women’s Roles: Women entered the workforce in large
numbers during the war, contributing to greater
demands for suffrage (e.g., women's right to vote in
Germany and Britain).
Population Displacement: Millions of refugees and
displaced persons resulted from border changes and
destruction in war zones.

Economic Impacts

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Following the armistice, a peace conference was Collective name to refer to all peace treaties drawn at the
organized in the palace of Versailles, in Paris, france. Paris peace conference.
Goal- to determine peace terms to bring an official end Each treaty dealt with a different member of the triple
to war entente
Attitudes- public anger toward Germany, blame thrown, Treaty of Versailles dealt with germany.
need for revenge amongst the public.
The big three- the leaders of the emerging powers at the Terms of the treaty
end of the war, USA, Great Britain, and France. All three
had different ideas and attitudes about the losing side, War guilt clause: article 231, take responsibility for the
particularly Germany. war, set up legal basis for reparations, “you admit to
President Woodrow Wilson of USA- “the idealist”, US did damage, you pay for it”, hurt german pride
not suffer as much as britain and france in the war, so Reparations: sum of 6.6 billion euros set AFTER signing of
wanted a fair peace, wanted to ensure germany wasn’t the treaty, Germany complaints of signing a blank
punished, believed germany’s economic revival to be cheque, economic turmoil, hurts German economy and
important to europe’s economic revival, wanted treaties leads to economic crisis in 1923.
based off his 14 points. disarmament: demilitarized rhineland, army limited
Fourteen points: including but not limited to self 100,000 men, conscription banned, most ships and
determination for nations, free trade during war AND artillery banned.
peace, disarmament of all nations, and the creation of a Colonies: all of Germany's oversea colonies would be
League of Nations. taken away as mandates of Britain and france.
Prime Minister David Lloyd George of Great Britain- “The Land: alsace-lorraine given to france, eupen and
realist”. won the election via promise of exacting revenge malmedy to belgium, the saar basin was placed under
on germany, UK suffered a lot during the war BUT league of nations mandate for 15 years pending a
German economic revival= european economic revival, plebiscite to decide whether it would go to france,
opted for a “just peace”, wanted german colonies to build germany, or remain under league control. Upper selisa
up british empire, but did not want harsh punishment- and west prussia to poland, dazing became a free city
feared potential future german revenge. and its port became part of the polish corridor.
President Geroges Clemenceau- “the vendettist”. France League of nations: Germany to accept the covenant of an
suffered the most during war, destruction of the western international league of nations to resolve disagreements
front + greatest number of lives lost were french, wanted peacefully and without war.
strict punishment for germany, wanted them to take
blame for war, crippling reparations, all colonies and lots Why did the victors not get everything they
of land, total disarmament of just germany, proposed wanted?
germany to be broken down into a bunch of smaller
states. Each leader had different aims and motives
Lloyd George was often the mediator between Different public pressures
Clemenceau and Wilson. Main clashes in negotiating peace terms:

The Versailles peace settlement.

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1. Clemenceau wanted the Rhine to become a free city Economic Impacts

and the Saar to be given to France BUT Wilson
believed in self-determination AND wanted Harsh reparations: Germany was required to pay 132
germany’s economic revival for more trade billion gold marks, crippling its economy and
opportunities SO negotiation= Saar under LoN contributing to hyperinflation in 1923.
mandate for 15 years pending plebiscite, and Rhine Territorial losses: Loss of industrial regions like the Saar
demilitarized. Basin and Upper Silesia weakened Germany's economic
2. Clash of empires: Wilson wanted self-determination base.
and free access to international waters, BUT that Global economic instability: The punitive terms hindered
would harm British and French empires SO self- European recovery, contributing to wider economic
determination awarded to states in eastern europe challenges during the interwar period.
BUT Britain and France built up their empires by
absorbing german colonies 1.4. Was the treaty fair?
3. Heavy reparations: Clemenceau wanted crippling
reparations BUT Llyod George and Wilson wanted
Main Clashes
German Economic recovery SO reparations were
given BUT not as much as Clemenceau wanted. Harsh terms v. Treaty of Brest- Litovsk= Germany claims
Ultimately, the victors did not get everything they wanted treaty is harsh, but when Russia left war in 1917, the
because they did not have the same aims and motives German treaty of Brest-Litovsk was arguably just as
and had to cater to different demographics WHILE harsh, and this suggests that had Germany won, they’d
ensuring the economic, geographical, and political have enforced equally harsh treaties on the allies.
benefits they could exact. “Wrongful guilt” v. Schiffen Plan= The German plan to cut
through Belgium to invade France in 1919 was used by
allies to prove that Germany was aggressive from the
1.3. Impacts of the Treaty start, and started WW1. But germany claimed that all
countries were planning for war, eg. Russian army
Social Impacts mobilization of 1914, and hence blame should be shared.
Harsh reparations v. german economy= Germany
German resentment and humiliation: The "War Guilt claimed the reparation price was too high, and ToV took
Clause" (Article 231) caused widespread anger and a away resources that could’ve been used to pay the
sense of betrayal among Germans. reparations; however the price was only a fraction of
Population displacement: Territorial losses (e.g., Alsace- Germany's annual economic output.
Lorraine to France, Polish Corridor) left millions of LoN Hypocrisy= The LoN looked like a “victor's club”
Germans living outside Germany's borders. because it did not invite or allow any losing countries to
Rise of nationalism: Anti-Versailles sentiment fueled join; Lon still helped the losing countries settle disputes
radical political movements like the Nazi Party. and crises as fairly as possible.
Disarmament issue= Only losing countries were made to
Political Impacts
disarm, leaving them unable to protect themselves;
Weimar instability: The treaty undermined the legitimacy global disarmament talks were in progress and were a
of the Weimar Republic, as it was associated with the LoN aim.
"stab-in-the-back" myth.
Weakened Germany: Severe military restrictions (100,000
soldiers, no air force or submarines) reduced Germany's
2. To what extent was the
ability to defend itself.
Redrawing of Europe: New nations (e.g., Poland,
League of Nations a
Czechoslovakia) were created, but ethnic tensions arose
in these areas due to the principle of self-determination
Success?
being inconsistently applied.

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The league did not have an army of its own, and would
2.1. Background have to rely on the army of its members; this would be
difficult as most member states would not want to enter
When and by Whom was the League of Nations a conflict after the first world war just ended.
formed? The absence of the USA and Russia meant that placing
sanctions would be less effective than if they were
Founded january 10, 1920 members
The covenant of the league was part of the treaty of Most members would prioritize national interests over
versailles. international interests
Primarily aimed at resolving disagreements between
nations peacefully, avoiding war as a resort.
2.2. The structure and membership of
Aims of the League the league
Maintain peace and security Structure
Solve disputes using peaceful means
Achieve world disarmament Assembly: main representative body of the league; all
Encourage free trade amongst all nations member states represented; voted on topics of general
Improve the standard of living policy; advised the council; decided the budget; met up
Enforce and Uphold the Treaty of Versailles once per year; each country had one vote; unanimous
decision making required.
Collective Security Council: had permanent members (Great Britain, France,
Italy, Japan, and later Germany); non-permanent
Aimed to prevent aggression and maintain peace members erected by the assembly; handled disputes
amongst member states between nations, and the imposition of sanctions;
The idea was that attack against one member of the permanent members had veto power; unanimous
league would be considered an attack against all, decision making.
Prompting collective response to aggressor states. Secretariat: administrative arm of the league; handled
These methods were: day-to-day running of the league; prepared reports and
1. Moral disapproval: the league would publicly organized meetings; kept communication between
condemn the action of an aggressive nation, hoping different bodies of the league running; extremely
that international public opinion would pressure the understaffed.
aggressor into complying with the league Permanent Court of International Justice: Based in
2. Economic and trade sanctions: if moral disapproval The Hague, it resolved international disputes between
fails, the league would impose economic and trade countries; Gave legal opinions on disputes and treaty
sanctions on the aggressor, restricting financial interpretation.
relations between league members and the
aggressor, weakening its economy, forcing it to League commissions and committees
comply.
3. Military sanctions: last resort; the league would rally
member states’ military forces to collectively act
against the aggressor.

What was the problem with collective security

methods?

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Mandate Commission: in charge of distributing former

German and Ottoman territories to League members, 2.3. Peacekeeping efforts in the 1920s
with the ultimate goal of self-determination Success
League
Disarmament Commission: promoted global Dispute Overview Proceedings or
Failure?
Reason Impact

disarmament The league asks The power

Poland to imbalance was
Health Organization: worked to improve public health, withdraw, but The league was
unable to stop clear; permanent
Poland refuses. council members
one of the more successful committees of the league, Vilna Poland seizes France will not go polish aggression
and France’s were using the
Lithuania’s against Poland as Failure national league rulings in
laid the groundwork for the World Health 1920 capital, Vilna. they see it as a interests
overpowered
favor of national
potential ally, so interests rather
Organization(WHO) Vilna is
awarded to
international need
for justice than
international
Refugee Commission: tasked with relocating displaced Poland. stability.
Showcasing the
populations after World War one Sweden and
Finland had a
league’s
The league successful
Slavery Commission: aimed to combat slavery, forced dispute over
which nation decided that the decision making
islands would abilities,
labor, and human trafficking around the world. had ownership
Aaland over the Aaland remain with
Both nations
agreed to league HOWEVER
Islands, finland, but the Success decisions, success was also
Economic Commission: focused on global economies 1920-21 Islands. The
islands had swedish and no
conflict ensued due to the fact
population must that nations were
and solving financial crises swedish
population but be protected and tired of war and
belonged to given autonomy. so were willing to
give the league a
finland.
Membership The league asks
chance.
The league was
Mussolini to leave, Showed the once again seen
but he ignores the league’s weakness as weak, ALSO
Allies and nations that didn’t lose the war An italian
general is
league decision
and instead asks
when it came to
enforcing rules on
this showed how
only small
Nations such as Germany that lost the war were initially Corfu
murdered on
greek soil, so
the conference of
ambassadors to
a super power nations were
Failure country, and was willing to support
not invited 1923 italian armed
forces occupy
make a decision.
The conference
also seen to be
weak as it could
the league, while
bigger, stronger
Communist Russia was not invited greek island of
Corfu
asks Greece to
pay compensation
not outweigh an
outside
nations could
afford to disagree
The US did not join because the American Senate voted to Italy in
exchange for
organization's
verdict.
as sanctions
wouldn’t affect
against it, even though the league was Wilson’s idea. Corfu. them as badly.
While a success,
again reaffirmed
How far did weaknesses in the League’s the common
thought that
league could only
organization and membership make failure Border clash
control smaller
nations; Greece
inevitable? Bulgaria
between
Greece and
The league orders
a ceasefire and
The league
intervened quickly
complained that
when italy was an
1925 Bulgaria, asks Greece to Success and took firm aggressor in
Greece invades pay compensation decisions; both Corfu with similar
Absence of the United States led to economic and Bulgarian
territory.
as the aggressor. parties agreed circumstance , it
was not
military sanctions being weakened as the US had a punished, but
Greece is, calling
strong army and the strongest economy at the time. out the power
imbalance and
The League was criticized for being a “winners club” as its hypocrisy of the
league.
initial membership consisted of only countries that won
the war. How important was the League’s humanitarian
Unanimous decision making made it hard to take swift work?
decisions
Lack of a league military meant reliance on member Refugees
states for military sanctions, BUT nations would often be
reluctant, BECAUSE disputes would either not directly After the war, millions of people were displaced in
involve national interests, OR because they did not want Europe and Asia.
to enter another war; limiting the league’s ability to Refugee commission introduces Nansen Passport,
impose sanctions. allowing stateless refugees to travel and resettle.
The permanent members of the council held more Resettled around 400,000 prisoners of war.
power than the rest, and their national interests would Provided millions of refugees with food, shelter, and
often take precedence over international security. employment

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Health
Manchuria: north-east province in China; rich in mineral
Conducted campaigns to fight malaria, yellow fever, wealth, forestry agricultural land;
leprosy, smallpox, and tuberculosis. Causes: japan badly affected by great depression, not
Promoted vaccine campaigns self sufficient in food as it depended on imports to feed
Stopped the outbreak of typhus in Eastern Europe an exponentially growing population; imports depended
on japanese exports; export was silk= luxury item;
Working Conditions exports declined; growing economic crisis; manchuria=
The ILO promoted worker rights, fair wages, and decent answers to japan’s problems; sources for food+raw
working hours. materials, market for japanese exports, AND land for
Placed limitation on child labour ever increasing japanese population.
Banned poisonous lead paint Events: MUKDEN RAILWAY INCIDENT, september 1931,
japanese soldiers stage an incident on railway line,
Established over 60 international labor conventions, such
as 8 hour workday and better working conditions for accusing chinese bandits, launching invasion; China
women and children. appeals to league but japanese army occupies whole
Manchuria, renames it to Manchukuo in 1932. The
Slavery League would not call sanctions BECAUSE European
powers did not want American firms to take over lost
Supported abolition of slavery in Ethiopia and Liberia business in the Far East; military sanctions NOT favored
Strived to end forced labor in colonial territories because chances of victory were doubtful; Britain and
Reduced trafficking of women and children, especially in France did not want Japan to attack their Far East
prostitution rings. colonies due to imposition of sanctions.
Put pressure on colonial powers to act on the issue LYTTON COMMISSION: Lord Lytton to lead a commission
of enquiry to Manchuria; concluded that invasion was
2.4. The 1930s: great depression and not justified; took one year for assembly to consider the
report (February 1933); findings accepted 42-to-1; Japan
league rulings responds by leaving the league.
Consequences: League criticized for not acting quickly
Effect of depression enough; lack of key members like USA and Russia=
military sanctions could not be used, LINK to weakness in
Economic turmoil; member states would be even more league membership; world recession= economic
reluctant to impose economic sanctions as they wished sanctions achieving positive result seemed impossible;
to retain what trade they had left league seemed Euro-centric= belief that league would
Armament was reduced to cut off expenditure, leading take action if this was a european invasion; Mussolini
to military sanctions being extremely weakened and Hitler watched with interest.
Rise in extremism, for eg. Nazis in Germany
Encouraged militarism in Japan World disarmament conference of 1932-34
Put pressure on countries to find new markets and
sources of raw materials= colonization and annexation of
other nations.

Japanese invasion of manchuria

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Organized by the League's disarmament commission, in Summary: Failures of the League in the 1930s
Geneva, to resolve issues surrounding disarmament.
Members failed to agree: France, Poland, and 1. French and British Self-Interests:
Czechoslovakia feared national security in face of a
potential future German attack; France willing to disarm Britain and France prioritized their own interests over
upon guarantee from US and Britain= both nations not League principles.
prepared to give guarantee; Hitler uses France’s fear to Manchuria: Refused military action or sanctions against
point out French hypocrisy, “germany should also have a Japan to protect their Far East colonies and trade.
chance to defend its borders”, walked out, and Germany Abyssinia: Hoare-Laval Pact secretly offered Mussolini ⅔
stepped out the league; general disarmament would not of Abyssinia, undermining the League's credibility.
happen.
Soon, rearmament began ; first Germany, followed by 2. Absence of Strong Powers:
Japan and Italy. USA: The absence of the USA weakened economic
sanctions, as nations could trade with non-member
Abyssinian Crisis- Italian invasion of Abyssinia states like the US.
USSR: Not a member until 1934, so the League lacked
military support from a large power.
Germany: Left the League in 1933, further undermining
collective efforts.

3. Ineffective Sanctions:

Economic sanctions were inconsistent and avoided

critical resources.
Manchuria: No sanctions imposed due to fear of losing
trade to US firms.
Abyssinia: Oil and coal were excluded from sanctions;
Britain refused to close the Suez Canal, allowing Italian
supply lines to remain open.

4. Lack of Military:
The League had no standing army and relied on member
states to provide military force, which they were
unwilling to do:
Manchuria: No military action taken, as members feared
Japanese retaliation.
Abyssinia: Britain and France feared provoking Mussolini,
especially during rising tensions in Europe.

5. Reaching Decisions Very Slowly:

Manchuria: Took over a year to publish the Lytton

Report, by which time Japan had solidified control and
renamed Manchuria to "Manchukuo."
Abyssinia: Delay in sanctions and public protests over the
Hoare-Laval Pact weakened confidence in the League’s
decisiveness.

6. Economic Issues:

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The Great Depression severely limited the willingness of Reichstag Fire (1933): Used by Hitler to claim a
nations to impose sanctions or contribute to military communist threat, consolidate power, and push through
efforts the Enabling Act.
Nations prioritized their own economies, avoiding costly Hitler becomes Chancellor in 1933 and begins
military action or trade restrictions. systematically dismantling the Treaty of Versailles.
Economic turmoil fueled extremism and militarism, as
seen with Japan, Germany, and Italy. Timeline
1933: Hitler walks out disarmament conference; leaves
3. How far was Hitler’s the league; begins rearmament in secret
1934: attempted annexation of Austria, stopped by
Foreign Policy to blame for Mussolini
1936: conscription reintroduced and Rhineland
the outbreak of war in Europe reoccupied.
1937: Germany enters spanish civil war, supports
in 1939? Franco’s right wing rebels, new german air force is
tested.
1938: Anschluss of austria; Sudetenland invaded
3.1. Long term Consequences of ToV 1939: invasion of Czechoslovakia as a whole; invasion of
Poland; war begins.
Dissatisfaction of Major powers
Italy did not gain as many colonies as it wished 3.2. What were the consequences of
Japan had its racial equality clause rejected the failures of the League in the 1930s?
Germany resented the treaty “Stab in the back” theory
German signatories became known as the “November Great Depression hindered the league’s work
Criminals”
Division of german population led to increasing Member states like Britain and France became more
nationalism focused on national interests than collective security and
Many in Britain started saying the treaty was “too harsh” international interests.
wanted germany to be a strong buffer against the USSR League was supposed to uphold ToV, but Britain
The french felt the treaty was not harsh enough. disagreed; league took no action when - - German troops
reoccupied the Rhineland in 1936.
Hitler’s rise to power League could not stop German Rearmament in 1935, so
all permanent members began rearmament.
1. Early Events:
Manchuria and Abyssinia crises showed league could not
Munich Putsch (1923): Hitler’s failed attempt to deal with aggressive major powers, encouraging
overthrow the Weimar government; gained national Germany, Italy, and Japan to take further actions.
attention and reinforced his determination to achieve
power legally. The Saar plebiscite, 1935
Mein Kampf (1925): Outlined plans to overturn the Treaty
of Versailles, rearm Germany, and expand for As stated in ToV, 15 years after the Saar was under
Lebensraum (living space). league mandate, a plebiscite took place to decide
whether it would remain under league control, be a part
2. Key Moments: of Germany, or a part of France.
Over 90% voted for Germany; Hitler reclaimed one of
Germany’s land, and while following the treaty; great
propaganda for Hitler.

Hitler’s foreign policy

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Destroy ToV- Rearm, Reintroduce conscription, Build up Many in Austria supported Anschluss, Hitler tells the
armed forces, Take back lost territory. Austrian Nazi party to stir up trouble and demand
Destroy communism anschluss.
Reunite Germany- Anschluss with Austria, taking back Austrian chancellor appeals to Britain and France for aid;
the Polish corridor and absorbing Sudetenland. none offered; decides to hold a plebiscite; hitler fears
Living space/ Lebensraum- expand eastwards toward losing plebiscite, so demands Chancellor’s resignation;
Poland and the Soviet union. replaced by Nazi leader Seyss-Inquart, who asks
Germany for help in restoring order.
Foreign policy is seen as “Reasonable” March 1938: german troops march in unopposed;
plebiscite held, Germany wins with 99% votes.
No one stopped rearmament rallies and conscription as British prime minister Chamberlain supported the union.
other countries were doing it too.
BUT not everything was achieved easily- Mussolini
objected to annexation of Austria in 1934, putting a stop
3.3. To what extent was appeasement
to that for a while. justified?
The occupation of the Rhine Appeasement?
Hitler uses 1935 alliance between France and Russia as a Adopted by britain and france in the 1930s after league
reason to reoccupy “Germany is surrounded by enemies” failed.
Why was this not stopped? League was busy with the War would be avoided by conceding to some demands of
Abbysinian crisis; Britain believed Germany had a right to aggressive dictators (axis powers), essentially appeasing
the Rhine; France was undergoing elections so did not them.
want to be in a conflict with Germany.
Was it justified?
Spanish Civil War
Yes No
Chamberlain thought it could avoid War Could delay war, but not avoid it.
Fought between left wing republican government and Would buy time for Britain and France to Gave Hitler time to improve his own
right wing rebels led by General Franco. rearm.
Chamberlain believed that Hitler’s demands
armaments too.
Hitler was an irrational leader.
The Soviet Union sent weapons in support of the could be satisfied.
Smaller nations like Poland and Czechoslovakia
republican government; Mussolini and Hitler declared for ToV was seen as unjust were sacrificed by allies to appease dictators.
Franco. Communism was seen as a bigger threat than
Hitler; Germany would be a strong buffer Encouraged hitler more and more as he
believed allies couldn't resist his actions
Britain and France did not get directly involved. against communism.

Spain became a testing ground for the new German

Luftwaffe (air craft) Invasion of sudetenland.
Relations between Musolini and Hitler strengthened;
Britain and France sped up rearmament.
1936: Germany and Japan sign the Anti-Comintern Pact
against communism.
1937: Germany and Italy form the Rome-Berlin Axis
alliance. Germany, Italy, and Japan became known as the
“Axis Powers”.

Anschluss with Austria, 1938

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Hitler sought the Sudetenland for its strategic geographic August 1939: Nazi-soviet pact signed.
position, economic resources, military defenses, and A 10 year non-aggression pact between the two nations,
large population of ethnic Germans to strengthen and seen as highly surprising as Hitler was very vocal in his
protect Germany. hate of communism.
Britain, France and the USSR had promised to protect Through the pact, Stalin and Hitler secretly divided up
Czechoslovakia against a German invasion. Polish territories.
15 September 1938: Chamberlain and Hitler meet in Hitler avoided a 2 front war through the pact.
Bavaria, agreeing that certain parts of sudetenland Why did Stalin agree? The pact gave stalin much needed
would be given to German if governments of Britain, time to prepare for war against Hitler; resources from
Czechoslovakia and France agreed; HOWEVER Hitler poland and baltic states would help gow soviet economy;
claims that germans in sudetenland are being mistreated poland would be a good buffer zone against German
by Czech government, demands all of sudetenland, attacks; Stalin did not trust britain and france following
Chamberlain tells British government to prepare for war, the munich agreement, felt they were powerless against
BUT 29th september: Munich Conference is held to germany, and believed they supported Hitler due to his
discuss the issue with the presence of Italy, Germany, anti-communist ideals.
Britain, and France, but neither the USSR OR
Czechoslovakia. Creation of the Munich Agreement; Hitler invades Poland
Sudetenland would do to Germany, borders of
Czechoslovakia would be secured; Czech government 1st September 1939: Hitler invades Poland
had no choice but to agree to prevent war. Allies give Hitler an ultimatum: withdraw or war.
1st October: German troops march into sudetenland; 3rd September: Britain and France declare war on
Poland and Hungary take over Czech territory where Germany.
they claim their citizens live. Chamberlain returned to
Britain declaring war had been delayed; the Czech leader 3.5. Causes of the second world war
resigned; trust in hitler and his promises had been
discarded. ToV led to political and economic problems for Germany,
alongside resentment
3.4. How important was the Nazi-Soviet Failures of the league showed Hitler that it was
powerless against a powerful nation like Germany,
pact? especially without support of the USA; other nations
started prioritizing national interests over league
End of Appeasement interest.
Appeasement gave hitler the Rhine, Austria, and
March 1939: Hitler marched troops into the rest of Czechoslovakia without any opposition, making hitler
Czechoslovakia; allies realized Hitler’s next step would be believe his actions would never be reprimanded.
Poland; threatened war if he tried invading. Nazi-Soviet pact allowed hitler to avoid a two front war
While he did not fear Britain and France, he did fear the when he invaded Poland.
USSR entering the war. Hitler’s Foreign policy pushed all of his actions leading up
to the invasion of Poland.
Nazi-Soviet Pact

4. Who was to Blame for Cold

War?
4.1. Breakdown of US-Soviet alliance,
1945.

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US-Soviet alliance during WWII Potsdam conference, 1945.

Allied against Nazi Germany, despite ideological Roosevelt died and was replaced by Truman, who was
differences. more openly anti communist and prepared to stand up
The Grand Alliance was made up of Winston Churchill against Stalin's aggressive expansion in east europe;
(PM, Britain), F. D. Roosevelt (US President), and Joseph USSR’s Red Army, most of eastern europe, Stalin began
Stalin (USSR Leader). to set up pro-soviet communist governments.
SEVERE DIFFERENCES between USA, Britain and USSR: Truman informs Stalin of USA’s successful testing of the
first atomic bomb.
Factor USA USSR
Government and
Multi-party state (democracy) One party state
Stalin was already aware because of spies.
elections
Capitalist society with private
Churchill is replaced by clement attlee halfway through
Economy ownership and economic classes Communist, classless society with the conference. In churchill’s absence, the conference
(rich and poor) government ownership.

People Law guaranteed individual freedom Every aspect of life was state was essentially a rivalry between Truman and Stalin:
and rights controlled.
Wanted spread of democracy and Expansionist ideology where each
Ideology capitalist economy, against
communism.
state would be a communist
leadership.
1. Stalin wanted to incapacitate Germany and gain ruhr
resources, BUT Truman didn't want a repeat of ToV.
Defeated Hitler by May 1945. 2. Truman was reluctant to impose harsh reparations
BUT Stalin wanted compensation for the war.
Cracks in alliance during wartime 3. Truman did not want Soviet rule in East Europe BUT
this was agreed at yalta.
Mistrust from US and Britain and fear of spread of
communism Denazification, trials for war crimes, and splitting
Stalin’s mistrust of Roosevelt and Churchill, which started Germany into four zones governed by an allied control
council were all agreements from yalta that were upheld.
before the war, during the period of appeasement where
Stalin was not consulted in issues such as the Munich
conference and Germany was appeased as a buffer for 4.2. USSR’s control of East Europe by
the west against communism. 1948
Stalin did not share his wartime strategies with the US
and Britain and Churchill didn’t share his knowledge of Control of Eastern European states following
German troop movements with Stalin.
Public opinion supported a seemingly unified alliance. Potsdam conference

Yalta conference
February, 1945.
AGREEMENTS; Germany and Berlin to be divided into 4
zones, each under mandate of one of the big 4 (US,
USSR, Britain, France)
War criminals to be brought to trial
Stalin agreed to join the US in the war against Japan.
Agreement to form the UN
Free elections to be held in occupied nations after the
war, East Europe to be a soviet sphere of influence.
DISAGREEMENTS; Poland; Stalin wanted to absorb east
Poland into the USSR, Roosevelt and Churchill wanted
free elections; compromise reached that some of Stalin’s
demands would be adhered to provided the USSR does
not help communists in Greece.

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Cominform was set up in 1947 (Communist information Since 1946, there had been a civil war in Greece between
Bureau) to coordinate east European communist parties monarchists and communists. Britain supported
under the rule of the USSR, with only Yugoslavia resisting Monarchists and Stalin protested this to the UN, which
rule. took no action.
East Germany, 1945: The Red Army remained in eastern 1947: Britain announces withdrawal from greek civil war,
Germany, leading to the formation of the GDR (German Truman took action to stop spread of communism by
Democratic Republic) under communist control in 1949. funding british troops.
Poland, 1947: The Red Army stayed, and the communists Policy of containment/ containing communism was
took over through a coalition government, murder, and known as the Truman Doctrine. US committed to help
rigged elections. any country threatened by communism take-over by
Romania, 1947: The Red Army stayed, rigged elections sending money, supplies, weapons and advice.
put communists in power, they controlled security Turman believed that communism was only a threat to
forces, and abolished the monarchy. european nations until the economies were stabilized.
Bulgaria, 1947: The Red Army stayed, a left-wing coalition George Marshall, secretary of state, is sent to assess
won, and communists eliminated other leaders, financial situation of europe, and his reports make
destroying democracy. Truman propose $17 Billion in economic aid= approved
Hungary, 1948: The Red Army stayed, and communists after soviet control of Czechoslovakia.
used the Ministry of Interior to eliminate rivals, becoming Any nation could receive loans from US in “Marshall aid”
the largest party in 1948. provided they would create a strong market for US
Czechoslovakia, 1948: The Red Army left, and goods.
Czechoslovakia became a one-party communist state Stalin forbade EE nations from accepting Marshall aid.
after communists removed non-communist leaders.
Albania, 1948: Communists took control of Albania with View on Marshall aid
Yugoslav and Soviet support, later aligning with the USSR
Stalin Truman
under a Stalinist regime. It would weaken his control over east Halt spread of communism and make poor
european nations nations prosperous
USA’s attempt to spread capitalism across European markets selling US goods= avoids
Churchill’s Reaction Europe another depression
US will make Europe depend on the US Dollar Europe will embrace democracy and free–
market capitalism
Western powers alarmed, agreed to EE being soviet
sphere of influence, BUT surprised by complete
domination.
4.4. Consequences of Berlin Blockade
March 1946, churchill gives his “Iron Curtain speech”
Stated that Europe was divided by an iron curtain, with Unison of western zones of Germany
soviet controlled east and liberal west; liberation of west
Germany would be divided into 4 zones : France, USSR,
was threatened by soviet domination of east.
USA, Britain. Berlin was in the soviet zone BUT would be
Stalin viewed soviet domination of east as necessary for
divided into 4 zones too. Allied Control Council would
defense in case of potential attacks from west.
decide matters for germany.
By 1947, Truman decided that strong Germany= useful
4.3. US reaction to Soviet expansionism ally following soviet domination of the East. 1947: Bizonia
formed when USA and Britain merged their zones,
Policy of Containment France follows in 1948 and - Stalin’s suspicions grow.
Western zones introduce their own currency, inraging
Stalin.

Stalin’s Response

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Creates his own currency for his zone, BLOCKS west USSR suffered during WWII and Stalin was trying to
berlin, cutting off supplies by road, rail, and canal from defend communism
western zones. It was agreed that east europe would be soviet sphere of
USA destroying the blockade= act of war. influence
Aggressive move, BUT IF Truman withdrew from berlin= Stalin couldn’t trust western leaders following Iron
HUGE Propaganda win for Stalin Curtain speech and truman's announcement of Atomic
Bomb
Truman’s Response to Berlin Blockade Truman was openly hostile to communism

If they withdrew from berlin, west germany would be USA was to blame
next.
BERLIN AIRLIFT: operation by USA, Britain, and France to Truman was more anti communist than Roosevelt
fly supplies to west berliners. Effect of announcement of atomic bomb by Truman at
For 11 months, nearly 300,000 flights took place from Potsdam.
West Germany and dropped over 2 million tons of fuel, Doctrine of containment viewed as attempt to isolate
food and other supplies to the 2 million West Berliners. USSR in Europe.
Stalin lifts the blockade in May 1949. US supported anti-communist forces in 1947 Greek Civil
COMECON (Council for Mutual economic assistance) War.
created in 1949 for EE communist states. Response to Marshall Aid was an attempt to extend US control over
Marshall aid by tying economies of all soviet states to European markets and spread capitalist ideology.
Moscow. Creation of Bizonia in 1947.
Creation of new currency in Bizonia in 1948.
Consequences of Berlin Blockade
BUT
Creation of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) in
1949, a military alliance for the west, where one nation Containment policy was developed AFTER aggressive
being attacked would provoke a response from all soviet domination of east europe
members. Stalin forms Warsaw Pact in response to West Marshall aid was also a policy to help war-torn countries
Germany joining NATO in 1955. of europe
West Germany becomes known as Federal Republic of Stalin had broken agreements made at Yalta and
Germany in May 2949. Potsdam.
East Germany is named German Republic of Germany as
a response.
Proxy Wars would be the primary means of fighting in 5. How Effectively Did USA
this “Cold War” Rather than direct conflict.
Contain the Spread of
4.5. Who was to blame for Cold War? Communism?
USSR was to blame
5.1. Events in Korea, 1950-53
Broke yalta agreement over Poland
Dominated east europe after world war two The Korean War
Cominform created, mean communist nations took
orders from Moscow
Attempted absorption of west germany during berlin
blockade.

BUT

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By 1948, north of Korea (“Democratic People’s Republic North Korean success (June–September 1950) Most of
of Korea") surrendered to Soviet union and was led by South Korea was overrun by the communists except a
communist leader Kim Il Sung. small area around Pusan in the south-east.
South of Korea (“Republic of Korea”) led by President UN counter-attack (September– October 1950)
Rhee under an anti-communist government, supported MacArthur launched an attack from behind enemy lines
by USA with UN forces heading northwards from Pusan. The
Line dividing the two republics was known as the 38th capital Seoul was captured, and the communists were
parallel pushed back across the 38th Parallel.
Both governments claimed to be the legitimate Attack from China (November, 1950–January 1951) Mao
government of Korea launched a counter-attack as he feared an invasion.
By 1950, DPRK invaded ROK Seoul was recaptured by the communists and the UN
WHY? forces were forced to retreat back across the 38th
Parallel
1. north had support of soviet union (Stalin) and UN counter-attack (January–July 1951) The UN forces
communist China (Mao) who sent DPRK military and retook Seoul. MacArthur argued for the use of a nuclear
financial aid; attack against China. He was relieved of his command by
2. DPRK had a much stronger army; Truman, who feared Soviet involvement.
3. USSR had successfully tested its first atomic bomb; Stalemate and armistice (July 1951–July 1953) There was
recent speeches made by US leadership implied that little tactical advantage gained by either side. Peace talks
Korea was NOT a region of interest for US. began. Stalin’s death in 1953 helped push North Korea to
sign an armistice
US Response
Consequences of the war
Truman sends supplies, warships and advisors to ROK,
but needs international support to wage war. Success for containment as US showed willingness to use
US presents resolutions to UN Security Council, urging force against communism and ROK was protected
for response to DPRK’s aggression UN proved more successful than LoN in dealing with
Resolution passed BECAUSE soviet union was boycotting aggressive nations.
the UN for refusal of admission of communist china into DPRK remained communist with help from china,
UN Relations between US and Japan developed and cold war
18 member states provided armies to support ROK, led was now waged in both Europe and East-Asia.
by American General McArthur, who would often take MASSIVE casualties
orders from Truman instead of UN The USA furthered its anti-communist alliances by setting
US was also made the largest portion of the international up SEATO in South-east Asia and CENTO in Central Asia
armed forces assembled by the UN. and the Middle East.
Khrushchev (new USSR leader) creates warsaw pact in
Roadmap of the war fear of USA creating anti-communist enemies around the
USSR.
Arms race between US and USSR begins
war= containment had limits, not COMPLETE pushback
of communism.

5.2. Events in Cuba, 1959-62

Cuban Revolution

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Cuba had long been an American ally. There was a US US discovers the missiles and 13 days of crisis follow
naval base on the island and many American-owned 16 October: Kennedy was informed of the missiles and
businesses. Ex Comm formed.
The USA supported the dictator, Batista, as he was anti- 20–22 October: Kennedy decided on the use of a
communist. In 1959, communist - Fidel Castro overthrew blockade and demanded the USSR withdraw its missiles.
Batista. 23 October: Khrushchev replied saying the blockade
Thousands of anti-communists flee to USA, demanding would be ignored.
amarican action to Castro American industry, land, etc 24 October: 20 Soviet ships approached but then
were all nationalized. received orders to turn around.
26 October: Khrushchev sent a first letter to Kennedy
Breakdown of US-Cuba relations asking him to promise not to invade Cuba. In return, the
missiles would be removed.
Eisenower asks CIA to devise plans to overthrow Castro, 27 October: Khrushchev sent a second letter demanding
economic trade between US and Cuba stops after an that US missiles needed to be removed from Turkey as
economic sanctions placed by US on Cuba well. A U2 spy plane was shot down over Cuba.
US media criticizes Castro 27–28 October: Kennedy accepted the terms of the first
Plans to use cuban exiles for an invasion are developed letter and Khrushchev agreed to dismantle the missiles.
by the CIA
Castro allies with soviet union, receives $100 million in Consequences
economic aid
Cuba also receives arms from USSR to defend itself from Last direct confrontation between USA and USSR during
USA cold war
Kruschev succeeded in getting US to remove missiles in
Bay of Pigs invasion Turkey, but was forced to keep the deal a secret.
Other soviet leaders thought he looked weak, removed
January 1961: diplomatic relations with cuba broken from power in 1964
down Missile gap had not been closes
Kennedy approves of eisenhower’s plans to deploy 1400 Kennedy successfully avoided nuclear war, kept peace,
US troops and Cuban exiles to Bay of Pigs beach and got rid of soviet missiles in cuba= seen as the winner
Plan failed. 20,000 cuban troops with air force stopped of the crisis
the invasion. Cuba remained a soviet ally, left alone by US, but isolated
Failure leads to khrushchev undermining kennedy as in the west as the only communist state.
young and naive.

Khrushchev arms Cuba- WHY??

5.3. Involvement in Vietnam, 1955-75
To defend Cuba: Castro had allied Cuba with the Background
communist USSR. Khrushchev wanted to ensure Cuba
could defend itself against a US invasion after the Bay of
Pigs.
To close the missile gap: US had missiles in Turkey
“USSR’s backyard”. Missiles in Cuba= “US’s backyard”
To strengthen his position: missiles in cuba= detteret=
showing other soviet leaders that he is a strong leader.
To bargain: viewed Kennedy as weak after bay of bigs.
Wanted to force US to make concessions.

Cuban Missile Crisis

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Indochina ruled by France pre world war 2, japanese Guerrilla Warfare: ambushes, traps, and hit-and-run
occupation during the war, communist Viet Minh formed tactics. Tunnel complexes constructed to ambush US
in 1941 in opposition to japanese forces, led by Ho Chi forces, blitz attacks.
Minh, declare vietnamese independence after defeat of Civilian Help: aided south vietnamese citizens to gain
japan in 1945. support and help
1945-1954: Indochina war; fought between French Ho Chi Minh Trail: bombed constantly, but US could not
controlled south and Viet Minh controlled north for stop the supplies.
control of Vietnam; USA supports France as per
containment; in 1954 France pulls out of war and signs War tactics- US
the Geneva Peace Accord that splits Vietnam into North
and South with plans of nationwide free elections. Bombing: Operation Rolling Thunder
Chemical weapons: Agent Orange to destroy crops and
Domino Theory trees used by Viet cong for camouflage, and Napalm to
neutralize guerrilla troops, ended up killing a lot of
US believed in Domino Theory- if one country falls to civilians.
communism, neighboring countries will, too. Conscription: “draft” letters sent to men as young as
Eisenhower endorses anti-communist, catholic fresh high school graduates, average age of soldiers 19,
government of Diem, helps set up Republic of South BUT most were inexperienced, low morale, and drug use.
Vietnam out of fear of communists winning free Search and destroy missions: US troops deployed to
elections; Diem is unpopular with Vietnamese peasants, villages to search for and execute viet cong troops; many
who were buddhists. walked into traps, ended up killing more innocent
villagers than actual vietcong, turning vietnamese public
Vietcong and Kennedy’s involvement opinion against the US.

Viet Cong: communist party in the south, comprised of Public opinion turns against the war, 1968-70
south vietnamese peasants, taking orders from Ho Chi
Minh(1960); Kennedy responds by sending Diem more Tet Offensive- early 1968, launched by viet cong,
funds and advisers to build up South’s army (1961). attacking over 100 cities and military targets in the south,
1962; viet cong launches a guerilla warfare campaign including american embassy in Saigon (the capital)
against south government; Kennedy responds by Failed attempt, BUT a turning point in media and public
sending 12,000 military advisors and US helicopters to opinion over the war; question of whether the expense
the South and casualties were truly worth it.
Ho Chi Minh trail used by north to send viet cong My Lai Massacre of 1968: one of the US search and
supplies; Diem murdered in 1963 and his government is destroy missions, troops go to village of My Lai, end up
overthrown. killing innocent civilians, including women and children;
news leaked to american press; anti-war protests peak
Johnson and escalation of involvement during 1968-70 period.

1964: communist patrol boats open fire on US ships in Nixon and Vietnamisation
the Gulf of Tonkin, President Johnson uses this to get
congress to pass the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, US
troops land on Vietnam, US enters the War.
1965: Operation Rolling Thunder, US begins bombing
North vietnam cities and factories; over half a million US
troops in Vietnam by 1968.

War tactics- Vietcong

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Nixon enters office in 1968, wants to withdraw BUT not Hungarians resented soviet influence and communist
make it look like containment failed. By 1973, nixon rule in Hungary- from loss of freedom of speech,
reduces US troops in vietnam to 30,000 under his policy permanence of soviet army presence, banning of the
of “Vietnamisation”= handing reigns of war over to the catholic church, poor standards of living, imposition of
vietnamese people. russian language and culture, to threat of secret police.
Nixon signs a peace treaty with North Vietnam, “Peace June, 1956: Moscow forced Rákosi to ‘retire’ after
with Honour” reformers appealed to Khrushchev. Many reformers and
All of vietnam, cambodia, AND Laos become communist opponents were encouraged by krushchev’s new
states by 1975. approaches.
Failure in containment policies, economic, political, October, 1956: students in Budapest protest end to
propaganda, and social disaster, atrocities of war had soviet rule and implementation of “true socialism”; police
been revealed. makes arrests and soviet soldiers in Hungary were used
to protect key buildings and roads; Hungarian workers

6. How Secure was the and soldiers join the protest; Imre Nagy appointed
leader.

USSR’s Control Over Eastern Nagy promises reforms like free elections and
withdrawal of soviet troops; political prisoners released

Europe, 1948-1989? and Nagy announces plans to withdraw from the Warsaw
pact.
November 1956; Krushchev refuses, sends 1000 tanks
6.1. Why was there opposition to Soviet and troops to hungary fierce fighting breaks out; over
2000 hungarians and 1000 troops died; west was too
control in Hungary in 1956 and occupied by suez crisis to help; protests was successfully
Czechoslovakia in 1968, and how did stopped; Nagy executed; replaced by pro-Soviet regime
led by Kadar.
the USSR react to this opposition?
Czechoslovakia- Reforms and Prague Spring, 1968
Hungarian Uprising, 1956

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Student protests take place, hard line leader replaced by Vast differences in standard of living between east and
Dubcek, promises reforms like removal of censorship, west berlin; east berlin= low standards of living; west
freedom of speech, rights to trade unions and “socialism berlin= showpiece of success of capitalism: freedom,
with a human face”; did not want to leave warsaw pact democracy, luxury; appealed to east berliners, who could
BUT saw poor standards of living of his citizens; reforms travel within berlin to see the stark difference;
open criticism of communist rule and spread of new and Many migrated west and didn't return; most were well
radical ideas in “Prague Spring”; USSR becomes educated professionals who got better paying jobs and
suspicious. more freedom in the west; negative propaganda for
August: Brezhnev responds by ordering warsaw pact soviet russia and a brain drain for east berlin.
troops to move into czechoslovakia, west does nothing
because “soviet sphere of influence”; concern that The Berlin Wall
reforms of Prague spring might spark across the entire
eastern bloc, weakening soviet control and warsaw pact; Khrushchev's ultimatum to Kennedy to withdraw troops
Dubcek expelled and czech government monitored for and make Berlin a free city; kennedy refuses; Berlin Wall
any evidence of disloyalty. built to stop East to West emigration; began as barbed
Brezhnev Doctrine: communist nations MUST have a one wire on 13 October 1961, became concrete with one
party system and would be permanently part of the crossing point, Checkpoint Charlie.
Warsaw pact. If one country tried to leave, the rest would Brief standoff at Checkpoint Charlie on 27 October;
use force to re-establish control. highlighted East-West tension.
Kennedy accepted wall's existence; West saw it as a
6.2. How similar were events in prison for East Germans, while communists viewed it as
protection against capitalism.
Hungary in 1956 and in Czechoslovakia
in 1968? 6.4. What was the significance of
Factor Hungary 1956 Czechoslovakia 1968
Solidarity in Poland for the decline of
Causes
Poor living standards; hated presence
of soviet troops; lack of freedom;
inspiration from polish reforms
Poor living standards; economic
depression; need to make communism
less restrictive
Soviet influence in eastern Europe?
Free elections; withdrawal from More rights to the people; reduce
Aimes of
Rebels warsaw pact and withdrawal of soviet
troops
censorship; remain a loyal member of
warsaw pact. Economic crisis in Poland and rise of solidarity
Events
Students and reformers led protests;
soldiers joined; Rákosi replaced by
Dubček's Communist Party led
reforms; Prague Spring sparked new movement
Nagy; rebels ready to fight Soviet ideas and criticism of the regime and
troops corruption
Khrushchev allowed Nagy to lead
some reforms but denied Hungary's
Brezhnev feared the Prague Spring's
spread, sent troops to Czechoslovakia
In the 1970s, Poland descended into an economic crisis;
Soviet
Response exit from the Warsaw Pact. Soviet
troops ended the rebellion, and Nagy
under pressure, faced little resistance,
removed Dubček, and announced the
price of different goods, including meat, increased by
was executed and replaced by Kádár Brezhnev Doctrine 1980; restriction on wage rises led to widespread
Two weeks of fighting left 3,000 No resistance; the West condemned
Hungarians dead and 200,000 fleeing. the invasion but accepted protests by polish workers.
Consequences The USSR made some reforms, but Czechoslovakia as Soviet. Romania
the West only protested, and Hungary protested, but Czechoslovakia stayed in 14 august 1980: workers led by Lech Walesa protest at
remained in the Warsaw Pact the Warsaw Pact.
Lenin Gdansk; sets up 21 demands including creation of
trade union “solidarity”, by end of the month gov agrees
6.3. Why was the Berlin Wall built in to all demands after negotiations due to pressure from
1961? the public.
Solidarity grew quickly and had membership of a third of
The East to West emigration the workforce by January 1981.

Reasons for success

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Public support: over 30% workers joined; support of Introduced Glasnost (openness) for social and political
catholic church reform, promoting open debate on issues.
Well organized: its own newspaper; expert speakers; Launched Perestroika (restructuring) to allow market
popular leader. forces in the Soviet economy.
Demands: addressed popular issues while stressing Reduced defense spending, decreasing military presence
importance of non-violence in Eastern Europe.
West: western media supported the cause Improved relations with the West, signaling a reduced
Industries: many members were in shipbuilding and Cold War tension and promoting diplomacy over
heavy industry; general strike in those= disaster. confrontation.
Announced Soviet troops would no longer enforce
Fall of Solidarity communist rule in Eastern Europe, encouraging
democratization.
New leader, Jarezelski, suspicious of Walesa;december
1981, communist government introduces martial law, Freedom from communist governments in East
arrests over 10,000 solidarity leaders including walesa, Europe
stating that Jarezelski discovered plans for a Coup.
Soviet government was NOT willing to give solidarity Gorbachev’s stance inspired many Eastern European
political control because that would threaten the stability countries to pursue independence:
of warsaw pact. Hungary, Poland, East Germany, and Czechoslovakia
Crushing the movement was easier because as it grew, it held free elections or opened borders.
became less and less organized and there were many Romania and Bulgaria saw anti-communist uprisings.
factions within the union, disagreeing with each other. Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia declared independence
from the USSR.
Impact of Solidarity
Role of the USA
Popularity of solidarity= communism was not providing
good standard of living; Under President Ronald Reagan, the USA intensified the
Showed inefficiency and corruption of soviet leaders arms race and defense spending, straining the Soviet
Showed it was possible to stand against communism and economy.
that people would support. Reagan and Gorbachev signed treaties reducing nuclear
arsenals, which eased superpower tensions.
6.5. How far was Gorbachev personally By the late 1980s, US pressure and military escalation
accelerated Soviet economic decline.
responsible for the collapse of Soviet
control over eastern Europe? Other factors

Gorbachev’s reforms The Soviet Union could no longer economically or

militarily support Eastern Europe.
Rising nationalism in Soviet republics, such as Ukraine
and Lithuania, led to demands for independence.
Internal Soviet challenges, including economic hardships
and Yeltsin’s push for independence of Soviet republics,
destabilized the USSR further.

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History

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