How igneous rocks are formed Rocks and minals me

le

Liquid magma from the mantle cools to form solid crystalized rock -

Quick cooling forms small crystals while slow cooling forms large crystals
Rocks
Eg : basalt and granite -

How sedimentary rocks are formed

They are formed at the earth surface by the weathering of rocks

Particles of mud , sand that settle in the bottom of oceans or lakes are called sediments
Sediments accumulate in forms of layers , layers get pressurized due to the newer deposits above them
Eg : limestone , shale , sandstone

How metamorphic rocks are formed

Tectonic activity beneath the earth surface convert sedimentary and other existing rocks after getting exposed
to high temperature and pressure into metamorphic rocks
Eg : marble and slate
Prospecting
A process of searching for minerals by examining the surface of the rocks

Remote sensing
Aerial photography maps a large area and can cover more ground
Exploring for rocks Aerial photography reaches inaccessible areas

Radiation detection

Mineral deposits are weathered at the earth surface forming mineral oxides and they
can be detected by their unique radiation pattern

Satellite signals
Some satellites send signals to the earth surface and collect the reflected signals , indicating
Geophysics the presence of minerals

A series of vibrations are sent through the earth surface

sensors are placed at different distances form the source of vibration on the surface
Vibrations create shock waves that travel down into rock layers
The waves reflected back to the sensors on the surface
 Extraction methods Advantages of surface mining :
• easier to discover and access
• Cheaper to extract
• Less risk of injury

Sub surface mining • Quicker

Surface mining
Disadvantages of surface mining :
A. Open pit mining : Vertical shaft is sunk down to rock layer containing minerals • visual pollution

Horizontal tunnel is made , following the mineral layer • Noise pollution

The vegetation is cleared and top soil removed
• Destroys habitat so reduces biodiversity
Rocks are broken up and loosened using explosives Mineral is extracted by digging
• Large waste
Mining down as series of layers Minerals are brought to the surface and transported in trucks
Loose rocks are removed using diggers Why surface mining causes more damage than sub surface mining ?
Rock or mineral is tipped into trucks to be transported away
• natural vegetation is cleared
B. Strip mining : • More habitat are lost and less biodiversity
The overburden is removed as thin strip • More dust , surface run off causing water pollution
It is mainly used to mine coal • Large area of land is used in surface mining

What are the factors that affect the decision to extract rocks and minerals ?

• exploration and cost of extraction were open pit mining is cheaper than shaft so only deposits of higher value can be mined
this way
• Geology were rocks might not be in high concentration to be extracted
• Accessibility were the mining company must be given a license before extracting a deposit
• Environmental impact were habitat can be lost and reduces biodiversity
• Supply and demand were increase in the world demand for any mineral will elevate the prices

Impact of rock and mineral extraction :

Positive :
• employment opportunities were jobs are created
• improvement in local and national economy were they can earn foreign exchange by increase in exportation
• Improvements in facility and infrastructure were transportation and roads are improved
negative :
• loss of habitat so reduced biodiversity
• Water pollution were water supplies may be polluted due to leaching of heavy metals
• Noise pollution due to machinery and explosives
Bioaccumulation : organisms ingest toxin , the concentration of toxin increases in the body. The pollutant excretion rate is less than ingestion rate
Biomagnification : concentration increases higher up the food chain and cause death of top consumers

Managing the impact of rock and mineral extraction :

• safe disposal of mining waste

• Land restoration were mine waste can be covered by a layer of soil that can be enriched with fertilizers
• Bioremediation were we use living organisms to remove pollutants . Microorganisms like bacteria can absorb pollutants and metabolize them into less harmeful substances
• Tree planting help ecosystem to be reborn
• Making lakes and natural reserves
• Using mining area as landfill site

Strategies for the sustainable use of rocks and minerals :

• increased efficiency of the extraction of rocks and minerals through using better performance machinery
• Recycling reduces pollution as it requires less energy than extracting new ore
• Legislation were governments should interfere to pass laws that ensure reusing and recycling
• Increasing the efficiency of the use of rocks and minerals using engineering solutions that would save rocks and minerals
 Non renewable Engy and the envonment
fossil fuels formed over millions of years ago from the decay of living matter
Coal ,Gas Coal
Energy sources
Oil
The vegetation of the forests dies
Renewable Formation of Plant decay forming a layer named peat

Bio fuels , hydroelectric powers , tidal power ,

Peat is pressurized between sediments with high pressure and
geothermal power , solar and wind power temperature to form coal

Why the demand of energy How energy sources are used to generate electricity ? Oil and gas
is increasing worldwide ?
Turbine machine containing fins made to revolve steam Millions of years ago plants and animal died and fell to the bottom of
Increasing population size gas or water and connected to generator that converts the ocean
Increase in wealth mechanical energy into electrical energy Their remains are covered with sediments
Improvements in standards of living
Advantages The heat and pressure turn the remains into crude oil and natural gas.
Increasing industrialization
Plentiful supply How fossil fuels ( oil , coal , gas ) produce electricity ?
Provide job opportunity
They produce massive amount of energy during combustion that is used to
Fossil fuels Coal is the cheapest source of fossil fuel
heat water and convert it to steam
Coal is easy to store
Steam drives the turbine that turns the generator to convert mechanical
Disadvantages energy to electrical energy
Non renewable
Damage local area How nuclear power produce electricity ?
Risk of oil spills
Uranium releases huge amount of energy when nuclear fission occurs
Carbon dioxide emission is polluting to the atmosphere
Water is pumped into reactor
Advantages Energy from uranium is used to heat water to produce steam
No CO2 produced so no global warming Steam turns the turbine and the turbine turns the generator which generates

Nuclear power Provide job opportunity the electricity

Small volume of waste

Disadvantages
Risk of radiation leakage
Visual pollution
Expensive and technically difficult to build
 Advantages How hydroelectric power produces electricity ?
Renewable Uses a dam on a river to store water in a reservoir
Biofuels Growing more plants takes more CO2 Water released from the reservoir that flows through the turbine rotating it
Lower level of air pollution Turbine activates the generator that generates electricity

Disadvantages Advantages

CO2 released when burnt so contributes to global warming Renewable

Shortage of land for agriculture Growing more plants takes more CO2
Hydroelectric power
Reduce biodiversity and loss of habitat Provide more job opportunity

Disadvantages
How geothermal power produces electricity ?
Dams might relocate local people
Cold water is pumped underground into layer of hot rocks
Expensive to install
Rocks heat the water
Dams effect natural flow of water
Water converted into steam and steam is piped to the geothermal power station
Steam moves the turbine which turns the generator to generate electricity How solar power produces electricity ?

Uses photovoltaic cells that produce a small electric charge when exposed to light
Advantages
A bank of cells organised into solar panels produce a significant amount of electricity
No CO2 produced
Geothermal power Renewable Advantages
Renewable
Disadvantages
Solar power No CO2 produced
Only certain areas have suitable conditions No fuel cost
Expensive to install and need high level of technology
Disadvantages

How tidal power produces electricity ? Solar cells are expensive

Energy only produced in day light
When the levels drop water is held back by a tidal barrage which is a small dam that Not reliable in some places
releases water back through a turbine that turns the generator to generate electricity
Why do some countries refuse to invest in renewable source of energy Why does the world relay on oil as a form of energy ?

1. Expensive due to prices of new power plants • it is easier to store and transport
2. Less energy yielded from renewable resources • Extraction from the ground is easier than solids such as coal
3. Some countries are rich in fossil fuels • It can be processed into many products
4. Some countries don’t think pollution issue is priority • It is less polluting when burnt compared to coal

Describe and explain ways in which governments can conserve fossil fuels What are the main causes of marine oil spills ?

1. Improving public transport so it is easier and cheaper than using cars • leakage from the rigs
2. Taxation on fuels • Leaks in the oil pipework
3. Use renewable biofuels instead of fossil fuels • Risk of collision or damage to oil tanks during shipping
4. Scrapping older inefficient car that emit more pollutants

Energy from waste cooking oil

1. Breaking down of organic matter using bacteria anaerobically

2. In a sealed container releases methane which is a biofuel
3. It is used to heat water and turn it into steam that rotates the turbine and t
turbine rotates the generator to generate electricity

Strategies for efficient management of enerfy resources

<<<<Fracking >>>>
Is obtaining oil or gas from shale rock by splitting them open using water , sand and chemicals
• A vertical hole is drilled to reach the shale rocks
• Water , sand and chemicals are pumped down under high pressure into the shale rock layer
• This causes the rock to fracture , releasing oil and natural gas which are forced back to
surface and collected

Advantage Disadvantage minerar

a
n o
rene

• access to more oil and gas • land and air pollution

• Provide job opportunity • uses lots of water so it may cause water scarcity
•Less pollution than burning coal • Toxic chemical from fracking might enter the water sources
 Management of oil pollution

Reducing oil spills in marine environment :

• increased use of GPS and development of more clearly defined shipping routes to reduce risk of collision
• Use of double hulled oil tanks can reduce oil spills , if one of the compartments damaged , the contents of the whole ship are still secure by the inner plate
• MARPOL were all tankers must be certified to show they have appropriate system in use

Minimizing the impact of oil spills :

• use of floating booms which are floating barriers that are used to trap oil slick preventing it from spreading
• Detergent sprays help break down the oil slick into smaller droplets that eventually degrade and disperse
• Skimmers removes oil from seawater surface whic is then scrapped of into a container
 Mineral particles
Agriculte and envonment
Soil Organic content
Agriculture types
Air

Water Subsistence Pastoral

• production of animals or
• practiced on small patches
The proportions of soil components depend on animal related products
• Production is low Arable
• type of soil • Cultivation of crops provide
• Local climate conditions • production of plants for
enough food for farmers and
• Size of the mineral particles Commercial consumption by humans
their families
• practiced on large scale
Sand
• Modern technology is used
2-0.02 mm • High production
• Cultivation of crops with the aim of
Types of soil Silt
Increasing agriculture yield selling them
0.02-0.002 mm
1. Crop rotation
Clay growing different types of plants in different plots each year
2. Fertilizers
<0.002 mm
They contain nitrogen , potassium and phosphorus which increases the rate of growth
3. Irrigation
Compare sand and clay
Essential for cell activity
4. Pest control
Sand Clay
Use of insecticides and herbicides will kill insects and useless weed
• has larger air spaces • poor air spaces 5. Mechanization
• Has low water content • High water content Larger area can be cultivated
• Easier to cultivate • Hard to cultivate 6. Controlled environment
• Less fertile • More fertile Use of green houses to ensure optimum conditions for plant to grow
• Drains well • Poor drainage 7. Selective breeding
Choose parents with desired features and raise offspring from parents then select the best offspring with thge best features
Increasing agriculture yield
Water application methods
1. Crop rotation
Overhead sprinklers
growing different types of plants in different plots each year
Clay pot irrigation system
2. Fertilizers
Trickle drip system
They contain nitrogen , potassium and phosphorus which increases the rate of growth
Flood irrigation
3. Irrigation
Essential for cell activity
4. Pest control
Use of insecticides and herbicides will kill insects and useless weed
5. Mechanization
Larger area can be cultivated
6. Controlled environment
Use of green houses to ensure optimum conditions for plant to grow
7. Selective breeding
Choose parents with desired features and raise offspring from parents then select the best offspring with thge best features

Advantages of crop rotation

• diseases in the soil affecting the plant are left behind

• Pests need to find new site
• The soil in the plot is likely to have essential nutrients
• Crops ready to harvest at different times

Over head sprinklers

Advantages Disadvantages

• Easy to set up • large droplets may cap the soil

• Can cover a large area • Small droplets may be blown away by
wind
• Water lands on leaves which evaporates
quickly

Clay pot irrigation system

I
Advantages Disadvantages

• simple technology • only suitable for permanent plants

• Easy to check the amount of • Large labour cost
water
Trickle drip system

Advantages Disadvantages

• reduces risk of leaching • expensive to install

• Correct volume of water • Inflexible
supplied • Grit can block tubes so
• Water placed directly at the filter is needed
base of the plant so only
crop plants receive water

Flood irrigation

I
Advantages Disadvantages

• inexpensive • damage soil structure

• Can cover • Inefficient use of water
large areas
quickly

Why weed must be controlled

• weed compete with crops for light , water and nutrients

• Might be poisonous
• Make cultivation difficult
• Can be source of pests
• Can block drainage systems

Advantages of herbicides

• cheap
• Rapid effect
• Easy to manage
 Hydroponics : Growing plants without soil , with the nutrients plant needs dissolved in water
Why weed must be controlled

I
Advantages Disadvantages
• it will compete with crops for light , water and nutrients
• Make cultivation difficult
No need for soil Expensive to set up
• Can be source of pests and diseases Easy to harvest Suitable for small production
• Might be poisonous Can be used anywhere areas
Reduce number of pests Disease may spread rapidly
Advantages of herbicides Water is recycled Technical knowledge required
• cheap
• Easy to manage
• Effect is rapid
• Results are predictable

Selective breeding

• choose parents with the desired characteristics

• Allow them to breed and obtain their offspring
• Select the offspring that show the desired characteristics
• Repeat the process

Genetically modified organisms : the DNA is extracted and inserted into another organism

I
Advantages Disadvantages

• higher yield from lower inputs • Reduction in gene pool

• Crops can be made resistant to drought • Reduce biodiversity
• Less area needed to produce a crop • Products are not natural so unknown impact
• Crops can be made with longer storage lives of the new characteristics on human health
 Impacts of agriculture
Overuse of herbicides Overproduction and waste
and insecticides

Management of irrigation causing

Overuse of fertilizers salinization and water logging

Soil erosion Exhaustion of mineral ion content

Cash crops replacing food crops

Impact of overuse of herbicides and insecticides

• food web is disturbed and biodiversity is decreased

• Can cause resistance within the pest population increasing number of pests
• Toxic effect on marine life
• Over use of pesticides cause air pollution
• Can remain in the environment for generations

Impacts of overuse of fertilizers

• excess water containing dissolved fertilizers leach into nearby lakes and rivers leading to eutrophication
• Causes increase of algae growth
• Sunlight is blocked and photosynthesis is reduced
• This causes the algae to die
• Cause increase in bacterial count to decompose dead algae
• Bacteria increases and use oxygen so aquatic organisms die due to lack of oxygen

Over production and waste

• waste from overproduction

• Waste of storage space
• Waste of transportation
• Waste of labor

Mismanagement of irrigation causing salinization and water logging

• death of plant roots because water logged soils prevent plant roots from getting enough oxygen
• Salts are toxic so land becomes unusable and lower crop yield is produced
• damage to soil structure as soil is compacted
• Loss of nutrients as they are dissolved and leached with water
• Surface run off increases soil erosion
Soil erosion : wearing away of the top soil by the force of water or wind
Interception : precipitation that doesn’t reach the soil but is instead intercepted by the leaves and branches of
plants
Infiltration : the process by which precipitation water soaks into soil
Surface run off : water from rainfall that flows over the ground

Causes of soil erosion

1. Removal of natural vegetation:
• no interception happens to precipitation
• No more roots to bind soil together
• The infiltration decreases so flash flooding and surface run off pick the soil and carry it away
2. Over cultivation :
• ploughing breaks the soil into smaller and lighter particles which are more easily carried away by wind
3. Over gazing :
• livestock reduces the vegetation to nearly ground level , sometimes leaving no roots to hold the soil
4. Wind erosion :
• deforestation increases the probability of soil getting eroded by wind
5. Water erosion :
• on a slope , excess run off water that can be absorbed by soil transports the soil from that area
• Soil compaction reduces infiltration
• Gully erosion forms deeper and deeper cracks

Impacts of soil erosion Aims of sustainable agriculture

1. Loss of habitat 1. Meeting the needs of the population for agricultural products
2. Desetrtification 2. Making efficient use of non renewable resources
3. Silting of rivers 3. Supporting the natural ecosystem by following natural
4. Displacement of people processes with farming techniques
5. Malnutrition and famine
How to maintain sustainable agriculture
Managing soil erosion
1. Organic fertilizers
1. Terracing 2. Managed gazing
2. Contour ploughing 3. Crop rotation
3. Bunds 4. Use of pest and drought resistant varieties of crops
4. Windbreak 5. Trickle drip irrigation
5. Maintaining vegetation cover 6. Rainwater harvesting
6. Addition of organic matter to improve soil structure
7. Planting trees
8. Mixed cropping
9. Intercropping
10. Crop rotation
Terracing :

• flat platforms made on hillside

• Slows surface runoff of water
• Thus slowing soil erosion down hill

contour ploughing :

• plough perpendicular to slope

• Which slow water runoff
• Thus slowing soil erosion downhill

wind breaks :

• trees planted in rows

• To protect from
• Soil erosion by wind

mixed cropping :

• planting rows of trees acts as windbreaker

• Tree canopy can provide shade for smaller plants that dont thrive for sunlight
• Provide a natural habitat for animals that feed on pests
• Tree leaves fall to the ground and add on to the organic matter

mixed cropping :

• growing more than one type plant in the same area where resources in the soil like nutrients are
used more efficiently

crop rotation :

• diseases in the soil affecting the plant are left behind

• Pests need to find new site
• The soil in the plot is likely to have essential nutrients
• Crops ready to harvest at different times
Global water distribution Water cycle Wat and it's management
97.2% in oceans and seas 1. Sun heats earth surface including oceans , rivers and lakes so water is evaporated from them
0.6% ground water 2. Plants do transpiration so water evaporates from plant leaves
2.1 % snow and ice 3. Warm air rise above
0.1% in rivers and lakes 4. Condensation happesn
5. Precipitation when water vapor cools and droplets get bigger and heavier

Precipitation - moisture that reaches the surface in the form of rain or snow
Surface run off - precipitation that flows over the ground surface , eventually finding its way into stream and rivers
Interception - precipitation that doesn’t reach the earth surface due to being obstructed by trees
Infiltration - precipitation soaks into sub surface soils and moves into rocks through cracks and pore spaces
Through flow - infiltrated water flows through soil
Ground water flow - infiltrated water flows through the rocks

Surface water - water in lakes , rivers and swamps

Water supply Ground water - water in soil and rocks under the ground

Portable water - safer to drink Artesian aquifer

Aquifers - water stored in porous rocks under ground • water is under pressure
Desalination plants - removal of salt from seawater by distillation or reverse osmosis • Water from well sunk into artesian aquifer will rise to the surface without
pump
Reservoirs - artificial lake used as a source of water supply , created behind dam
Distillation
How water is gained from aquifers
• water is boiled and released as vapor leaving salt behind
• layers of permeable and impermeable rocks trap the water in permeable rocks • Vapor is condensed as liquid water and can be used
• Permeable rocks on the surface receive new supplies of rain water • Require a lot of energy
• Water is stored in the limestone and sandstone rocks below the water course
• Mechanical pumps or human labor are used to raise water to the surface Reverse osmosis

• pumping water at a high pressure through a fine membrane

• It requires less energy than distillation
Advantages of desalination Water quality and availability
• reduces the risk of water borne diseases
• Provide job opportunity Water rich countries
• Well known technology • countries with plentiful fresh water supplies
• Huge supply as salty water cover 97% of earths water • High precipitation
• It is safe as there are no heavy metals or water pollution • Low population so low demand for water
• Countries with big areas are really usually rich as they have plenty of land for rain to fall
Disadvantages of desalination
• very expensive Water poor countries
• Process needs a lot of energy • lack of rain
• Requires skilled workers • Water might be frozen
• Greenhouse gas emission happens if fossil fuel is used • High population so high demand on water
• Some marine species are killed in desalination plants • Rocks maybe impermeable so no ground water
• Drought
Water usage
Unlike rural areas , urban areas have higher access to safe drinking water because
Domestic use
• cities are more wealthy places with factories and offices
• at home for drinking and cooking • On average peoples’s income are higher
• Washing and flushing toilets • Wealthy people are more likely to live in cities
• Washing clothes • Tourists are more likely to visit if clean water is available
• Gardening • Population density in urban areas are high so water pipes are easier and cheaper to build when a lot of people live close together

Industrial use Multipurpose dam - constructed for multiple use eg : irrigation and electricity
• power generation Dams
• Cooling Single purpose - constructed for particular use might be irrigation or electricity
• Mixing and making products
Choice of site
Agricultural use
• high precipitation to provide sufficient water
• mainly for irrigation • Low temperature to prevent evaporation
• For domestic animals • Rivers and lakes nearby to provide water
• Built high up to have good potential for hydroelectric power
 impacts of dam

Advantages
• generation of electricity in hydroelectric power plants which is renewable source of energy and doesn’t produce green house gas
• Flood control
• More job opportunity Sustainability of dams
• Sustainable irrigation • alternative for burning of fossil fuels as no green house gases are produced
• Creates land for tourism • Have negative effect on fish population
• Dam structure under a lot of pressure so may deteriorate and eventually fail
Disadvantages
• Reservoir can become silted due to material carried into it by rivers
• relocating people
• Dam may break causing flooding Domestic waste
• Noise , air , visual pollution when being built • untreated sewage
• Loss of habitat so loss of biodiversity • sewage carries many pathogenic micro organisms
• Very expensive to build • Detergents , metals and manufactured products containing traces of toxic chemicals

Industrial processes
Water pollution • use of chemicals
• Processing of metal ores
• Gases from factories enter the atmosphere where they dissolve in water forming acid rain
• Leaching of metals from waste heaps and dumps causes the presence of metals in water course
Agricultural practices

• surpluses of phosphorus and nitrogen

Impacts of water pollution • Pesticides , herbicides and fertilizer will be washed from the land into ground water

• risk of water borne diseases which are caused by drinking contaminated water
• Accumulation of toxic substances from industrial processes in lakes and rivers cause death of fish
• Nutrient enrichment leading to eutrophication
• Bioaccumulation of toxic substances in food chains will cause increase in concentration of toxic substance in tissues of organisms causing illness
• Global inequalities in sewage and water treatment
• Formation of acid rain
 Formation of acid rain Impacts of acid rain

• when volcanos erupt or fuels burn , sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen are released • acidification of water bodies
• They are blown long distances and react with water in atmosphere • Causes damaging of crops
• SO2 dissolve in water forming sulfuric acid and oxides of nitrogen dissolve in water forming nitric acid • Causes damaging of buildings
• Falls in the form of rain having low pH this is called acid rain • lower pH makes the environment intolerable for aquatic life so
reduce fish population
How fertilizers can lead to eutrophication
Life cycle of malaria
• excess water containing dissolved fertilizers drain into nearby lakes and rivers leading to eutrophication
• Which causes the increase of algae growth so sunlight is blocked and photosynthesis is reduced • female anopheles mosquito that is infected with malaria parasite
• This causes algae to die and cause increase in bacterial count to decompose the dead algae • The mosquito bites human
• This bacterial increase uses up oxygen so aquatic organisms die due to lack of oxygen • The human gets infected with malaria that targets liver cells
• Another mosquito bite the infected human
Strategies for improving water quality • The second mosquito becomes vector

• improve sanitation by separating human wastes from water source and Strategies to control malaria
it can be removed by connection to a system of sewer pipes that collects
human wastes • using antimalarial drugs to kill malaria parasite
• Sewage treatment • Avoid contact with mosquito by sleeping under mosquito nets
• Pollution control and legislation • Wear long sleeves
• Kill mosquito using insecticides
Treatment of sewage • Use vaccinations and educate people on the risks of malaria

• waste water is taken to sewage treatment plant • Draining stagnant areas of water to prevent breeding

• In a screening tank large objects are removed from the waste

Cholera caused by
• Solid organic matter settles at the bottom of the tank
• water is pumped into a tank where oxygen is bubbled through it • person infected with the bacterium the sewage from this infected person is
• This encourages the growth of bacteria and microbes that break down organic matter leaked into water supply
• chlorination of water • Water supply gets contaminated
• People drink this contaminated water so they get infected
Factors increase the risk of getting infected with cholera Why might the water from rivers and lakes not be safe to drink

• poor sanitation • contain toxic wastes or pollutants

• Contamination of water and food • Contain heavy metals
• Disruption of piped water after a natural disaster • Contain remains from sewage
• Water borne diseases
Strategies to control cholera

• do not use contaminated water to wash food

• Water should be treated before delivered to homes
• Boiling water and chlorination
• Vaccination to allow human to fight the infection
• Ensure sewage and drinking water are kept separate to ensure safety of potable water

Why is it difficult to eradicate malaria

• mosquitos have large population and breed rapidly

• Many sources of stagnant water
• High population makes the spreading faster
• Need money to apply control methods

Government strategies that can help people to have access to safe drinking water

• education regarding sanitation

• Improving water quality by improving water sanitation and treatment of sewage
• Fines against water pollution
Oceans as a resource Oceans and fishies
• food as fish
• Wave energy
El Nino ENSO
• Tidal energy
• Tourism In El Nino year :

• Potential for safe drinking water • change in prevailing winds that leads to change in the

• Transport pattern of currents in the ocean of south pacific

• warm nutrient poor water comes into the region
Distribution of major ocean currents • No upwelling of the cold nutrient rich water that supports
the fishery
Surface currents : movement of the surface water of the sea in constant direction
• No nutrients mean phytoplankton doesn’t grow well so less
Prevailing wind : the direction from which the wind nearly always blows in a particular area
food for the fish
• Currents in the southern hemisphere are generally anti-clockwise • So fish migrate or die
• Currents in the northern hemisphere are generally clockwise

Distribution of major marine fish populations

1. Main fisheries are located on continental shelves were water is shallow

2. Allowing light and oxygen to penetrate for phytoplankton to produce their own food by photosynthesis
3. Herbivore fish rely on primary producers like phytoplankton
4. Carnivore eat herbivore fish
5. Food web starts with phytoplankton . Thus fish are found were there is plentiful phytoplankton
6. Phytoplankton produce their own food by photosynthesis which require light , water and CO2
7. upwelling : areas were minerals at the ocean floor are brought up to the surface by currents
8. Wind moves surface water away from the coast and cold water from the deep in the ocean rises up and takes its place and
this cold water is rich in nutrients
 Use of technology in fishing
Causes of over fishing of marine fish species

• demand for fish as food due to increasing world population

Advantages Disadvantages • creation of huge nets that scoop up everything in an area often half of which is
discarded as bycatch
Huge nets catch large quantities of Overfishing causing worldwide • Finding fish easily by using sonar
fish decline in fish number • Much bigger boats which can work a long way
Ships freeze fish at sea Loss of biodiversity
Modern ships are mechanized and Huge nets catch unwanted fish Overfishing :when the number of fish that is caught is
stay at sea for longer time Causes unemployment greater than the rate at which the fish reproduce leading to
Sonar locate fish and warn from a fall in fish numbers in an area
underground dangers

Impact of overfishing
Management of the harvesting of marine species
• decline in fish stocks that causes reduction in marine biodiversity
1. Net types and mesh size were we use larger mesh size and smaller net size • Death of bycatch that causes disturbance in food chain
2. Qoutas were governments set limits on how many and what type of fish can
be caught
Advantages of fish farming
3. Closed seasons were governemnts can pass laws that can close fisheries
down for part of the year • fish easier to catch and growth of fish is more controlled
4. Protected areas and reserves by preventing fishing in certain areas • Production is constant and less predation
5. Conservation laws • Controlled breeding , feeding and harvesting
6. International agreements • provides employment and ability to meet increase in demand
• Health of fish is managed so less risk to human life
Effectiveness of these strategies

1. Accurate reporting of bycatch Problems with fish farming

2. Fishing in breeding seasons
3. Qoutas can be avoided by simply not declaring the number of fish being caught • increase risk of disease
4. Using of illegal large nets • Use of antibiotics is required
5. Monitoring organizations based in ports have more success • Water pollution from increased antibiotics and fertilizers
 CHAPTER 6
When is a natural hazard considered a disaster?
• If it kills a minimum of 10 people
• If it harms 100 people
• If the government declares a state of emergency
• When the government asks for international assistance

Types of Crust on Earth

1- The oceanic crust (sial)
➢ Made of basalt
➢ Thin
➢ Very dense
➢ Can sink

2- Continental crust
➢ Made of granite
➢ Thick
➢ Light weight
➢ Old
➢ Cannot sink and cannot be destroyed

Factors that affect the strength of a disaster?

➢ Length of time people exposed to it
➢ Area where people live in. For example, people living in poor
➢ housing areas are more likely to be affected
➢ The ability of people to cope with it

Plate Tectonics: theory that outer shell of earth is

divided into plates that glide over the mantle
• Magma moves under the plates due to convection currents, and this what
makes the plates move as well.
• Plates can move away from each other or towards each other. They meet in
a Plate boundary
Types of Plate Boundaries
1- Constructive Plate Boundary: when there are two plates moving apart
from each other. They are called constructive plates because when they
move apart, magma rises up in the gap- this forms volcanoes and
eventually new crust.
2- Destructive Plate Boundary: sometimes called a convergent. This occurs
when oceanic and continental plates move together. The oceanic plate is
forced under the lighter continental plate. Friction causes melting of the
oceanic plate and may trigger earthquakes. Magma rises up through cracks
and erupts onto the surface through composite volcanos.
3- Collision Zone Plate Boundary: when two continental plates collide.
Neither plate is forced under the other, and so both are forced up and form
fold mountains. /
4- Conservative plate boundary: plates slide past each other in opposite
directions. Friction takes place and the plates slip past in a sudden
movement causing earthquakes.

Geological hazards
A- Earthquakes
Characteristics of Earthquakes I
➢ The focus is where it begins underground
➢ Epicenter is the point right above the focus on the surface of the ground
➢ It may cause liquefaction: conversion of soil into a fluidlike mass
➢ Measured in Richter scale using a seismometer

Factors that affect Death caused by earthquakes

➢ Magnitude of the earthquake
➢ The closer to the epicenter the more damage will be caused
➢ The time of the earthquake. If it occurs in winter or at night there will be
more deaths
➢ Geology of the area because it may lead to liquefaction
➢ Relief of the area. Areas with mountains may face landslides. Areas with
ocean may face Tsunamis
➢ Severity of aftershocks
➢ The population. The higher the population, the more deaths will take place
➢ Buildings strengths. People living in poor housing are ore likely to face
deaths
 B- Volcanic Eruptions
&
Characteristics of volcanoes
➢ Intrusive: Magma cools down and forms igneous rocks
➢ Extrusive: Magma comes out as lava. Also Pyroclastic material may come
-

out as well. These include ash, hot gases and volcanic bombs.
➢ Sometimes the lava mixes with water in an area or melting ice and forms
lahars which are very dangerous and can be faster than humans

Types of Extrusive volcanoes

a- Shield volcanoes
➢ Found on constructive plate
➢ boundaries
➢ Magma has low viscosity
➢ Eruptions are non-explosive
b- Composite volcanoes
➢ Found on a destructive plate boundary
➢ Looks like a cone
➢ Magma is viscous
➢ Eruptions are explosive but not frequent
Impacts of Geological hazards
➢ Lava, lahar and ash flows
➢ Landslides causing damage to buildings
➢ Tsunamis
➢ Destruction to farmlands leading to starvation
➢ Water can be contaminated due to broken sewage pipes
➢ leading to water related diseases
➢ Trauma
➢ Loss of habitats
Climatic hazards
A- Cyclones
Conditions that cause a cyclone
➢ The ocean surface temperature must be at least 27C
➢ The ocean must be at least 60m deep
➢ Enough Coriolis Force is required
➢ Change in wind speed or direction

Direction of cyclones
➢ They move in anticlockwise direction in the Northern hemisphere
➢ They move in a clockwise direction in Southern hemisphere

What happens to weather when a cyclone passes by an area?

➢ Air pressure falls
➢ Cumulonimbus clouds are formed causing very heavy rain
➢ Wind speed increases
➢ In the eye, winds are light, sky is clear, temperature is warm and there is
little rain
Impacts of tropical cyclones
➢ Damage to buildings due to strong winds
➢ Heavy rainfall leading to floods, especially in low lying coastal areas
➢ Interruption in electricity and transport
➢ Spread of water borne diseases
➢ Damage to crops leading to food shortage
➢ Loss of wildlife

B- Floods
Causes
a. Natural Causes
➢ When the river reaches its maximum infiltration capacity to hold water, due
to very heavy rainfall
➢ Soil and Rock type: impermeable rocks will have low infiltration capacity
➢ Earthquakes can cause tsunamis that cause floods
➢ Relief: Steep lands will not give water the chance to infiltrate
➢ Antecedent soil moisture. If the soil was already moist before the rainfall, it
will be more saturated and reduces infiltration capacity
b. Human Causes
➢ Deforestation: cutting trees prevents interception so all rainfall falls on
trees
➢ Agriculture: Overgrazing makes soil compact and unable to hold water.
Removal of natural vegetation to grow crops makes the soil exposed to
heavy rainfall for some time and prevents interception
➢ Urbanization: concrete and impermeable surfaces like roads cannot absorb
water
➢ Climatic changes: Global warming caused by human activity led to rise in
sea levels due to melting of glaciers in some areas as well as heavy rainfall
and ↑

➢ storms
Impacts of Floods
➢ Migration
➢ Contamination of water leading to water related
➢ diseases
➢ Loss of crops leading to food shortage
➢ Accumulation of silt in rivers due to flood water

C- Droughts
Natural Causes
➢ Changes in atmospheric circulation at the equator.
➢ Higher temperature due to direct sun rays and trade winds from Northern
and Southern hemispheres lead to droughts
➢ Sinking air in some high pressure area is warmer. This warm air will make all
water droplets evaporate and skies will have no clouds and eventually no
rain. This leads to sunny and dry weather with dry winds
➢ El Nino Southern Oscillations
Human Causes
➢ Deforestation: cutting trees leads to less infiltration
➢ Building dams reduces the flow of water and cause droughts downstream
➢ Overcultivation and overgrazing make soil compact and unable to hold
water so it evaporates quickly
Impacts of Droughts
➢ People and animals will be forced to migrate
➢ Loss of crops and animals
➢ fall in land prices
➢ Unemployment to farmers
➢ Shortage of food which leads to famine and increased food prices
➢ Desertification
➢ Conflict between people and countries over water

Strategies to Manage Natural Hazards

A- Earthquakes
Prediction
➢ Use instruments like seismometer to measure shaking of earth
➢ Detect the location of epicenters and record the pattern of old earthquakes
➢ Detect unusual animal behavior

Preparation and Protection

➢ Build aseismic buildings
➢ Smart meters to cut off gas supplies to prevent fire
➢ Schools and hospitals must be built in low risk areas
B- Volcanoes
Prediction
➢ Use seismometers to monitor shaking caused by rising magma
➢ Tiltmeters to monitor the change in shape of the volcano
➢ Monitor the emission of steam and gas from the volcano
➢ Satellites can be used to detect increasing ground temerpature
Preparation and Protection
➢ Study past eruptions and create a hazard map
➢ Build lava diversion channels
➢ Have buildings with sloping roofs to protect against ashfall

C- Tropical Cyclones
Prediction
➢ Track the cyclone using satellites
Preparation and Protection
➢ Build cyclone shelters for people
➢ Have buildings on stilts so they don't get flooded by
➢ storm surge
➢ Grow mangrove swamps to absorb energy of the storm and slow down the
cyclone
D- Floods
Prediction
➢ Monitor rainfall and river discharge
Preparation and Protection
➢ . Use hard engineering such as building a flood
➢ Use soft engineering: such as afforestation (growing trees and plants as a
barrier)
➢ Widening and deepening the river by dredging and clearing vegetation to
increase its water holding capacity
➢ Use sandbags
➢ Adapt houses for example by making sockets high above ground level
E- Droughts
Prediction
➢ Monitor precipitation and temperature
Preparation and Protection
➢ Increase water supplies by having reservoirs and use aquifers
➢ Growing drought tolerant crops
➢ Fencing to control overgrazing
➢ Governments saving food, water and medicine

Why do people continue to live in areas with natural hazards?

➢ They might have lived there all their life so cannot easily leave the place or
have nowhere else to go
➢ Confident about prediction, preparation and protection
➢ Cannot leave their jobs such as tourism or fishing
➢ Soil surrounding volcanoes are more fertile. There is also impressive
scenery that attracts tourists.
➢ Geothermal energy around volcanoes
 Atmosphe and human activity
Structure of the atmosphere

Troposphere Natural green house effect Green house gases

Thermosphere
Temperature
Temperature rises The earth receives short wave radiation from the sun
Natural …..CO2 , methane , ozone
decreases as height Stratosphere Mesosphere
increases as
rapidly because of the Half of the radiation absorbed by the earth surface Artificial …….chloroflurocarbons
Temperature increases Temperature falls rapidly absorption of
conduction and 20% absorbed by the atmosphere
slightly with height which is as there is no water ultraviolet radiation by
convection form the called temperature vapor or ozone to atomic oxygen
30% is reflected by clouds and earth surface back into space
earth decreases inversion absorb short wave As the earth surface warms , outgoing long radiation is emitted back into the
It also contains the ozone radiation surface
layer
Green house gases absorb some of this radiation and deflect it back to earth
The greater the concentration of green house gases the more effectively they
Absorb most of the return radiation to earth
sun UV radiation Smog

The atmospheric pollutants are released in the air when fuels get burned
These gases react with sunlight and its heat to form smog
With the help of high pressure , lack of air flow and temperature inversion layer smog is formed

Atmospheric pollution Temperature inversion A weather condition where the air temperature increases with altitude

During day surface is heated

On calm nights earth surface cools quickly and hold cold air near the ground
Ozone depletion Cold air is denser so unable to rise
Steep sided valleys increase the strength of inversion layer
When CFCs reach the stratosphere the
The layer is the inversion layer which traps pollutants increasing formation of fog thus increasing smog
ultraviolet radiation breaks them down
releasing chlorine Acid rain
Chlorine reacts with ozone , breaking down
Burning of fossil fuels release sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides
the ozone molecule to chlorine monoxide and
When these gases mix and react with water vapor in the atmosphere they form weak nitric and sulphuric acids
oxygen depleting the layer and forming a hole
They are carried by the wind and fall to earth as acid rain
 Impact of atmospheric pollution
Enhanced green house effect

Created by addition of green house gases to the atmosphere through human Breathing difficulties Sun burn
Smog Ozone depletion
activities Reduced photosynthesis Increased rates of skin cancer
Short wave radiation from the sun reaches the earth surface Respiratory diseases Increased mutation
Heat is reflected from earth back to space Irritation of eyes Damage to vegetation
Some heat is trapped by green house gases
Melting ice sheets
The more greenhouse gases the more heat trapped Acidification of ground water Enhanced
Acid rain Loss of biodiversity
This warms up the earth causing global warming Damage to buildings global effect
Rise in sea levels
Fish dies
Migration of people from area
Disruption of food webs
How human activities increases the green house gases ? where there is flood

Carbon dioxide - burning fossil fuels and deforestation

Methane - mining , deforestation , burning of permafrost Walking or cycling
CFCs - aerosol sprays , air conditioning , fire extinguishers Having laws controlling factory emissions
Ways of reducing carbon dioxide emissions
Nitrogen oxides - vehicle exhaust , chemical fertilizers International agreements
Tropospheric - chemical reaction involving nitrogen dioxide Recycling wastes
Renewable resources

Managing atmospheric pollution

Reduce use of fossil fuel and instead use renewable resources The technology that reduces air pollution is expensive
Reasons for difficulty of reducing air pollution
Creation of metro systems and trams that can use biofuels Abundance of fossil fuels
Reduce the use of CFCs May impact the economy
Use catalytic converters in vehicles to reduce sulphur dioxide emissions Not popular with the public
Higher road tax to decrease car ownership
 CHAPTER 8
HUMAN POPULATION

For the population growth of any organism, there are three

phases it passes through:
1- The lag phase: when the organism becomes used to the
new environment.
2- The exponential phase, also known as the log phase:
when population rises rapidly because all requirements
are abundant.
3- The stationary phase: when population is in equilibrium
and reached the carrying capacity of the environment.
4- The environment has a carrying capacity, which is the
maximum size of a population that an environment can
support in terms of food, water, and other resources,
without damage.
Birth rate is the number of live births over time.
Death rate is the total number of deaths over time.
• If birth rate>death rate, population grows
• If birth rate<death rate, population falls.

Factors Affecting Birth Rate:

1- Lack of education makes people unaware of birth control methods (contraception)
2- Lack of education makes women marry early and have more children
3- Families have more children to financially support the family (child labor)
4- In LEDCs it is less costly to have children so they have high birth rate. While in MEDCs it is more
costly to have children
5- High infant mortality and poor health care services in LEDC makes families give birth to more
children.
The movement of people from one area to another is known as migration
Moving from Rural areas (countryside) to urban areas (cities) is know as urbanization.

Why do people migrate?

Due to pull factors and push factors
Pull factors:
- Good standards of living
- Well paid jobs
- Good health care services
 - Good quality education
- Better water supplies
- Good roads and infrastructure
Push factors:
- Unemployment
- Poverty
- Natural disasters like droughts, floods, etc
- Desertification
- Poor services
The Population Pyramid
• The young and the old are dependent (they do not work and are not economically
active therefore rely on those who are working for their needs)
• The middle aged are independent (economically active) and working.
Increasing population

Stable population

Decreasing population

How to control birth rate (ANTI-NATALIST policies):

1- Educate girls so they focus on future career and avoid early marriage
2- Educate people and increase awareness about birth control methods and dangers of high
population growth
3- Provide contraception (birth control)
4- Prevent child labor
5- Use government policies such as the One Child Policy, high taxes, etc
How to increase birth rate (PRONATALIST POLICIES)
1- Give subsidies to families
2- Provide free education and health care to children
3- Education and awareness about the importance of having children to the economy.
 Natural ecosystem and human activities
Ecosystem : all the living things together with all non living things in an area

Population : all the organisms of one species living in a defined area at the same time

Community : a group of populations of different species that live together in an are and interact with each other

Habitat : the place within the ecosystem where an organism lives

Niche : the role of a species within the ecosystem and includes the type of food it eats , where it lives and where it
reproduces and its relationships with other species

Biotic Abiotic

1. Producers 1. Temperature
2. Primary consumers 2. Humidity
3. Secondary consumers 3. Water
4. Tertiary consumers 4. Oxygen
5. Decomposers 5. Salinity
6. light
7. PH

Pollination : transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma for it to fuse with the ovule to fertilize it

1. Pollen grains are either blown by wind or carried by insects

2. The pollen grain lands on the stigma of another flower and sends out a tube that grows down to the ovule
3. Ovule is then fertilized to form an embryo in a seed or fruit that grows into a plant

Photosynthesis

Energy from sunlight is converted to chemical energy using the chlorophyll

Carbon dioxide + water = glucose + oxygen

Importance of chlorophyll
• trap light energy
• Converts light energy into chemical energy

Food chain : a digram showing the relationship between a single producer , primary , secondary and
Tertiary
Food web : a diagram showing relationship between all of the producers , primary , secondary and
tertiary consumers in ecosystem
Trophic level : a feeding level within a food chain or food web
Pyramid of numbers : a diagram that represents the number of organisms at each trophic level in an
ecosystem by a horizontal bar whose length is proportional to the numbers at that level

Respiration : process by which living organisms break down glucose in presence of oxygen to release
CO2 , water and energy to carry out process of life such as movement

Energy is lost by :
1. Movement
2. Used for cellular respiration
3. Used for reproduction
4. Lost as faeces

Carbon cycle

1. Carbon present in the atmosphere is absorbed by plants for photosynthesis

2. These plants are then consumed by animals and carbon gets bio accumulated into their bodies
3. These animals and plants eventually die and upon decomposing carbon is released back into the atmosphere
4. Some of the carbon that is not released back into atmosphere becomes fossil fuels
5. These fossil fuels then used for man made activities which pumps more carbon back into atmosphere

Importance of wet lands

1. The photosynthesis absorbs CO2 and impacts climate change
2. They absorb water so reduce flooding
3. Provide habitats so increase biodiversity
4. Maintenance of water quality
5. Shoreline protection fro m erosion
6. Provide employment
7. Recharging of aquifers

Causes of habitat loss Causes of deforestation

1. Deforstation 1. Land cleared for farming , food production and
2. intensive agricultural practices livestock due to human population extension
3. drainage of wetlands 2. Roads and settlements
3. Rock and mineral extraction
Impacts of habitat loss Impacts of deforestation
1. Loss of biodiversity 1. Habitat loss
2. Extinction 2. Loss of biodiversity and genetic depletion
3. Genetic depletion 3. Soil erosion and desertification
4. Climate change
5. Disruption of food webs
 Measuring and managing biodiversity

Pitfall traps :
• used to sample moving organisms
• Consists of a jar buried in the soil
• Organisms fall into the trap and smooth sides prevent them from escaping
• The jar may or may not be covered
• Traps should be inspected and emptied regularly

Pooter :
• used to sample moving organisms like insects
• Glass mouthpiece suck air through pooter , then insect gets sucked in other tube
• Gauze prevents insects entering mouth so insects get trapped in pot

Transects :
• use a grid map of an area
• Select a starting point
• Count all organisms along the transect or at regular intervals using quadrats
• Record the results in a table
• Repeat the transect in different positions in the same field
• Calculate average number of organisms for the whole field

Quadrat :
• observe the quadrat from a distance for a fixed period of time
• Count the number of plants of the species or area covered by the plants
• Repeat sampling in different positions and take average
• Record results in a table

Method Advantages Disadvantages

• often kill organisms captured

• inexpensive
Pit fall trap • May oversample or under sample
• Easy to set up

• quick
• not applicable in all situations
Transects • Inexpensive
• Portable

Quadrats • quick
• not always very accurate
• Inexpensive
• Sample may be biased if not
• Portable
enough quadarts are placed
 Sampling techniques

Random sampling Systematic sampling

A sampling method in which the sampling A sample method in which the sampling device is
device is placed using random number placed along a line
generator or the roll of dice Used to check how the species change along a
It is used when two areas are to be compared gradient in the environment

Strategies for conserving biodiversity of natural ecosystem

1. Sustainable harvesting of wild plant and animal species

2. Sustainable foresty by using selective logging which is the removal of mature trees only of species that are
valuable
3. Agroforestry a system in which crops are grown around trees
4. Wildlife corridor
5. Extractive reserves
6. National parks
7. Seed banks
8. Wildlife and ecological reserves

Advantages of selective logging

1. Selective logging causes less damage to forest than excessive logging

2. Provides job opportunities
3. Extraction is sustainable
4. Non valued trees still provide habitat for many species and immature valued trees can be used years later

Advantages of national parks

1. Laws that ban activities such as hunting

2. An entry fee charged is used for conservation work
3. Provides jobs and attracts tourists so increase income
4. Guidebook is provided that includes information on the importance of the conservation of wild nature

Why is it difficult to make ecological reserves

1. Difficult to accurately outline the area or restrict access to it

2. Area may be in the territory of more than one country so all countries need to agree
3. Reduce the income of local people
4. Reduce tourism
Role of zoos and captive breeding
• captive breeding programs maintains biodiversity and increase species numbers thus reducing risk of extinction
• Aim to release captive breed animals into the wild when habitats have been restored

Advantages Disadvantages

• provide better diet to animal • difficult to breed animals

• provide continous supply of food to animal • Lack of genetic cariation
• Provide access to medical care • Ethically wrong
• provide education and awarness • Cannot always provide natural habitats

Ways to reduce inbreeding :

• organisms aren’t allowed to breed repeatedly with the same partner
• A variety of partners for an organism can be achieved through IVF and inter zoo swapping of individuals
• Use a database to record breeding history of individuals in captivity

Environmental impacts of large number of tourists

1. More domestic wast

2. More traffic
3. More buildings
4. Increase in demand for water food and electricity
5. Damage to tourist attractions