endorsed for edexcel REVISE EDEXCEL AS/A LEVEL Physics REVISION GUIDE Series Consultant: Harry Smith Authors: Steve Woolley and Steve Adams A note from the publisher In order to ensure that this resource olfers high-quality support for the associated Pearson qualification it has been through a review process by the awarding body. This process confirms that this resource fully covers the teacking and learning cortent of the specification part of a specification at which itis aimed, tt also. conlirms that it demonstrates an appropriate balance between the development of subject sklls, knowledge and understanding, in addition to preparation for assessment. Endorsement does not cover any quidance on assessment activities or processes (e.g, practice ‘questions or advice on how to answer assessment ‘auestions) inchided in the reseurce ror does it prescribe any particular approach to the teaching or delivery of a related course. 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For the full range of Pearson revision titles across KS2, | ‘KS3, GCSE, AS/A Level and BTEC visit: ARENT PEARSON49 #Alevel TORIC! 1 Stunts 2 Practical site 3 Cotimation Toric 2 SUVAT equations Displacement-time, velecity-time and acceleration-time graph 6 Scala and vectors 7 Resolution of vectors 2 Adcing vectors 2 0 oe Projectiles Free body diagrams Newton's frst and second laws of 12 Measuring the accelerstion of hee fall 13 Newton's thie law of motion 14 Momentum IS Moment of force 16 eam skis 7 Wore 1 Kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy 19. Conservation of eneray 20 Work and power 21 Citeeney 22 Exam shils 2 Toric 3 23 Basic electrical quantities 24 Ohms law 25. Consecvation laws in electrical cereus 26 Resistors 27 Resistivity 2B. Resistivity measurement 29 Current equation 20. Emf and interna resistance 21 Potential divider crcuts 22 Cia stil 3 Toric 4 33 Dersity and flotation 34 Viscous drag 35. Hooke’s law 26 Young modulus 37 Exam stil 4 Toric 5 38 Waves 29° Longitudinal and transverse waves AO Standing waves 4) Phase and phase ltterence 42 Superposition anal incerterence 43 Velocity of transverse waves on strings 44 The behaviour of waves at an ineriace AS Refraction of ight and intensity of ‘aation AG Tota internal rellection AT Exam Skils 5 Contents ToPIc 6 48 Lenses and ray ciagrams 49° Lens formulae 50 Plane polarisation 5) Difkaction ana Huygens ‘construction 52 Using aaifraction grating to ‘measure the wavelength of ight 43 Electron diffraction 54 Waves and particles 59 The photoctectric elect 5G Line spectra and the eV 57 Exam Skils 6 Alevel TORIC 7 5B Impuse and change ot momentum 539 Conservation of momentum in two dimensions GO Elastic and ineastic collisions 6) Investigating momentum change 62 Exam Skils 7 TorIc 8 63. Describing rotstional motion G4 Uniform circular motion G5. Centripeta force and acceleration 66 Electre field strength 67 Electric field and electric potential G8 forces between charges 9. Feld and potential for 2 point charge 70 Capacitance 71 Energy stored by a capacitor 72 Charging and discharging capacitors 73 The time constant 74 exponential decay ot crange 75. Bram skils 6 Torco 76 Describing magnetic fields 77 Forces on moving cnarges in a magnetic fee 78 Clectromagnetic induction — relative ‘motion 79 Changing fx tinkage 80 Faraday’s and Lenz's laws BI Akemating currents 82 Cram skile TOPIC 10 3. The Rutherford scattering experiment Nuclear notation Electron guns and linear accelerators 86 Cyciotrons 87 Particle detectors BB Matter and antimatter 89 The structure of nucleons 90 Nuclear eneray units 9) The standard made! 92 Fartice interactions 93 Exam sls 10 ae TOPIC It 24 Specific heat capacity 95 Latent heats 96 Pressure and volume of an ideal gas 87 Absolute zero 28 Kinetic theory 99 Particles and energy 100 Bizet body radiation 101 Standard candles 102 Tigonometric paralae 103 The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram 104. Stelar Ife cycles 105 The Doppler effect 106 Cosmology 107 Exam sl ToPIC 12 108 Mans and energy 109 Nuclear birding enenay NO Nuclear fiscion Hl Nuclear fusion U2 Background radiation 3 Alpha, beta and gamma raciation 14 Investigating the abserption of ‘gamma radiation by lead HIS Nuclear transformation equations iG Rachoactive decay and hal-e 7 Exponential decay NS Radioactive decay calovations id Gravitational ferds 120. Gravitational potential and gravitational potential energy 121 Newton's law of gravitation 122 Gravitational fed oF a point mass 123 Gravitational potential in 2 radisl Field 124 Energy changes in a gravitational field 125 Comparing electsic and gravitational ferds 126 Orbits 127 Exam sls 2 TORIC 13, 128 Simple harmonic motion 129 Anaysing simple harmonic motion 130. Graphs of simple harmosic motion 13) The mass-apring oscilator ara the simple pendulum 132 Energy anal damping in simple harmonic oscillators 133. forced oscilations and resenance 134 Driven oscilators| 135 Exam skis 3 186 Anowers A smal bit of small print Edeicel publishes Sanple Rosenoment Material and the Speciation ons website Thi the olfidal content anc this book shoud be used in conjunction witht The questions in Now Ey this have been written to help you practise every topic inthe back. Remember: the real exam questions may not (00k Ike tisHad a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! [_| 5.1. units ‘The 9.1. (Systdme Intemational d’Unités) is 2 globally agreed system of urits, with seven base quant Base units = kq_ | These are the base quantities of S.. with thei ota, You do not need to learn above lminove inkensity length m Tine 3 This set of base units is sufficient for all measurements that we need to make in science. current A With the exception of the kilogram, base units are Toaponieel precisely defined in a way that can be replicated in any suitably equipped physics laboratory. At the moment amount of substance | mol the Klogram is specified by an object, the international i standard kilogram, kept in Paris, All other masses are Tontrops tatenstty” a ultimately compared with this, Derived units for mechanics Derived units for electricity and Al quantities that we will meet in mecharics can thermodynamics be expressed in terms of mass, length and time. All other quantities are measured in terms of the base units; tor example, speed is measured in ms". Some of these derived units have their own names; for example force is measured in kgms~?, called newtons (N), and energy in kgm?s~#, called joules W). Electricity requires a base electrical unit, the ampere (A). The units of other electrical quantities are derived from the base units of mass, length, time-and current, For example, potential difference is measured in volts, or kgm®sS A", Thermodynamics requires two further base units, the kelvin (K) for temperature and the mole (mol) for amount of substance. & tool for checking equations Cautions mse veconsstere ntems os, QE This means that the units on both sides of the equation must be the same. If this is not the case _—_-Express the unit of power, the watt (W), ‘then the equation cannot be correct. This fact base units, (4 marks) gives you a useful tool for checking your work When you rearrange or derive equations. on we +a W _ Fe _ mas momstxs ms? x However, consistent units do not mean an equation fs correct: artes x This has consistent units throughout (m@s"), but the equation is incorrect. 1. The work done by applying a force F through a distance sis given by W= Fs, Express the $.1 unit of work, the joule, in terms of base units, 2. Show that kinetic energy (given by & = Snr’) and potential energy (given by = mg) 1Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! [_] Practical skills CREED hricets est ryrotnenes ty experiment, A good experient has clear objectives and is designed to give reliable measurements, Example: What factors affect the period of a simple pendulum? The period of a simple pendulum is the time it takes for one complete oscillation. You might think that this time may depend on any or all of the following factors: Sitti * the length of the string 2 metal bol * the mass of the bal tached * the angle of the swing * where the experiment is pertormed. eee Fach ee will a te be measured and varied and ee effect on . 1 period examined. In any experiment itis important to vary just = tere mt ck oa actor a a tino and keep ll thers exactly the same. — ~ rigid support Taking measurements ‘A metre rule is suitable for the length of the pendulum string, but the length of the pendulum fs measured from the support to the centre of the ball. Measuring the diameter of the ball should be done with digital calipers or a micrometer (omall lengths need to be measured with an instrument that has a small resolution). Mase is measured on an electronic bslance; in this case, to the nearest gram is enough. Check that the balance is correctly zeroed first. If itis not, you will introduce a systematic error. This is an error that introduces the same error to all measurements. A protractor will give a reasonable measurement of the angle, within | or 2 degrees. The small errors in protractor readings are tandem errors. Readings might be too large or too small, by different amounts. If greater precision is required, you might measure the horizontal displacement and use trigonometry to calculate the angle. Measuring time using a hand-held stopwatch introduces reaction-time errors. To minimise these, when measuring the period of a pendulum measure a converient multiple and divide by the number of oscilations to obtsin a more accurate value. Alternatively use an electronic timing system triggered by light gates. Wherever possible, repeat measurements and take an average value to identify and reduce errors. Discard obvious outliers. Perhaps you timed rine oscillations instead of ten. Use graphs Remember that errors accumulate when you use several measured values in a calculation. In the pendulum experiment you are making measurements to discover which factor(s) affect the period. Presenting your results in the form of a graph will show a correlation more clearly and also help you to spot measurement error eet \ Crm " 1 (a) Name one cause of error when using a ‘The time constant, + (in s), for charging a capacitor bandopeated stopwatch (Lak) of eapucance cura trogh a restr See Rae eo (0) Describe how the ezets ofthis ype of range of possible values for rif R= 100 kO + 5% Error eat Perea marks) cap co a ee (o Compa te esto hs niger may range rom 0.95 X 10° to Semen mest a 1105 % 1020, Crmy range fom 0.9 % 10> to I. x 10-5 F Thus 7 will range from 2. Explain how graphs help to identify Beso reenion intone rs ema 0.0885 tol.05 ¥ 10" 2) x Ux 10S F) ——_ 3 Suede sual messing sre forthe "9s tallowing menue The error of rs £15%. (eytedmcnige of acasroom (Lar (oye hoof tech above the oor (snark (¢) the thickness of a human hair. (mark)Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! Estimation With practice, you can estimate the size of the answer before you carry out a calculation in physics. Estimation and orders of magnitude If you bought a bottle of juice and a packet of criepa and were charged £350, you would know someone had made a mistake, You can develop 2 similar ‘feel’ for the likely sizes of answers to Physics questions, and should be able to make reasonable estimates of the physics quantities you will encounter in this course. Fermi questions ‘A good way to develop your skills in estimation is to practise Fermi questions. These are very rough "back of the envelope’ calculations in which you have to estimate the starting information. Famously, the nuclear physicist Enrico Fermi asked his students ‘How many piano tuners are there in Chicago?, giving them only the population of Chicago 26-2 starting point. oS 1. Identity the relevant physical quantities, 2, Estimate the value of each quantity using your knowedge (not a quess)). Combine the quantities Worked example Estimate to one significant figure: + the mass of an adult man and adult woman + the volume of a classroom + the mass of a plank of wood 2m long. (3 marks) _ Mass of a human: use your own mass as a starting point ~ answers of ~BO0kg and GOkg Volume of 2 classroom: estimate length, breadth and height — answer around 10 x 10 x 3 = 300m? Mass of a plank: think how easy it is to lift a plank ~ answer ~Skg. ee 1 Estimate the order of magnitude of: the mass of a car, a 2. Estimate to one significant figure the pressure (p = FIA) of a passenger aircraft PP curves of store ‘One way to check your answers is to do a rough calculation of the order of magnitude of the answer before you do the full calculation. Quantity, Order of magnitude ruclear radius TOF m ‘atomic radius 10m human height 1m Earth radius orm Earth oral 1m re Rect tad Estimate the number of atoms in a house brick. marks) Estimate brick volume: 30cm x I5em x Iem = 4500em? This ip an estimate only 50 round to 5000cm? = 5 x 10"? m*, Estimate atom volume: (I0-!°m) = 10-2 m' wollmetohbricks ‘volume of atom _ 53x 10-8 N = 5 x 10% atoms Comparisons You can sense-check some answers by comparison with things you already know. How much force is ION? You know that weight W = mg and g (the acceleration of free fall) is 9.81ms~®, or roughly 1Oms~*, So you exert about ION to lift up a Ika, pack of sugar or flour. atom, an Earth-sized planet, exerted by an clephant’s feet and by the wheels (A marks) G marks)Had a look Cl Nearly there CL SUVAT equations ‘The SUVAT equations describe the motion of bodies moving with constant (uniform) acceleration They are sometimes called the kinematic equations of mation. Variables in the SUVAT equations Distance travelled in a epecific direction from a starting point. Ifthe distance isin 2 je displacement - the opposite direction the displacement will be negative, vis Initial velocity ————— Starting and finishing speeds in the specited direction. Objects traveling in the vis faa! veloaity ——__etPer direction have negative values of velocity. i Positive values of » mean the velocity is increasing in the specified direction, diesocostecction, Negative values of 2 mean that the velocity ie decreasing in that direction — the tis time — object is decelerating, oF slowing down, rom the start to the end of the mation Four equations to learn You should lear these four SUVAT equations: =F +25 e-- 98 7 tut Qt Qs" Oe er eect [A stone is release from rest atthe top of a well, It hits the surface of the water after exactly. 300 seconds Calculate the distance between the top of the well and the surface of the water (@=981ms>) Gamarks) 5 ?m,u=Oms",4=9.8lms%, ¢= 3s. sa ut bat =0x3+4x 9.81 x (3)? The value of gis given to =44.2m (3 54) 1 Acar travelling at 20m s* accelerates at a constant rate for 10s reaching BESS speed of 30ms~ (a) Calculate how far the car travels during the period of acceleration GB marks) (b) Calculate the rate of acceleration of the ear. (G marks) 2 A catapult fires a pellet vertically upward with an initial velocity of 80m () Calculate how high the pellet travels before starting to fall back to the ground, GB marks) (b) Calculate how long the pellet will take to fall back to the ground, G marks)Had a look CL) Nearly there Displacement-time, al Nailed it! velocity—time and acceleration-time graphs Velocity is the rate of change of displacement over time, and accelerat the rate of change of velocity over time. These quantities can be related in the form of graphs. Displacement-time (s-t) graphs ‘A negative slope would mean that the dioplacement is getting omaller, 20 the body i= moving back in the opposite direction. A horizontal line on an 3-€ graph would mean the displacement is not changing, s0 the body is stationary, v= 0. Velocity-time (v-t) graphs Iva plot of velocity against time, the gradient is the rate of change of velocity with time — the ‘acceleration. ‘This part matches the 2-t ‘graph above: velocity is constant at 2a! The ‘gradient is O - there is no “acceleration. i The area under a v-t graph Is the displacement oe Now the velocity $25 i decreasing 5 2.0 = the person is His. slowing down and 8 eventually stops go The acceleration os (gradient) is © ole345678 1 Tre, 15 =0.95 ms Acceleration-time (a-t) graphs We can also plot acceleration against time. In ‘most cases you will meet, acceleration is constant (etraight line, gradient = 0). You may see a graph for non-uniform acceleration, o: os | 15 225 Tine, ts 1. State what the following represent. gi — The velocity is #10 found from the : 2m Bo. eradient = 12 re Hence v= 2ma" Re Be 6 9: Ci2s456 Time te ‘Worked example (a) Describe the motion of the object in the velocity-time graph shown below. (6 marks) Velocity/ms"! 0246 8 ob Times In the first 4 the object accelerates to 7.2ms™ with acceleration ~ from the gradient: |.8m3"* For the next 45 the object moves at a constant velocity of 7.2ms"!. In the last 6 the object decelerates; a= lems", (b) How far does the object travel? 4 marks) Total displacement = area under graph = 14.4 + 28.6 + 21.6 = 64.8m (a) The slope of a s-t graph, (b) the area beneath a »-f graph, (c) the slope of @ ¥-f graph G marks) 2A falling object has a constant acceleration if we assume air resistance can be ignored. In practice falling objects reach a terminal velocity. Sketch the ¥-r graph for the latter ease. G marks)Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! (_] Scalars and vectors Some quantities in physics have both magnitude (size) and direction. These are called vector quantities. Sealar or vector? Sealar quantities do not require a direction: if asked how tall you are you would not say |.Gm up! If asked how much petro! you wanted in your car a number of litres is all you need to answer. However, it you were giving instructions on a map, distances withovt direction would not be helptl. Vector quantities must include @ direction as well a5 a number, Examples from mechanics &Y Seater quantities: length, area, volume, mass, time, distance, speed, dersity, work, energy. GY vector quantities: displacement, Velocity, weight, acceleration, force, ‘momentum. ‘Worked example << Two forves are applied to an object: Fy = 100.N in an casterly direction and Fy = 40N acting south. Represent them on a vector diagram, (2 marks) Fi ‘ oe le aes 1 State whether air pressure isa vector or sealar quanti Sealars and vectors on a running track Most athletics tracks are ovals with a distance of 400m per lap. The straights are the same length a the curves (100m). A ctild runs one lap in 80. Consider the distances and displacements of the child a5 he runs from A to B, C and D. starfish From A] Distance | Displacement ee See how. Be] 100m | G4 mnorth (07) tang the | 200m_|- i20m34* | drecton D_| 300m | 100m west_| iosecom A 400%" ange Give a reason for your answer, (2 marks) 2. The diagram shows a runner on a 400m track. She completes one lap in $5.9 seconds. (a) What is her average speed for one lap? (b) What is her average velocity for one lap? (mark) (mark)Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! [_| Resolution of vectors You need to be able to resolve vectors into two perpendicular components by maths or scale drawing. Two methods for resolving vectors You can use trigonometry or scale drawing to resolve vectors, like velocity or force, into two perpendicular components. For example, the weight of a book on a slope resolves into two components, one holding the book flat on the surface and one pulling it downwards parallel to the slope. ‘mg sin 0 — Tio ip the component of the weight that acto The vector you are ["k.” —porallel fo the slope. Always vse ln for the resolving is always Component opposite the ange. Setypotenme tenet erga Frnacoon TS ieee This is the component of the weight that acts 20 the angle of perpendicular to the slope. Aways use 208 the slope to the for the component adjacent to the angle. horizontal Worked example ‘The diagram shows a cannonball leaving a cannon at | " emo | Se | a speed of S8ms~!. The angle of launch is 25°, ime a = GEE aire Ft os com Follow these steps: t we 1. Draw an angle of 25 at A | SB P| F Meseuve Son slong one side and math Be 2, 3, Measure an angle of 90 ~ 25 = 65* at B a Find by scale drawing: Draw the line BC 2¢ this angle down to the Nt ene eee toreerrel compenercer horizontal to complete the right angled triangle | the cannonball’s velocity. (mark) a nes | lem = 10ms* 5. Measure AC to the nearest mm. 5 6. Use your scale to write the components. | AC = 5.3m Horizontal component = 53ms~' (2 s.t) i) the magnitude of the vertical component of the cannonballs velocity. @ marks) BC = 2.5em Vertical component = 25ms~ (2 s.f.) ‘This diagram shows a painting hanging on a wall from two wires. a Wire A has tension Ty ~ 87.5N andi at 32" to the horizontal, and wire B eal hasa tension Ty ~ 625. and is at 31° tothe horizontal (a) Resolve both vectors into components acting horizontally and vertically. marks) (b) Comment on the horizontal components of T and Ty @ mars)Had a look Cl Nearly there [-] Nailea it (7) Adding vectors ‘You can find the resultant of two vector quantities acting along the same line simply by adding them. For other cases, you must use must use scale drawing or calculation. Forces with the same line of action To distinguish the direction of the forces we choose a direction as positive, say to the right. The resultant or net force is then given by (Fz — Fi). Ifthe resultant is positive, the team on the right are pulling harder and the rope starts ‘to move to the right If the answer is negative, the team on the left are making the rope start to move to the left. Resultant by drawing Copianar vectors can be combined using scale drawings (Note that two vectors are always coplanar). You will need this method whenever 3 vector triangle is not right-angled. boat N heii Seale: lem \ = 2kmn! Jes), tow ‘ 15 kmn! Complete the triangle a5 shown to find the resultant velocity. The magnitude is found from the length, 29.6kmh~, and the bearing from north by measuring 6 (N 52° E) CUES ESS SESS SS Seer 2060UCOC~*W 1 The HED shows a simple pendulum at an instant during its oscillation, The pendulum bob jon in the string, which is at 37° to the vertical, is 10 N. Find the resultant force acting on the pendulum bob at the instant shown by drawing a vector weighs 8N and the te triangle to scale 2. A boat has a velocity of Sms“ and sails on a bearing of N 25° E. The tide has a velocity of 2ms™ and a direction of N 100° E. Use a scale drawing to find the resultant velocity of the boat, N a! sealers A boat is motoring north with a velocity of 20 kmh! ‘across a river flowing east with velocity 15 kmh Find the resultant velocity of the boat. (2 marks) boat 20 ken br! ftow 1S kb! 1Skmh" E 20kmh! (3 marks) (3 marks)Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! [_| Projectiles Anything that is launched into the sir can be considered a projectile. Projectiles are subject to gravity and air resistance (the air exerts a force opposing motion, which varies with the direction of motion and the speed), but we often simplify the motion of projectiles by ignoring air resistance. An example of a projectile The SUVAT equations work for objects undergoing uniform acceleration. For a cannonball, the acceleration due to gravity is constant, and we can assume that air resistance is negligible ° To use SUVAT equations for projectile motion: * resolve the initial velocity into a vertical and a horizontal component: vy = usin 6 and uy = vcos 0 * apply the gravitational force only to the vertical component of velocity — as it acts vertically downward, the horizontal component is not affected. Worked example ‘A cannonball is fired at 150ms~!at an angle of 30° to the horizontal. ~ (a) How high does it reach above the ground? (Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.81ms*) Gmarks) To calculate how high (vertical displacement, 9) the ball travels: Ve = i? + 2asin which a = -9.81ms~? 0? = (75)? + 2 x (-9.8))2 3 = 267m (b) How far does it travel and how long is it in fight? (2 marks) The time of fight will be twice the time t to reach the top of the trajectory. veutat 0=75-9.8It t= 7.655 Range (horizontal distance travelled) = horizontal component of velocity x time of flight. wi: range = 150.cos 30° x (2 x 7.65) = 1990m MM) A catapult launches a ball from the ground with a velocity of 200m sat an angle of 75° to the horizontal. Find: (a) the vertical and horizontal components of the initial velocity (marks) (b) the time it isin fight before striking the ground again (4 marks) (6) the range of the catapult ball (distance travelled horizontally) 2 marks)Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! [_] Free body diagrams Free body diagrams are used to vievalise all the forces that act on a particular object. Forces on a small body 6 ‘A book on a non-horizontal rough surface may ‘Worked examp! accelerate or not, depending on the balance of all the forces that act on it. Draw a free body diagram for the book on the rough surface shown on the lft Gmarks) normal reaction friction force weight mg ‘The word ‘rough’ indicates that friction will act to oppose motion. If we wish to consider zero friction surfaces we describe them as ‘smooth’. Free body diagrams simply show all the forces that act upon a small object. Each force is represented by a labelled arrow in its direction of action. The body is usually shown as a point. En extended but rigid body When we study the effects of forces on small bodies or particles we usually think only about what happens to their state of motion in a straight line. However, when forces are applied to extended \long) bodies the result may make the body rotate about some point. The free body diagram must now show the body isolated from its surroundings with all the forces that act on the body in their correct positions relative to each other. Tor the plank shown here, the weight will act downward through the centre of gravity of the plank. The friction force F, acts upwards at A to oppose the tendency of the plank to slide down the wall, and similarly Fe acting on the plank at B opposes the tendency of the plank to slide away from the wall. Ny and Ng are the normal reaction forces acting on the plank at points A and B, respectively. fe Again the actual sizes of these forces may not be known initially, 90 the free body diagram cannot represent magnitudes at this stage in the analysis of the problem. crm A "iy ‘Draw the fice body diagram showing the forees that act on a helium balloon tied to the ground witha string marks) 2 Draw the free body diagram for a parachutist in fre fall (that is, parachute not yet opened) (2 marks) 3. Draw the free body diagram for a brass sphere at rest ina horizontal v-shaped groove as shown. (in this question the angle of the notch is not specified.) G marks) > 4 10Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! [_| Newton's first and second laws of motion Newton deseribed the effect that forces have on the state of motion of objects. Newton's first law of motion Newton's second law of motion Objecto remain at rest or continue to move ina SF = ma straight line at constant speed unless they are Fis the vector sum of the forces acting on a acted on by a resultant force. body (S, the Greek capital letter sigma, means The first part of Newton's first law is easy to ‘um of}; mis mase, aie acceleration understand, but your common sense may tell Yoo f the resultant force on an object le zero that moving objects tend to slow down and stop. _(SF'= 0), then, as Newton's first law says, the infact, this i because there are forces acting on object does nok accelerates a = 0. thern, the friction and alr resietance. This equation is easy to use as long 28 mis constant. How force and mass affect acceleration Consider two jet cars. Imagine negligible friction between the road surface and the wheels. The resultant force on the jet cars wil therefore be the thrust, T;, of the jet motor. =", ee = i oem en Ni ay Te. eg cg, Tm Be or on the right means that it accelerates more slonly, Acceleration > acceleration ar T; Zz —> 7 — —-> ‘The thrust on both jet care is increased to Tp, This increases the rate of acceleration of both cars, 20 8 > a;and.a, > 3) ‘Terminal velocity In the examples above you ignored forces opposing, (acting to the left of) the thrust of the motors. In 2 real situation friction in the wheel bearings and air resistance will oppose the motor thrust, The faster the jet car travels, the more air it has to displace per second, 20 the greater the opposing force of air resistance gets. Eventually the forces opposing the thrust will be as large a8 the thrust of the motor ‘and the resultant foree on the cars will be zero. From SF = ma, it SF = O then a must be zero too. The ‘car wll Keep moving at constant velocity; it has reached its maximum or terminal velocity. enn 1 An object with a mass of 600g accelerates in a straight line at $.0ms-*, What resultant force must act con it to cause this acceleration? (2 marks) 2. A water skier with a mass of S0 kg experiences a resultant foree of 125N. Calculate her acceleration, (2 marks) 3. Anaircraft has engines that can provide a maximum thrust of 180000 N. It has a maximum acceleration of L8ms7 t (a) Calculate the maximum, fully loaded, mass of the aireralt. (2 marks) (b) Explain why the aircraft will rach a maximum speed. (GB marks) (©) Describe the effect on the maximum acceleration of having only half the maximum number of passengers on board mark) uHad a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! [_] Measuring the acceleration of free fall Free fall means an object falling without experiencing air resistance: Weight and free fall ‘he rate of acceleration ofa faling cbject will depend on the local strength of the gravitational Fld. Geadtationalfeld strength ie defied ae the force per llogram that acte on an objects 7 £ On the Earth's surlace gis 9.81Nkg"! (though tis varies a lite from place to place) This meane that the walght of any object fe given by w= mg Since the acceleretion, 0, of any object is given by Land F-= W, ll clojecte al vith same acceleration, g, 2.81m0-2, which ie what ie meseured withthe apparatus shown here, Mentor » wth tcanaoes ' and set square. The experiment 2 The electronic timer measures short time intervals with adequate accuracy. The steel ball completes the circuit at tha top. When it is released the timer starts. The timer stops when the trapdoor at the bottom is knocked open, breaking a second circuit. The bal io cropped through a range of distances up to a metre, and the time for each distance recorded. Measure € with an electronically operated millsecond timer. ‘The graph of s against f* 7 y os ut dat, where v= Oand a= g. Thus 8 = dat, 80 plotting § 10 2 against should produce a straight line graph with gradient = 2. oe ae ie ‘The graph shown here has just a few points plotted and the line of a best fit drawn. You should have at least 6 plotted points to produce ~ a good straight-line graph. ae Zs 3 To find a valve for the acceleration of free fall from this graph, find t+ the gradient by drawing a large triangle, ABC, and measuring AB’ and 8/02 BC against the axis scales: AB = 0.97 m and BC = 0.25". Tie gente arent OS = OF = 4.0500" is t.9. Therefore this experiment yields a value for g of 9.7 ms Distance fall 1 In mechanical bathroom scales, weight presses down on some stiff springs, and a pointer moves in proportion to how much the spring has compressed to give a reading calibrated in kilograms. (a) If the reading is 5Skg what is the actual weight? (2 marks) (b) If-you took the same seales to the Moon, the scales would read 9.1 kg for the same mass, Explain with the aid of a calculation why this is so, (B marks) 2 You have carried out the experiment described above. Explain how you would ensure the accuracy of the ‘measurement of: (a) the distances fallen; (b) the time taken for each fall; () the value obtained for g. (6 marks) 12Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! [_| Newton's third law of motion Newton's third law: for every interaction between two objects there is an equal and opposite reaction. Action and reaction forces Action and reaction * Each force acts on a different body. As a simple demonstration of the & 5 * Each force is of the same type. ied Toe salen bro peor on f 1 '* The magnitude of each force is the same. acer, fart SEN ey Pua a eg itachi tn i Bob and, as expected, Bob slides —5 J * The forces are collinear — acting in the same line. ott to the right. However, Amie * The forces are opposite in direction. ‘also moves, inthe oppose x 8 direction. He has experienced 2 reaction force in the opposite direction to the action, the force #— he applied to Bob. If the two have the same mass, they move with the same initial speed showing that each force has the same magnitude. ‘Worked example ‘Worked example Ignoring air resistance and upthrust, describe the A book is resting on a level table. Describe the -action-feaction pair fora bal in free-fall, (2 marks) ——_action-reaction pair (4 marks) — normal contact force 1N, of table on book pull of the Earth and the Earth pull of book acting on Earth experiences an upward pull due to the ball. The forces act on different bodies and are both gravitational pull of Earth acting forces. ‘on book (weight) 2 The ball experiences the gravitational normal contact force 1, of book on table There are two action-reaction pairs: weight and contact force. Weight: Gravity pulls down on the book, The reaction to this is the upward pull of the book con the Earth Contact force: The table pushes upwards on the book. The reaction to this is the downward contact force of the book on the table. In this case the book is in equilibrium and at rest. 1 Two balloons have been electrically charged by rubbing witha dry cloth. They are both suspended by light nylon string from the same point and are shown at rest i the diagram to the right. (a) Describe each force that acts on the left-hand balloon. marks) (b) For each force explain the nature and location of the reaction force. Gmarks) ~ 2 A parachutist jumps out of a plane and accelerates until reaching terminal velocity. When she opens her i parachute there will bea period of deceleration before she reaches a new, slower terminal velocity Describe the action-reaction pairs on the parachutist during her descent. marks) BHad a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! (_] Momentum Momentum is a vector property of moving objects. Mass and velocity Momentum, p, is the product of the mass, m, of an object and ite velocity, vz p= my Newton's second law can be stated in terms of momentum: The rate of increase of momentum of a body is proportional to the resultant force that acts on the body and takes place in the direction of the resultant force. If you use S.I, units, the constant of proportionality is Look back to page Il to read about Newton's second law expressed in the form F = ma. Derivation of F= ma A body of mass m travelling with a velocity u has a resultant force F acting on it for t seconds. After this period of acceleration the body travels at velocity v. If mass m is constant, the increase in momentum of the body ist my = mu = mv = 1) , ~ 50 the rate of increase of momentum is ™“— 4 = myo so r= Me ma because is acceleration Newton's law of motion Expressed in terms of momentum: Newton's first law: the momentum of a body remains constant unless a net force acts on the body Newton's second law: @ change of momentum is proportional to the applied force and takes place in the same direction Newton's third taw: colliding bodies ‘exert equal and opposite forces on each ‘other, 50 total momentum is unchanged. Conservation of momentum eae SD eee as SES QO ws Consider wo chet reting oveds one Sabet utg ons oegh cor unar by Bide ccaacr sree cron insta fay Sein tomas Thts tr tees we or ocho wadin Pos equa rage ad epost Sroctov nd sing on ret oes ‘he anton P= nace resanged to Pe= iether wee to thge mcrbum Sis iyi iomned tyise sett Ino colin Forte a beds he a space iesppotis wanes becaes iin on acy tt moet tess eas maosenar ies Poser Solr nmnorea of 8 = he doses momentum of A. This is the law of conservation of oncatan any cols he ectnonsaen the clog bods tora cert, pred ro eee tobet os cvtne nae Worked example Abblock of ice of mass 1.0 kg sides across a frozen pond at 6.0 ms~! and collides with a stationary block ‘of ice of mass 2.0kg. After the collision the 2.0kg, block moves off with a velocity of 4.0ms7" in the same direetion, Assuming tht fiction is negligible, calculate the velocity of the LO kg block after the calision. (marks) Total momentum betore collision = total momentum after collision (10 x 6.0) + (2.0 x 0) = (LO XY + (2.0 x 4.0) v= (6 - 8) = -2.0ms" ~ The minus sign shows that the Ikg block rebounds, moving in the opposite direction to its initial motion. 1 Ina game, a block of ice, A, with a mass of 4.0 kgs sliding at 1.0ms“ over the surface of an ive rink, Another block, B, of mass 2.0-kg, is kicked in the same direction at 3.0m $, in order to hit block A. After the collision A is travelling in the same direction at 2.0m", What is the velocity of B after the collision? (4-marks) 2 A railway wagon of mass 200g is shunted along a track at 6.5ms" I meets a second, stationary, wagon and couples up with it. The ‘coupled wagons move together at 2.6ms~ in the same direction ‘What is the mass of the second wagon? (4 marks) 4Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! [_| Moment of a force The moment of 2 force is a measure of its tuning effect. The principle of moments ae ye A see-saw will be balanced, or in equilibrium, if F, = Fr and the distances x and y are equal. If either the weight [, or the distance y is decreased (or both) the see-saw will rotate anticlockwise about the pivot. ‘The turning effect or moment of force = Fx where xis the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action of the force. ‘The principle of moments states that a body will be in rotational equilibrium if the sum of clockwise moments acting on it is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments, provided that moments are taken about the same point. ‘Worked example ‘The system shown here is balanced, Find the size of the force labelled F: (G marks) | A io t 1.5m_B_1. 160 F For equilibrium, clockwise moment anticlockwise moment (about any point). Taking moments about B: Fx 1.2m = IGON X 1.5m - 160 x 1.5 fi 1 = 200N ‘Hidden’ forces ‘The principle of moments works ne matter what Point you choose to take moments about. In the worked example, taking moments about C: moment = 160 x (1.5 + 1.2), 90 how is equilibrium possible? The answer is that there is ‘an upward reaction force R on the see-saw at B providing a (_¥ moment, so Rx 1.2 160 x (1.5 + 1.2) = 360N. Note that 3GON equals the sum of the two downward forces on the see-saw ~ equilibrium also requires that there is no resultant force acting. We have assumed here that the see-saw itself is weightless. Generally this will not be oo! Centre of gravity With care it ie possible to balance a metre vule by supporting it at the middle. In equilibrium there must be no net force on the rule in any direction ‘and no net turning moment, Therefore, the weight rust act downwards through a point in the middle of the nile. Ses This point is called the eantre of gravity of the body, the point through which all of the weight of a body appears to act. For bodies with regular shape made of uniform material the centre of gravity is at the geometric centre, A diving board has a weight of 200 and is 2.0m long. It is supported by two steel supports placed at _ the end A and at B, 0.80m from A. Itis tested with a _ 500 N weight at the other end, Ae 08, S00N (a) Draw a free body diagram for this system, e (b) Take moments about B to determine the ‘magnitude and direetion of the foree due to the support at A. (marks) (©) Take moments about A to determine the magnitude and direetion of the foree due to the support at B. (4 marks) ks) 616 Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! (_] Exam skills 1 This exam-style question uses knowledge and skils you have already revised. Have a look at pages 7, 8, 18 and IS for a reminder about vectors, forces, moments and equilibrium. Worked example — Command words: ‘state and explain’ Read the question carefully - when you are asked to state and explain, there will usvally be marks for bath parts of your answer. ‘The diagram below shows a picture hanging by two strings from a hook on a wall, The tension in each string is 7: The mass of the picture is 920 8, (@) Explain why the tension in both strings must be Ferrey |e Sue eu crow Gann paar ‘equal. (2 marks) SOB your working when carrying out a The picture must be in equilibrium, so the , ane ~ where @ is the angle to the horizontal. When the strings are moved to the comers of the Picture, gets smaller so T must increase. (4) Explain why the centre of mass of the picture must lie vertically below the supporting nail. (3 marks) When the centre of mass is directly below the nail the line of action of the weight acts through the nail. The lines of action of the forces in both strings also act through the nail, If all three forces acting on the picture pass through the same point, then there is no resultant moment, no turning effect, 90 the moments are in equilibrium.Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! [_| Work In physics, ‘work’ has a very specific meaning, The definition of work AW = Fhs ‘AW (delta W") means the Increase in work done by a force F when it is applied through a distance As in the direction of the applied force. Work is a scalar quantity and is measured in joules , equivalent to Nm). Resolving forces Sometimes the force applied to move an object is not acting along the line of motion (the direction ‘of movement) of the object to which the force is applied. See page 7 to review how to resolve vectors into two perpendicular components. Here the pulling force F has a horizontal component acting along the line of motion of the sledge and a vertical component acting in the direction in which there is no movement. ‘The component of the force acting in the line of movement is Feos , 50 the work done by the force in moving a horizontal distance As is: AW= Feos# x As ‘Worked example — A boy pulls a sledge along with a rope. The force of tension in the rope is 80 N acting at 45° to the horizontal ‘The boy pulls the sledge for 0.S0km. Calculate the work he has done, G marks) Horizontal component of F = 60cos 45° = 57N Distance moved horizontally = 500m +. AW = 57 x 500 = 26500/ Worked example 6.0m —> F=350N Calculate how much work is done when a force of 350N is applied to move a erate 6.0.m acrossa rough horizontal surface. marks) =~ AW= FAs . AW= 350 x 6.0 = 2100) Worked example ‘A gardener pushes a garden roller with a force of 150 N at 60° to the horizontal. How much work is done if the roller is pushed 110m along the lawn? (marks) Horizontal component of F = 150cos60° = 75N Distance moved horizontally = Om ». AW = 75 x lO = 8250J 1 Alift with gross load of 6000N travels 200m to the top of an office block at constant speed Calculate the work done on the lift. 2 ‘A passenger aircralt eruses ata velocity of 800 kmh in love fight for 3.0 hours. Its engines provide a thrust of 700000 N. How much work is done by the plane dung this fi A block of wood weighing S.0N slides 150cm down rough plane inclined at 20° ata constant speed. Calculate the work done by the block. (marks) ae ks) BYHad a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! [_] Kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy Gravitational potential energy (E,,..) is the energy an object has by virive of its position in a gravitational field. Kinetic energy (E,) is the energy an object has by virtue of its movement. Kinetic energy If a body of mass mis accelerated from rest (= 0) by a force F then its acceleration This is Newton's second law. From v? = u? + 2as we see that v? = 2as, so = 2F5 which, when rearranged, gives Fs = imv2, Fs (= AW) is the increase in the energy of the body due to the work done on it, hence r c= bv? Fe tke work, i a scalar quantity measured in joules. Worked example A bullet with @ mass of 20 is fired from a rifle with, a barrel 80m long with a velocity of 500ms"!, the kinetic energy of the bullet? (2 marks) £, = x 0.020 x (500)? = 25004 (b) What is the average force on the bullet whilst it is accelerating along the barrel? (2 marks) 25001 = AW, the work done on the bullet by the average force in the barrel ‘Aw _ 2500 _ average torce F= Alt - 2509 _ sion Gravitational potential energy An object of mass m has a weight mg. At the Earth’s surface g = 9.8INkg. |” Lifting this object through a distance h t requires work to be done on the object. AW = Ps, 80 here AW = (mg) x h ‘The work done on the mass has increased its gravitational potential energy. AE yaw = mah This energy is stored or potential energy that can be transferred by releasing the mass tng? ‘Worked example {A student of mass 50 kg climbs 25 steps up a tall ladder, The rungs on the ladder are 30cm apart, Whats the increase in the student's gravitational potential energy when at the op of the ladder? marks) Total height climbed = 0.30 x 25 = 7.5m DE go = gh DE yar = 50 X 9.81" X 7.5 = 37005 18 Practical applications of energy transfer Hydroelectric power stations make use of gravitational potential energy stored in the large mass of water collected in high reservoirs in LON mountainous regions. The water can be allowed to fall, under gravity, 0 gathering speed and thus kinetic energy as it falls. This kinetic energy ip then transferred by turbine generators into electrical energy. Longcase ‘grandfather’ clocks are powered by the transfer of gravitational potential energy stored in heavy weights that have been raised to the top of the case. As they fall, controlled by the clock mechanism, the weights transfer the stored energy into the movement of the clock by turning a wheel. ex 1A block of wood of mass L2kg slides 150em down a smooth plane inclined ‘at 37° at a constant speed, (a) Calculate how much gravitational potential ‘energy has been transferred when the black reaches the bottom of the slope. (b) Assuming all the gravitational potential ‘energy has been converted to kinetic energy when the block reaches the bottom of the slope, calculate how fast the block is moving. (4 marks) 2 Calculate the kinetic energy of a ear with a mass of 1200kg travelling at 1O8kmh. (marks) 3A firework is launched vertically with a velocity of 40ms™. Calculate how high it will travel, stating the assumptions you have made. (3 marks)Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! im) Conservation of energy ‘The energy of a closed system remains constant. The principle of conservation of energy Iva closed system this is one which nothing can center or leave the total energy remains constant, although it can be transferred within the system. ‘A motor and pulley system lifting a load is an ‘example of an energy conversion process: + ‘electrical energy is converted to kinetic eneray by a motor * the energy is transferred to the load, increasing its kinetic and gravitational potential energy. Eneray is converted from one-form to-another, but the total amount of energy supplied in electrical form is fully accounted for; none is “lost”, though some may be converted to forms that you don't want, such a8 heat and noise, This is the principle of conservation of energy. ‘Worked example An object of mass 2.0 is raised to a height of 30m above the ground and then dropped. (a) Describe the energy changes that take place from the moment the objet is released until after it hhas come to rest on the ground. (4 marks) The object has gained gravitational potential eneray (GPE) Egy = mah (= 2.0 x 9.81% 30.) from being raised. As it fal, its GPE decreases (h decreases) and it gains kinetic energy (KE) as it accelerates. At any given moment throughout the fall, by the principle of conservation of energy, loss of GPE = gain in KE. "On impact all the GPE the object gained when it was raised has been transferred into KE. It is assumed there is no air resistance. During the impact the energy is converted into sound, heat and deformation of the ground. (b) Use the principle of conservation of energy to cealeulate the speed with which it hits the ground, (@ marks) ~ GPE lost = KE gained r mgAh = my? > v= /2ghh (2X 9.1 X 30) = 24.3ms" Worked example ‘The diagram shows a railway truck hitting a buffer. ‘The buffer spring is compressed by 12.5em when the ‘truck is brought to rest ms"! ; 2.5m ; (a) What is the kinetic energy of the moving truck? (G marks) 6 = bm? =} x 2.5 x 10 x (0.50% = 312.5 = 310 to 2 3. (b) What isthe average foree Fexerted by the butter, assuming all the truck's kinetic energy is converted. to stored energy in the buffer spring? (marks) Work compressing the spring = F x distance F x 0.125 = 312.5 F = 2500N A stone of mass 50 is thrown with a velocity of 50m“ at an angle of 53° to the horizontal. Assume air resistance is negligible and use g=9.81Nkge._ a) Caleulate how much work must be done on the stone (marks) (b) State the type(s) of energy the stone has at the top of its fight (@ marks) (6) Calculate how high the stone will travel, (3 marks) 19Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! [_| Work and power Like work, power has 2 strictly defined meaning in physics: the rate at which work is done. Work and energy Power In physics work is defined a5: The man pushing the larger crate has done more work done = torce X dlatence moved work than the man pushing the small crate in the BWe.FAa, same time, He has a greater power output. ‘Two men push crates the same distance across Roker can Fe clatinedin twat wayer ‘the floor at the same steady speed. The bigger, The rate of energy transfer: heavier crate neede more force, because of pat greater frictional resistance. The man pushing the . larger crate does more work. In other words, he ‘The rate of doing work: trahalers! mone oberg po A Power io measured in watts (W). IW 1s" 20 Worked example : 1 A man pushes a box at a steady rate of 2.Sms-! for 12 seconds by applying a force of 80N. Caleulate the work he does and his power output. marks) ‘The distance through which the push of BON is applied is 2.5ms-! x 125 = 30m 2 AW = 80 x 30 = 24004 mate eaOOrS p= Y= 2400 - 200w 2. A forklift truck lifts a 250 kg pallet and load through 180cm in 1.2s. Calculate the work done and the power of the forkli. (marks) W= Fas = mgds 250 x 9.81 x 1.8 = 4414.5 or 4400J to 2 sf. 44i4 w pa t= 441485» 3700W or 3.7kW 3 An electric motor raises 600 kg lift at 3.0ms~ Assuming no energy is wasted, calculate the power of the electric motor. marks) — Inone second the motor does work = mgAh = = = = 600 x 9.81 x 3 = 17658. Motor power = I7.78W. A student of mass 45 kg runs up a flight of 30 steps in 15s, Each step is 20em high. g = 9.81 N kg (a) What is the student’s increase in gravitational potential energy? marks) (b) What is the student’s power output in watts? (2 marks)Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! Efficiency The efficiency of an energy transfer is the fraction of energy supplied that is transferred usefully. ‘Useful energy When you use an electric kettle to boll water, the useful energy is that which raises the temperature of the water; the wasted energy is that which escapes from the water, heating up the kettle, its element and the ‘surroundings of the kettle, and in the form of noise. Well-designed, efficient kettles reduce the amount of energy that is not doing what. ‘we want it to do — heating the water. Efficiency Useful energy output “Fotal energy input which is the same a3 Efficiency = woeful power output Multiply by 100 to get efficiency as a percentage. Clearly eficiency cannot exceed T (one), oF 100%. ‘Worked example efficiency = EX Mo wasted Cy energy wasted on % A every NY electrical energy in Kettle uses 360.000 of electrical energy to hheat some water to boiling point The energy actually transferred into the water to bring it to the boil is 300000 J ‘What isthe efficiency of the kettle? (4 marks) useful energy output I rare apc — Efficiency = 300000 _ : Efficiency = S25 560] = 0-83 (or 83%) Energy input = GO x (2 x 3600) ‘Worked example Sea Lamp A isa tungsten filament lamp. These are only 5% cffcient. Lamp B isa compact fluorescent lamp. These are claimed to use 75% less energy than filament bulbs. Lamp A is rated at 60 W. A B Lamps A and B are both in use for 2.0 hours. (a) Find the total clectrical energy input to lamp ‘Ain joules, Calculate the useful light output of lamp A in joules and say how the remaining ‘amount is ‘wasted’ (4 marks) E=Pxt = 432000J Useful output 28 light = 432 000 x 0.05 216004 The remaining 4104004 are converted into heat energy. (b) Assuming that both lamps have the same useful Tight output and the maker’ claim for B is accurate, caleulate how much electrical energy lamp Buses in 2.0, and the efficiency of lamp B. (4 marks) If lamp B uses only 25% of the energy used by A: Energy input = 432000 x 0.25 = 108000) useful energy output Ptliciency = otal eneray input i = 21600. _ : i Efficiency = 708000 0.20 (or 20%) 1 Anclectrie motor in a hoist is rated at 3,0kW. It can lift a load of 1200N ata speed of 1S ms"! Calculate the efficiency of this motor. 2A caris driving at a 60mph (27m) along a straight clear road. The forces opposing the motion of the ear at this speed (air and rolling resistance) ate, in tota (6) What is happening to the wasted power? (GB marks) -400.N. The ear engine is approximately 20% efficient. (a) Calculate the useful power output of the car at this speed. (b) Calculate the total power input to the car engine to maintain this speed. marks) @ marks) marks) 222 Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! (_] Exam skills 2 This exam-style question uses knowledge and skills you have already revised. Have a look at pages 10-13, 18 and 19 for reminders about forces, energy and motion. Worked example A student wants to investigate the transfer of gravitational potential enemay o kinetic energy asa toy cas moves down, 1 slope. She does this by releasing he ca from rest and ‘measuring the speed » when it has moved a distance d along the slope as showa in Fig, 1, She records the speed of the ear fora range of vulues of dand then plots a gruph of » against d (@) Describe an experimental method to measure the speed of ‘the car when it has moved a distance d. marks) Attach a card of measured length (e.g. 5.0cm) to the top of the car and place a light gate at distance When the card cuts the light beam a data logger can use the time and length of card to calculate and display the speed (b) Show that a graph of v against d should be a straight line ‘through the oviin, if work done against friction ean be neglected. (marks) Lose of GPE = gain of KE 3mv?, where h = the height of the ramp, a= the acceleration due to gravity, m= the mass of the car, and v = its measured velocity. ty mgeisin = bev? ey To answer part (b) you v2 = gsinod BIOS need to: All terms inside the bracket are constant, 0 v? is Shack wit conservacor of ener directly proportional to | IF the two variables plotted on the graph are directly proportional, ike v? and d, the graph will be a straight White down the equation and define the terms. fre trough the oxgin Ea eatierremtterer QO reve caen mae Alt angle of slope to horizontal = 20° ‘Show that it leads to v? cc ot distance d= 45cm speed r= 165m! ‘Unethis dat o caleulat the average tonal force F aeting on the car (marks) The total input energy is trom GPE. Since energy ia conserved) tty encngy that is oF treaterved £9 KE tet be tarelowed Eo heat by work dove agsinet friction. Work dose agsinat tion = loss of GPE ~ gin in KE = mngdein 9 Son? = 0.4 x 9,81 x 0.45 x sin20° — 0.4 x (1,65)%2 = 0.604 ~ 0.545 = 0.059) Work done agsinet hriction = Fd F=0.059/0.45 = 0.I3NHad a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! [_| Basic electrical quantities Values of current and potential difference are important in determining the behaviour of an electric circuit. Current When electrically charged particles move through ar conductive material we reter toa current: In metals the changed particles are electrons Electric current, I, is the rate of flow of charge, Q. vew aq @ ae “The unit of p.d. is the volt (V). For a pid. of IV ‘The unit of current, the amp (A), is a rate of flow of between two points ina circuit, IJ of energy is charge of | covlomb (©) per second, IA'= ICs", transferred per IC of charge flowing between the points, IV= TJC". ey Potential difference or p.d. is sometimes referred to as voltage. It is the amount of eneray that a component transters per unit of charge passing through it. A voltmeter it measures the difference in electric potential between two points in a circuit. Potential difference (p.4.) Potential difference is a measure of the work done per unit charge passing through a conducting Clement in a circuit 1 A lamp has a current of 50mA through it * Calculate the electric charge that passes through itin 1 minute (mark) _ Convert to 9.1. units: 0.0504 and 60s Seren AQ=1x At AQ = 0.050 x 60 = 3.06 ‘The lamp in the example on the left was connected 10 6V supply Electrical power 00s, ov. ov Power is the rate of doing work, or the rate of energy transfer. You can express this definition in Setica lor mag te seniors shoe S ccpatontes pon sstets came Wav WoW canixt t (Qi 2 pat Si its ae vatis (0: IW = 1V 1A Since P=" it tle tat W = PE ges tho stent of lectiea! energy transfered 325 page 20 tor» remncer ofthe Wabonahip bebe poner ail tote ‘Worked example An electric heater operates from a 230 V supply and. draws a current of 12.5 A, (a) Caleulate the power of this heater. P = VI = 230 x 12.5 = 2875 ‘ = 2660W (3 5.4.) t (b) Caleulate how much eneruy is transferred into heat in 1 hour and 40 minutes by the heater. (2 marks) Energy transferred W = Pe = 2875 x (IO0 x 60) = I7.3MJ (3 5.4.) (mark) How much energy is transferred into heat and light in the lamp if the lamp ison for I minute? (2 marks) w=vx@ W=6.0x3.0= 18) cnrD <1 Arreading lamp operating from a 230 V supply hhas a power of 60.W, (a) Caleulate the current that it draws, (1 mark) (b) Caleulate how much charge passes through it in 5.0 minutes. (2 marks) 2 Acurrent of 250mA passes through a torch lamp. After 30 minutes 2400J of electrical energy has been transferred into light and heat, (a) Calculate the power of the lamp. 2 marks) (b) Caleulate how much power is transferred in the lamp, (2 marks) (c) Calculate the voltage across the lamp. e@ rks) 23Had a look Cl Nearly there Ohm's law You will recall the equation V = 1X R from your earlier studies. Ohm’s law is a special case in which Tox Vat constant temperature. ‘Ohm's law experiment and results oat ‘3098 Sie eo Tlasga of diobds 8. ye! x 008 Potential diference VV For 2 metallic conductor at constant temperature the graph of current against p.d. is straight line passing through the origin. The resistance R, measured in ohms (Q), can be calculated at any point by reading off values for I and V, and will be found to be constant provided that the temperature is unchanged. Ohm's tas it constant temperature, the current through the conductor is proportional to the p.d, Non-ohmie components Not al circuit components follow Ohm's law. You will be paw: oo {1 a a required to recognise, sketch and interpret graphs for some ‘components that do not. pa Bs These are called non-ohmie components. As the temperature of the See nee = ke BE tant LZ resistance increases. ‘The diode has low resistance when ‘forward biase. 0 high that it is virtually non-conducting The thermistor shown, which is negative temperature coefficient or NIC type, has @ resistance that decreases as it gets hotter. A use for thermistors is covered on page 3. worked eae cx ‘The current through a filament lamp is 10 mA when the pd. across itis 0.10.V, When operated at its + ee 1 20.6V, whereas when V <0.6V its resistance is 1. Find the current in a 120 resistor when 9.0V ae Cm) working pd, of 60 it draws 6OmA. "Ro 12x18 O79 (a) Calculate the resistance of the lamp at these 2. Find the resistance needed to allow a current of pads. (2 marks) 200 wA when the resistor is connected across a (b) Explain why this change occurs. (2 marks) 5.0 supply (mark) v_ 5 « TEx 108 250 24Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! [_| Conservation laws in electrical circuits ‘The rules of conservation of charge and energy show how currents and p.d.s behave in series and parallel circuits. Current in = current out The current into @ component, like a lamp or a resistor, must equal the current out of it, 50 Ip = Iy and [y= Ig. IF this were not the case, charge would be disappearing or being created within the components. Similarly the current flowing toward and away from the nodes A and B must also balance. Therefore |, = le + la, and ly + by = le This is the consequence of conservation of charge in electrical circuits. seis ee oe i oo a 10. Pd.s add up in series and are the same across parallel branches Vis the amount of energy A transferred per covionb [yy “[ Vis the amount of energy > y i transfered per coulomb 2 in Ry and Ve is the amount | | {|e of eneray transferred per =f that passes from A to B passes through R, then Rp Energy conservation requires that the total amount of energy transferred as charge is moved from A to B must be equal to the energy This is the consequence of conservation of energy in electrical circuits, ‘Since the potential difference between A and B must be the same through both possible paths, Vs passing from A to B. coulomb In Re. Each coulomb $ transferred in R, and Re. Therefore V= V, + Va must be equal to V. 1 Complete this sentence about electric current in circuits, G marks) ‘The total current out of any point in a circuit must the ‘current into that point as ‘must be conserved. 2 Complete this sentence about pds in electric ~~ circuits. (marks) ~ The p.d.s across components in series must to the supply em. The pd.s across comporients in parallel must be The total. supplied by a battery per coulomb of charge circulated must be the total energy transferred in the circuit. Worked example 1 Calculate the current through the two resistors, Hence state the current, I, supplied by the battery GB marks) The p.d. across both resistors is IOV. iol :. Fop = 0.0254. f= eS = OAs = 3 1h + = 0.125 2. Write equations for the power dissipated in a resistor in terms of (a) pd. and current, (b) current and resistance, (c) pa. and resistance, G marks) @P=v (&) Since P= Viand V= IR, P= Ix R (c) Since P= Viand |= VIR, P= VIR shown above. marks) Vz = 3V (p.d.s between the same two points in a circvit must be equal), V, = 9.0V (Y= 12V- Vv). (b) Caleulate the value of J, if R,= 1500.2 marks) fp = VilRz = 3/150 = 0.02 £ (©) If f= 50mA state the value of fs, and cealeulate the value of Ry. G marks) hab = Is = l= bp5 | = 0.05 50 |s = 0.030A R= Vill, = 910.05 = 1809 25Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! (_] Resistors There are formulae to calculate the equivalent resistance of resistor combinations. Resistors in series The total pad. across resistors in series will be the sum of their individval p.d.s, Take an example of three resistors R,, Rp and Ry in series. The current / through each resistor must be the same. The total pid. V is the oum of the pid. across each resistor, Vou = Vi + Ve + Vy Finally, V= (Rou. Therefore: [Riga = IR, + IRe + IRe 20 Rag = R+ Re + Re Therefore, for resistors in series the total resistance is the sum of the individval resistances. Resistors in parallel Resistors in parallel will have a total current through them that is the sum of their individual currents. The pd. Vacrose each must be the same for each branch. Take an example of three resistors in parallel, hats = |) + fe + ls vivyy ein RR Re Therefore, for resistors in parallel the total resistance is the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances. Worked example Find the total resistance of the following resistor networks (a) 3002 15KO 10K react) cl __—_Teel__Toe lo ee (b) (2 marks) alee 1202 amica cnr Ton oe 1 1 3 R~ 1200 * 1200 * 1200 ~ 1200 Find the total or equivalent resistance of the Therefore R = 400 following resistor combinations. 3S ne enn) za os t Sam ‘corn ema) 1g R~ 2008 * 3008 * 600m ~ G00 Therefore R = 10S 26Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! [_| Resistivity Resistance is a property of 2 component; resistivity is 2 property of 2 material. Resistivity The resistance of a component such as a wire can easly be measured, and depends on the wires: * length, | * cross-sectional area, A « the resistivity, p, of the material from which it is made, Resistivity is @ property of materials and, at constant temperature, te does not vary with the ‘size of a sample of material, whether you measure it for @ tiny wire or a huge block, It io measured in Om. Resiotivities of metals are all of sinilar order, around 10-® Om, Experiment shows that, fora resistor ike « length of uniform wire, Roc land Rot a When these expressions are combined, the constant of proportionally is the resistivity p of the material at that temperature, ol RoR Resistivity changes with temperature. re Recta ad Find the resistance of a 1.5m length of wire of diameter 0,50mm and resistivity 5.0 * 107Qm. a (marks) area A= ar? =X (232 x 10-9) im? 1 ee a La = 5.0 x 107 x 050, oa) (xx 222 x 10>) = 3.80 to2 st, Potential and distance Potential drops around a circuit: there is a potential difference across each component, even ‘simple wires (though we often neglect this). The potential along a uniform current-carrying wire must vary with the distance: = Rey For any given uniform wire carrying a given current, 1, pand A are constants, so the p.d. Vx k Relating resistance and resistivity longer p larger R WY 2a> ik 21>2R eog Changes to resistance Rift © length is changed: doubling the length to 21 gives p2i “A ‘= area is changed: 2R: resistance also doubles doubling the widtn changes the area A= 2nr* 2x 2 = i. &, to 2 x 28 x 2 = 4A, which gives Lo = © resistance drops to one-quarter of its previous value + material is changed: using a conductor with twice the resistivity gives 2al f= 2R resistance also doubles. Worked example ‘The resistance of a 1.30m length of wire is 0.80. ‘The average diameter is 0.40 mmm, Calculate the resistivity of the material the wire is ‘made from. G marks) 2.40 5 19:2)'nt 1A stcel wire has a resistance of 120, A wire three times as long and twice the diameter will have a resistance of: A90 BISQ ©2702 D360 — marks) 2 Find the resistance of a 3.5m length of copper wire of diameter 0.40mm. The resistivity of copper is 1.7 x 100m, (Gmarks) 2Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! (_] Resistivity measurement The resistivity of a material is defined as the value of the resistance between opposite faces of a cubic metre of the material, Determining the electrical resistivity of a material Apparatus: oa = length * a 2mlength of wire made of the material you are investigating | fet wie + micrometer to measure wire diameter, a wader test + metre rule to measure wire length, | x * power supply (|-3V), ammeter and voltmeter, or else ohmmeter to measure R. Measure: * the diameter dof the wine in several places and take the mean * the length / of the wire * the resistance R of the length of wire with the ohmmeter or pass a current through the wire and find R using current and p.d. measurements (R= V1) * repeat for different lengths, or for the same lengths of wires but with different cross-sectional areas. Pass cument through the wire for a short time only, $0 that the wire does not get hot. This will cause 2 change in the resistivity as well as being a potential burn hazard. Calculation: varying lengths Calculation: varying areas WW different lengths of wire are used: If different cross-sectional areas of wire are used: Plot a graph of resistance against length of wire Plot a graph of resistance R against VA for at for at least six different lengths. Draw the best-Rt least six different cross-sectional areas, Draw the fine. best-fit ine. RE R= pth.so RAR ptA.s0 ‘radient = plA eradient = pf pO - Measure the gradient of the line. Calculate A, the Divide the gradient by the length of the wires cross-sectional area of the wire using A= mr?. used to find p. Multiply the gradient by the value of A to find p. GBB Sesote arrte we eacteac by he eatin =m Canter nite aie | The equation R = pv follows this form, with m = pA (which is a constant here) and c = O. 28 crx In an investigation to find the resis 'y of nichrome (an alloy of nickel, iron and chromium), the following resistances were recorded for nichrome wires of varying length and of cross-sectional area 0.2mm? at 20°C (a) Plot a graph of the results and use it to calculate the resistivity of nichrome at 20°C. (6 marks) (b) Copper has a resistivity of 1.7 x 10-°Qm at 20°C. Comment on your result in the light of this and the fact that nichrome is used in heating elements, (mark) Tim | 0402 [| osoi [| 0599 | 008 | osos | o901 | 0997 | 1.108 Rm | 220 8 331 39) 4a 491 5.45 6.02Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! [_| Current equation Current is the rate of flow of charge, and we can derive an equation for it in the case of the movement of electrically charged particles through a conducting material. ‘The current equation is: the current in-amps through-a conducting material of cross-section A; This is called the current equation or transport equation: I= nqvA vy is the carrier density of the material, the number of mobile charge carriers per cubic metre is the charge per carrier vis the mean drift velocity of the charge carriers 26 they move through the conductor. ‘Worked example Cateuate the mean drift velocity of electrons in a copper cable with a cross-sectional area of 10mm? passing a current of 5.0 A, (The carrier density for ‘copper is | x 10 electronsm~and the charge on an electron is ~1,60 x 10°C.) Gmarks) 1 = nqvA 1! ers = 3.1 x 10-*ms* (0.31mms") Less than a third of a millimetre per second! The effect of temperature on the resistivity of metals ‘The carrier density in metals is not affected by increase in temperature. However, the mean drift velocity, v, of the carriers is reduced by the increase in lattice vibrations. So the resistivity of metals increases with temperature. Light-dependent resistors (LDRs) LORs are also made of pe ‘semiconductor materials. Energy falling on an LDR, in the form of light frees more charge carriers, increasing the carrier density, 80 more light means lower resistivity. Resistancel Light intensity Carrier densities The carrier density, n, in metals is very large. This is why metals are very good conductors and have very low values of resistivity. Ineulators have almost no mobile charge carriers and therefore their resistivities are huge. Semiconductors, like silicon and germanium, have relatively low carrier densities. The value of 1 for silicon at room temperature is about a billion times ‘smaller than copper. Therefore semiconductors have much higher resistivities than metals. Thermistors ‘Thermistors are made with semiconductor materials. In negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistors, a8 the temperature increases, the number of charge carriers also increases. The effect of increased lattice vibrations increasing resistivity is omal comparison, so the conductivity of the thermistor ‘ses = its resistivity is reduced by the increase in 1. Resistancel ‘Temperature cnrD 1 1 A current of 2.0 passes through a copper 1. If a current of 40.4 is passed through a second copper wire, 2, with twice the diameter, then the ‘mean drift velocity of electrons in wire 2 is: A the same as in wire |B. hall that in wire | double that in wire | D 4 times that in wire 1 mark) 2 What assumption is necessary in order to answer question 1? (mark) 29Had a look [_| Nearly there [_| Nailed it! [_] E.m.f. and internal resistance Cells transfer some energy internally when they are used, 80 not all the energy of the cell is transferred in the circuit. Electrical cells The electromotive force (e.m.t.), &, of a supply (such as a cell) is the energy gained per unit charge by charges passing through the supply. It is measured in volts (IV is |JC~. When a cell supplies a current to an external load, some of the energy is dissipated (transferred without doing useful work) within the cell itself because of the intemal resistance, r, of the cell. z a iE Ik j Finding the internal resistance of acell “The current, 1, delivered by the cell is varied by im changing the value of the variable extemal vW terminal p.d., Vy is $ noted for each value of I. ‘A graph of V against / will be a straight line that cuts the p.d. axis at € and has a gradient of ~r. or Current A resistor, R, and the Vottaagely a % g Em, terminal pd. and ‘Tost volts” When a load, R, connected to a cell, 2 current, J, is drawn from the cell. Some of the energy converted in the cell is dissipated within the cell itself, ‘This results in the terminal pid. V (the p. the cell terminals) dropping by Ir, 90 V= This p.d. drop across the cell's internal resistance is sometimes referred to as ‘lost volts’. Worked example 210. The graph showshow Bg Ue terminal pdora = & battery of six cells a ~ varies with the current = 7 drawn from the hatery. 7° 0 d20a0608 10” ‘Current, HA (a) Determine the em. of one of the cells in the battery. (2 marks) The intercept on the p.d. axis gives the e.m.f of the battery, 9V. Therefore the exm.f of one cell is 1.5 V, assuming the cells are identical and connected in series. (b) Determine the internal resistance of one of the calls in the battery (2 marks) The gradient of the line is -10 20 the internal resistance r of the battery fs IO, and of one cell is 1.79. [= cn rt ‘Acell hasan em of 15 and an internal resistane of 2,09. Calculate the current drawn from this cel and its terminal pd. when connected to load (a) R= 1809, (b) R=800 (4 marks) (a) Total resistance in the circuit = (2 + 18)Q 1s theretore I= 325; = 0.0758 Internal resistance p.d. drop = 0.075 x 2.0 = 0.15V 50 terminal p.d.= (1.5 ~ 0.15) 35V (©) Similarly i0.0 O.15A and terminal p.d. = (1.5 — 0.3) = 12 LS. 30 ‘Two identical cells are connected together in parallel 2V to forma battery, asshown. 59 (a) A load of resistance 15.7 is connected across the terminals A and B of this battery. Calculate the current, 7, drawn by the load and. the terminal pad. Va (4marks) (b) The cell are then connected in series) What is the em. of this new battery and what is its internal resistance? (ii) What will the terminal pd. of this battery be when the 159 load is connected to it? (marks) B