5th task
30 points
Due Oct 1, 11:59 PM
Research for the first Hindu to discover zero, the first Arab and first westerner to use zero.
Introduce who they are and discuss their contribution to mathematics
Brahmagupta
First hindu to discover zero
Biography:
Brahmagupta was an Ancient Indian astronomer and mathematician who lived from 597 AD to 668 AD. He was born in
the city of Bhinmal in Northwest India. His father, whose name was Jisnugupta, was an astrologer. Although
Brahmagupta thought of himself as an astronomer who did some mathematics, he is now mainly remembered for his
contributions to mathematics.
Quick Guide to Brahmagupta
• was the director of the astronomical observatory of Ujjain, the center of Ancient Indian mathematical astronomy.
• wrote four books about astronomy and mathematics, the most famous of which is Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta (
Brahma’s Correct System of Astronomy, or The Opening of the Universe.)
• said solving mathematical problems was something he did for pleasure.
• was the first person in history to define the properties of the number zero. Identifying zero as a number whose
properties needed to be defined was vital for the future of mathematics and science.
• defined zero as the number you get when you subtract a number from itself.
• said that zero divided by any other number is zero.
• said dividing zero by zero produces zero. (Although, this seems reasonable, Brahmagupta actually got this one wrong.
Mathematicians have now shown that zero divided by zero is undefined – it has no meaning. There really is no answer
to zero divided by zero.)
• was the first person to discover the formula for solving quadratic equations.
• wrote that pi, the ratio of a circle’s circumference to its diameter, could usually be taken to be 3, but if accuracy were
needed, then the square-root of 10 (this equals 3.162…) should be used. This is about 0.66 percent higher than the true
value of pi.
• indicated that Earth is nearer the moon than the sun
• incorrectly said that Earth did not spin and that Earth does not orbit the sun. This, however, may have been for
reasons of self-preservation. Opposing the Brahmins’ religious myths of the time would have been dangerous.
• produced a formula to find the area of any four-sided shape whose corners touch the inside of a circle. This actually
simplifies to Heron’s formula for triangles.
• said the length of a year is 365 days 6 hours 12 minutes 9 seconds.
• calculated that Earth is a sphere of circumference around 36,000 km (22,500 miles).
Brahmagupta established rules for working with positive and negative numbers, such as:
• adding two negative numbers together always results in a negative number.
• subtracting a negative number from a positive number is the same as adding the two numbers.
• multiplying two negative numbers together is the same as multiplying two positive numbers.
• dividing a positive number by a negative, or a negative number by a positive results in a negative number.
Why is Zero Important?
Although it may seem obvious to us now that zero is a number, and obvious that we can produce it by subtracting a
number from itself, and that dividing zero by a non-zero number gives an answer of zero, these results are not actually
obvious.
The brilliant mathematicians of Ancient Greece, so far ahead of their time in many ways, had not been able to make this
breakthrough. Neither had anyone else, until Brahmagupta came along!
It was a huge conceptual leap to see that zero is a number in its own right. Once this leap had been made, mathematics
and science could make progress that would otherwise have been impossible.
Contributions to Mathematics
One of the most significant input of Brahmagupta to mathematics was the introduction of ‘zero’ to the number system
which stood for ‘nothing’. His work the ‘Brahmasphutasiddhanta’ contained many mathematical findings written in verse
form. It had many rules of arithmetic which is part of the mathematical solutions now. These are ‘A positive number
multiplied by a positive number is positive.’, ‘A positive number multiplied by a negative number is negative’, ‘A negative
number multiplied by a positive number is negative’ and ‘A negative number multiplied by a negative number is
positive’. The book also consisted of many geometrical theories like the ‘Pythagorean Theorem’ for a right angle
triangle. Brahmagupta was the one to give the area of a triangle and the important rules of trigonometry such as values
of the sin function. He introduced the formula for cyclic quadrilaterals. He also gave the value of ‘Pi’ as square root ten
to be accurate and 3 as the practical value. Additionally he introduced the concept of negative numbers.
First Arab- al-Khowarizmi
Al-Khwārizmī, in full Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī, (born c. 780 —died c. 850), Muslim mathematician and
astronomer whose major works introduced Hindu-Arabic numerals and the concepts of algebra into European
mathematics. Latinized versions of his name and of his most famous book title live on in the terms algorithm and
algebra.
Al-Khwārizmī lived in Baghdad, where he worked at the “House of Wisdom” (Dār al-Ḥikma) under the caliphate of al-
Maʾmūn. The House of Wisdom acquired and translated scientific and philosophic treatises, particularly Greek, as well
as publishing original research. Al-Khwārizmī’s work on elementary algebra, Al-Kitāb al-mukhtaṣar fī ḥisāb al-jabr waʾl-
muqābala (“The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing”), was translated into Latin in the 12th
century, from which the title and term algebra derives. Algebra is a compilation of rules, together with demonstrations,
for finding solutions of linear and quadratic equations based on intuitive geometric arguments, rather than the abstract
notation now associated with the subject. Its systematic, demonstrative approach distinguishes it from earlier treatments
of the subject. It also contains sections on calculating areas and volumes of geometric figures and on the use of algebra
to solve inheritance problems according to proportions prescribed by Islamic law. Elements within the work can be
traced from Babylonian mathematics of the early 2nd millennium bce through Hellenistic, Hebrew, and Hindu treatises.
In the 12th century a second work by al-Khwārizmī introduced Hindu-Arabic numerals (see numerals and numeral
systems) and their arithmetic to the West. It is preserved only in a Latin translation, Algoritmi de numero Indorum (“Al-
Khwārizmī Concerning the Hindu Art of Reckoning”). From the name of the author, rendered in Latin as Algoritmi,
originated the term algorithm.
Contributions:
Al-Khwarizmi’s other important contribution was algebra, a word derived from the title of a mathematical text he
published in about 830 called “Al-Kitab al-mukhtasar fi hisab al-jabr wa’l-muqabala” (“The Compendious Book on
Calculation by Completion and Balancing”). Al-Khwarizmi wanted to go from the specific problems considered by the
Indians and Chinese to a more general way of analyzing problems, and in doing so he created an abstract
mathematical language which is used across the world today.
His book is considered the foundational text of modern algebra, although he did not employ the kind of algebraic
notation used today (he used words to explain the problem, and diagrams to solve it). But the book provided an
exhaustive account of solving polynomial equations up to the second degree, and introduced for the first time the
fundamental algebraic methods of “reduction” (rewriting an expression in a simpler form), “completion” (moving a
negative quantity from one side of the equation to the other side and changing its sign) and “balancing” (subtraction of
the same quantity from both sides of an equation, and the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides).
In particular, Al-Khwarizmi developed a formula for systematically solving quadratic equations (equations involving
unknown numbers to the power of 2, or x2) by using the methods of completion and balancing to reduce any equation to
one of six standard forms, which were then solvable. He described the standard forms in terms of “squares” (what
would today be “x2“), “roots” (what would today be “x“) and “numbers” (regular constants, like 42), and identified the six
types as: squares equal roots (ax2 = bx), squares equal number (ax2 = c), roots equal number (bx = c), squares and
roots equal number (ax2 + bx = c), squares and number equal roots (ax2 + c = bx), and roots and number equal squares
(bx + c = ax2).
Al-Khwarizmi is usually credited with the development of lattice (or sieve) multiplication method of multiplying large
numbers, a method algorithmically equivalent to long multiplication. His lattice method was later introduced into Europe
by Fibonacci.
In addition to his work in mathematics, Al-Khwarizmi made important contributions to astronomy, also largely based on
methods from India, and he developed the first quadrant (an instrument used to determine time by observations of the
Sun or stars), the second most widely used astronomical instrument during the Middle Ages after the astrolabe. He also
produced a revised and completed version of Ptolemy’s “Geography”, consisting of a list of 2,402 coordinates of cities
throughout the known world.
First westerner- LEONARDO FIBONACCI
Early Life & Education
Leonardo Fibonacci, also known as Leonardo of Pisa or Leonardo Pisano was born sometime around 1175 in Pisa,
Italy into the Bonacci family. You many Pisa from its associated Leaning Tower of Pisa, whose earliest construction
started right around the time of Fibonacci's birth.
Although born in Pisa, Fibonacci was actually brought up in Bugia, Algeria. That's because when Fibonacci was little,
his father, Guglielmo, was a merchant. Guglielmo was given the responsibility of overseeing a network of Pisan
merchants in North Africa, specifically in Bugia.
Fibonacci studied calculation with an Arab teacher and then traveled around to Sicily, Greece, Syria, and Egypt to study
even more calculation and numerical systems. Partly as a result of this, Fibonacci sometimes used the nickname of
'Bigollo', which may mean traveler.
Contributions
Later Life and Accomplishments
Around 1200, Fibonacci finally settled down in Pisa and wrote numerous important texts on mathematics. The ones that
have survived to this day include:
Liber abaci (1202 CE), which covered Fibonacci's knowledge of algebra and arithmetic, as well as how
merchants can calculate profits, convert between currencies, and more.
Practica geometriae (1220 CE), which focuses on geometry problems and practical information for surveyors.
Flos (1225 CE), where Fibonacci analyzes various mathematical problems.
Liber quadratorum (1225 CE), a book on number theory.
Thanks to his works, Fibonacci helped introduce Europe (beyond a few intellectuals) to concepts we nowadays take for
granted, like:
Using the numbers 0 - 9 in calculations
Operations using integers and fractions
The extraction of roots
How to apply this math to transactions
Mathematical Contributions
Fibonacci is considered to be one of the most talented mathematicians of the Middle Ages. Few people realize that it
was Fibonacci that gave the world the decimal number system (Hindu-Arabic numbering system), which replaced the
Roman numeral system. When he was studying mathematics, he used the Hindu-Arabic (0-9) symbols instead of
Roman symbols, which didn't have zeros and lacked place value.
In fact, when using the Roman numeral system, an abacus was usually required. There is no doubt that Fibonacci saw
the superiority of using Hindu-Arabic system over the Roman Numerals.
Liber Abaci
Fibonacci showed the world how to use what is now our current numbering system in his book "Liber Abaci," which he
published in 1202. The title translates as "The Book of Calculation." The following problem was written in his book:
"A certain man put a pair of rabbits in a place surrounded on all sides by a wall. How many pairs of rabbits can be
produced from that pair in a year if it is supposed that every month each pair begets a new pair, which from the second
month on becomes productive?"
It was this problem that led Fibonacci to the introduction of the Fibonacci Numbers and the Fibonacci Sequence, which
is what he remains famous for to this day.
The sequence is 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55... This sequence shows that each number is the sum of the two
preceding numbers. It is a sequence that is seen and used in many different areas of mathematics and science today.
The sequence is an example of a recursive sequence.
The Fibonacci Sequence defines the curvature of naturally occurring spirals, such as snail shells and even the pattern
of seeds in flowering plants. The Fibonacci Sequence was actually given the name by a French mathematician Edouard
Lucas in the 1870s.
Death and Legacy
In addition to "Liber Abaci," Fibonacci authored several other books on mathematical topics ranging from geometry to
squaring numbers (multiplying numbers by themselves). The city of Pisa (technically a republic at that time) honored
Fibonacci and granted him a salary in 1240 for his help in advising Pisa and its citizens on accounting issues. Fibonacci
died between 1240 and 1250 in Pisa.
Fibonacci is famous for his contributions to number theory.
In his book, "Liber Abaci," he introduced the Hindu-Arabic place-valued decimal system and the use of Arabic
numerals into Europe.
He introduced the bar that is used for fractions today; previous to this, the numerator had quotations around it.
The square root notation is also a Fibonacci method.
It has been said that the Fibonacci Numbers are nature's numbering system and that they apply to the growth of living
things, including cells, petals on a flower, wheat, honeycomb, pine cones, and much more.
6th task
25 points
Due Oct 1, 11:59 PM
Kindly place here the 5 nursery counting rhymes for learners
7th task
60 points
Due Oct 4, 11:59 PM
Kindly place here the table for the other historical numbers Greek, Armenian, Hebrew, Chinese standard, Chinese
financial
One, Two, Buckle My Shoe
One, two, buckle my shoe
Three, four, shut the door
Five, six, pick up sticks
Seven, eight, lay them straight
Nine, ten, begin again
Humpty Dumpty
Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall,
Humpty Dumpty had a great fall,
All the king’s horses and all the king’s men,
Couldn’t put Humpty together again.
One, two, three, four
One, two, three, four, five
Once I caught a fish alive.
Six, seven, eight, nine, ten
Then I let it go again.
Why did you let it go?
Because it bit my finger so.
Which finger did it bite?
This little finger on my right.
Jack and Jill
Jack and Jill went up the hill
To fetch a pail of water.
Jack fell down and broke his crown,
And Jill came tumbling after.
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Once I Caught a Fish Alive
1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
Once I caught a fish alive,
6, 7, 8, 9, 10,
Then I let it go again.
Why did you let it go?
Because it bit my finger so.
Which finger did it bite?
This little finger on my right.
Here is the Beehive
Here is the beehive (make a fist)
Where are the bees?
Hiding inside where nobody sees
Watch them come creeping out of the hive
One, two, three, four, five (release one finger at a time from the fist/hive)
…BUZZ-ZZZ (wiggle fingers)
