DATA CENTER COLLEGE OF THE PHILIPPINES

College of Criminal Justice Education

Laoag City

Forensic Ballistics

CHAPTER I
BALLISTICS AND EVOLUTION OF
FIREARMS
The firearm was invented in China during the 13th century for usage as a signaling and celebration
device and remained so for hundreds of years. After the Chinese invented black powder during the 9th
century, these inventions were later transmitted to the Middle East, Africa, and Europe. The direct ancestor of
the firearm is the fire lance, the prototype of the gun. The fire lance was invented in China during the 10th
century and is the predecessor of all firearms.

The first use of “ballistics” as a synonym for firearms matching was by Calvin Goddard, an early
pioneer in the field. Goddard picked the term “Forensic Ballistics” in the 1920s after much consideration, in
an effort to employ terms that would be concise and meaningful.

Ballistics is the science of mechanics that deals with the launching, flight, behavior, and effects
of projectiles, especially bullets, unguided bombs, rockets, or the like; the science or art of designing and
accelerating projectiles so as to achieve a desired performance.

A ballistic body is a body with momentum which is free to move, subject to forces, such as the pressure of gases
in a gun or a propulsive nozzle, by rifling in a barrel, by gravity, or by air drag

ORIGIN OF BALLISTICS

The word “BALLISTICS” originated from the Greek word

“Ballein” which means “to throw” and from the Roman word
“Ballista” which is machine to hurl a stone.
Based on etymology, the term ballistics evolved from two
ancient words: “ballista” and “ballein”. Ballista is a mid – 18th
century English word that came from the Romans about early 16 th
century. This was the description of a huge catapult (an ancient
military weapon) used by the Romans to hurl large stones at a
particular distance to kill animals or to fight their enemies. The word
ballista probably came from Greeks via Latin. It was derived from the
Greek word ballein which maybe translated as “to throw”.

Ballistics is the science that deals with the study of the motion of
projectiles and the conditions affecting the motion. The study of ballistics covered from the time the gunpowder
explode, the time the projectiles leaves from the barrel of the gun and the time it strike the target.

Why ballistics is a science?

Ballistics is a science because it is based on the systematized body of knowledge, and also the scientific
equipment utilized in the crime laboratory for the examination of physical evidence.
Various Definitions of Terms in Ballistics

1. BASIC- activity that involves throwing

2. TECHNICAL- It refers to the science of firearms identification.
3. LEGAL- It is the microscopic examination of fired cartridge cases and bullets together with the
recording and presentation by means of photography of what is revealed by the microscope.
4. BROADEST- The science of motions of projectiles.
5. POLICE PARLANCE (and the press)- frequently used to Firearms Identification

Fundamental Definitions of Terms

 Motions – Refers to movement or mobility of projectiles inside the barrel or after the projectiles left the
gun barrel.
 Projectiles – The metallic or non-metallic objects propelled from a firearm by means of heated gas,
coming from the burning powder.
 Trajectory –The actual curved path taken by a bullet during its flight from the gun muzzle to the target
or this refers to the path followed by a projectile flying or an object moving under the action of given
forces.
 Velocity - This refers to the rate of speed of the bullet (during its flight) per unit of time, and it is usually
expressed in feet per second (ft/sec) and measured through the use of a chronograph machine.
 Range - This refers to the imaginary straight distance from the muzzle of the gun to the target.
 Drift – The lateral deviation of the bullet.
 Drag - is the force of wind or air resistance pushing in the opposite direction to the motion of the object.
 Penetration - Refers to the depth of entry of the bullet on the target.
 Ricochet - The motion of an object or a projectile in rebounding or deflecting one or more times from
the surface over which it is passing or against which it hits a glancing blow.
 Gravity – This refers to the natural force that causes the things to fall toward the earth.
 Air Resistance - This refers to the resistance encountered by the bullet while in flight.
 Perforation – a face to face opening to the target.
 Choke - The degree of narrowing at the muzzle end of the shotgun barrel.
 Gauge - It refers to the measure of calibre of shotgun; number of lead balls of the given bore diameter
required to make up one pound weight.
 Detonation – refers to the physical action of high explosives.
 Fragmentation – the destructive effect of detonation wave when it strikes a solid material.
 Indentation – a crater look alike as a result of partial penetration.
 Forensic Ballistics - ballistics applied in the determination of legal evidence especially as
concerned with the identification of firearms, ammunition, bullets, and cartridge cases.

A. THE DISCOVERY OF BLACK POWDER

Black powder, first developed by Chinese alchemists, was the first explosive used to propel missiles for military
reasons. As early as 10th century, gunpowder began to be used for military purposes in china in the form of rockets and
explosive bombs fired from catapults. However there is some evidence that the Arabs were the first to developed black
powder. By 1304, the Arabs had produced the first gun, a bamboo tube reinforced with iron that used a charge of black
powder to shoot an arrow. From china the military use of black powder spread to Europe.

B. THE FIRST PROBLEMS IN BALLISTICS

One of the significant historical events related to ballistics is the battle of Crecy where the English fought the Fren ch
and won the battle with negligible casualty. It was in this battle that the English fired the first gun-launched projectiles and
encountered the basic problems in interior ballistics. These basic problems are as follows:
1.How to maximize the speed of a projectile without bursting the gun?
2.How fast the gunpowder should burn?
3.How a gun can survive many firings without damage?

C. DEVELOPMENT OF THEORY ABOUT TRAJECTORY

Trajectory - the actual curved path taken by a bullet during its flight from the gun muzzle to the target.
Until the middle of 16th century, it was believed that bullets travel in straight line from the gun to the target. This belief
was disproved later by Tartaglia, Galileo and Newton.

1. TARTAGLIA an Italian mathematician, whose real name is Niccolo Fontana, conducted the first systematic study
on gunnery and was the first to prove that an elevation of 45 degrees was the slope of gun barrel required to produce
 the greatest range for projectile launched by a firearm. He also explained that the greater velocity of a projectile the
flatter its path.
2. GALILEO GALILEI was the first to conclude that reduction of speed due to drag depends on the projectile’s
shape, density and weight. He also explains that the trajectory of a projectile fired in a vacuum from inclined gun
barrel would include both the ascending and descending ends of a parabola.
3. SIR ISAAC NEWTON a British scientist discovered that the drag was apparently proportional to the square of the
projectile’s velocity. He found out this by dropping pellets from different altitudes.

D. VELOCITY OF PROJECTILES

Velocity simply refers to the projectiles rate of speed per unit of time which is usually measured in ft/sec.
The first idea on how to measure muzzle velocity of firearms was suggested in 1707 by GiovanniCassini, a French
astronomer. About 1740, measuring the muzzle velocity of any firearms was made possible because of an instrument
invented by a British Engineer Benjamin Robins known as ‘ballisticpendulum’. Later the gun pendulum, a modification
of ballistic pendulum, was developed by Benjamin Thompson.
By determining the relationship that exist between the caliber, length of barrel and charge of powder, Robins
substantially advanced the science of gunnery thus today; he is called the father of modern gunnery.

At about 1760, French ballisticians determined the relationship of muzzle velocity to length of barrel by measuring
the velocity of a musket ball and cutting of a portion before taking the velocity of the next shot. By using the results of
experiments and advances in chemistry and thermodynamics, ballisticians developed formulas showing the following:
1. The relationship between the muzzle velocity and weight and shape of projectile;
2. Weight, type, and grain size of powder charge;
3. pressure and temperature in the barrel; and
4. The size of the powder chamber and the length of the barrel.

In 1840, the British physicist Sir Charles Wheatstone suggested the use of electricity for measuring small intervals
of time. This suggestion led to the development of the chronograph, a device for recording, by electrical means, the time
required for a projectile to pass between two screens of fine wire.

SIGNIFICANT DEVELOPMENTS

In 1807, Alexander John Forsythe, a Scottish Presbyterian Minister, introduced the idea of using detonating chemicals
to ignite the gunpowder placed in the cartridge case. He was the first to use such kind of technique that applied the
principle of percussion to improve firearms and ammunitions. His idea earned him the title of being the father of
percussion ignition in ballistics.

In 1841, a breech – loading infantry rifle the so-called needle gun because of its long sharp firing pin was invented by
Johann Dreyse and issued to some Prussian regiments.

In 1845, Major Cavalli of Sardinia developed a serviceable breech – loading artillery rifle.
In 1857, works of General Thomas Jackson Rodman in United States led to improvements in the grain –form of
powder and in making guns.

In 1886, Paul Vieille in France invented smokeless gunpowder called Poudre B, which is more efficient than black
powder.

In 1887,Alfred Nobel developed another kind of smokeless gunpowder. This eventually became known as cordite, a
powder easier to handle and more powerful than Poudre B.

IMPORTANT DATES IN FIREARMS HISTORY

1350—Small arms, gunpowder was first used only in cannons. It was in the middle of the 14 th century that portable hand
F.A. were introduced, these guns were ignited by a hand-held wire or lighted match.

1498—Riffling. The first reference to rifled barrels appeared. Although it’s important as an aid to accuracy was
recognized by some. It was many years after before rifling was generally used.

1575—Cartridges, paper cartridges combining both powder and ball were developed. This greatly speeded loading and
reduced the hazards of carrying loose, powder.

1807—Percussion system, the discovery of Forsythe in 1807 that certain compounds detonated by a blow would be used
to ignite the charge in a firearm, for the basis for all later percussion and cartridges development.

1835—Samuel Colt- patented the first practical revolvers in which the cylinder was rotated by cocking the hammer.

1836—Pin fire Cartridge. Developed by Faucheux in 1836, was probably the first self really the first rim fire cartridge.
1858—Center fire cartridge. The Morse cartridge of 1858 marked the beginning of the rapid development of the center
fire cartridge.

1884—Automatic machine Gun. Hiram Maxim built the first fully automatic gun, utilizing the recoil of the piece to load
and fire the next charge.

1885—Smokeless powder. In France, Veille, developed the first satisfactory smokeless powder, a new propellant which
not only lacked the smoke characteristics of black powder, but also more powerful.

1845—Rim fire Cartridge. In France, Flobert developed a “bullet” “breech cap” which was in really the first rim fire
cartridge.

THE FIRST FIREARM

Bombard- an ancient
cannon used by King Edward
(1346) during the battle of Crecy. It
is initially made of wooden or iron
staves bound together with hoops.

- De Officils regnum’ (on the duties of kings) - an English manuscript as specific reference regarding use of
firearms that shows an illustration of small canon being fired.

Hand gonne- it consist of

number of small caliber cannon
barrels mounted on a light cart.

- Augsburg Germany - it is where the first cast bronze gun was made.

Berthold Schwarz (1313) – a

German monk who devised the
earliest gun known as ‘pots de fer’
and ‘vasi’ that uses gunpowder as
propellant.
EARLY FIREARMS

FIRELOCK- developed in the first quarter of the 14 th

century with a smooth-bore tube of iron closed at the breech end
except for an opening called touchhole.

MATCHLOCK – it was introduced in 15 th century as a type of

musket with a slow match clamped in the top called serpentine that
is used to ignite the powder on the flash pan.

WHEEL-LOCK – the first fire-lock appeared about 1515 with an

improved firing mechanism which consists of spring driven
wheel.

SNAPHANCE – invented in early 17th century with firing

mechanism consisting of a hammer powered by a trigger spring
and bearing a piece of flint.

FLINTLOCK – it is the final development of a flint ignition firearm with an L-shaped striker plate
 CHAPTER II
BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS

I. INTERIOR BALLISTICS
Is the study of the motion and traits of projectile, while still inside the gun barrel, this covers from the time, the
firearm is loaded with the cartridge, the explosion and the movement of the bullet towards the muzzle end of the gun.

Physics of firing ammunition:

Firing a cartridge is a physical and chemical chain reaction that takes place in a split second.

1. The chain reaction starts with the pulling of the trigger, which releases the firing pin.
2. The firing pin strikes the primer
The firing pin should hit the primer, in order to explode. It requires enough length of firing pin to strike the
primer. If the firing pin is lacking length, the perforation in the primer created by the firing pin blow, won’t crush
the priming mixture in between the primer and the anvil, then no explosion takes place, because the primer is in
the upper portion of the primer cup, while the anvil is inside the primer cup, next to the priming mixture. The
failure of the cartridge to explode after the firing pin strikes the primer is called, misfire.
Defects in firearm that cause to misfire:
a. Broken firing pin
b. Loose firing pin
c. Lacking length in firing pin
3. Ignition of priming mixture (Percusion Action)
Priming mixture (composing of the KCLO3, sulphur and carbon) is a very sensitive chemical compound
located inside the primer cup. It is composed of different ingredients which served as initiator and fuel. In order to
ignite the priming mixture, it must be live and potent and must be devoid of any moisture. However, despite of the
absence of mechanical defects in the firearm, as well as the highly sensitive mixture of chemical compound, it
will not explode in a split of a second, but delayed, and explode several seconds after the firing pin blow the
primer, the delay of explosion, is known as hangfire.

Probable defects in the contents of the primer cup

a. Wet priming mixture (due to moisture)

b. The anvil is not properly fixed slanting position)
c. No vent or flash- hole (factory defect)
d. No priming mixture at all ( factory defect)

4. Combustion of Gunpowder
After the primer crushed the priming mixture against the
anvil, there will be an ignition of priming mixture and the primer
flash, passes through the vent or canal towards the gunpowder. This
primer flash, provides ignition and combustion of the gunpowder. In
order that the cartridge will explode, both the priming mixture and the gunpowder must be live.

5. Expansion of Heated Gas in the Chamber

There will be equal expansion of heated gas inside the cartridge, after the combustion of gun powder. The gas
expanded in the different direction that tends the bullet and shell to separate from each other in the cartridge.

6. Pressure developed
When a heated gas created by the burning powder charge is developed, a tremendous pressure is produced in
the chamber of the firearm. When the cartridge case finally separate from the bullet, the cartridge case, will be
pushed back to the breech face of the firearm.

7. Energy Generated
Energy is the capacity to do work. The potential energy serves as the propellant of the expanded gases, in as
much as the pressure that is developed has that degree of energy to force the projectile out of the shell. It is the
measure of force in foot-pound necessary for an action.
 8. Recoil of the Gun
The recoil of the gun is cause, by the equal and opposite reaction of the gun, against the forward movement of
the bullet after the explosion. Like kinetic energy principle that, in every action, there is corresponding opposite
reaction.
To minimize the recoil of the gun, the gun owner should buy a gadget that will tend to reduce the recoil in
every firing of the gun. This is called Muzzle brake or compensator and this gadget is placed or attached to the
muzzle of the gun to reduced recoil.

Jump is another portion of the recoil action that is characterized as the backward and upward movement takes
place before the bullet leaves the muzzle.

9. Velocity of the Bullet in the Barrel

The bullet will travel the bore of the barrel depending on the powder load of the cartridges, since it is the
powder load will propel the bullet in the bore of the barrel of the firearm. The firearm is only an instrument used
in the propulsion of bullets or projectiles.

10. Rotation of the Bullet in the Barrel

When the bullet is driven by the heated gas by tremendous pressure towards the muzzle end, the bullet will
rotate following the rifling or lands and grooves inside that gun barrel.

11. Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet

The lands and the grooves, starting from the breech end up to the muzzle end of the barrel, will engraved in
the body of the bullet, depending on the number of lands and grooves as part of the class characteristics of the firearm.

II. EXTERIOR BALLISTICS

Is the study of the motion and traits of projectiles, after it has left from the muzzle of the gun, which includes
the condition of the bullets movement, and flight up to the target.

ATTRIBUTES AND MOVEMENTS OF THE BULLETS

1. Muzzle Blast – This refers to the noise created at the muzzle point or the gun by the reason of sudden escape of
the expanding gas when it comes to instant contact with the air in the surrounding atmosphere at muzzle point.

- Due to this sound at the muzzle end of the gun, a muffler or silencer was invented to minimize the sound,
which the criminal took advantage to conceal the crime.

2. Muzzle Energy – This refers to the energy generated at muzzle point measured in foot-pound. This is attributed
to the hot gas liberating at the muzzle point.
3. Trajectory – This refers to the actual curve path of the bullet during its flight from the gun muzzle to the target,
which usually occurred a few meters away from the muzzle of the firearm called wobbling.

This is due to the air resistance encountered by the bullet

Stages of Trajectory
a. Straight horizontal line
b. Parabola Like Flight
c. Vertical drop

DRIFT – Lateral deviation of the bullet.

Factors Affecting Trajectory

a. Gravity – results in a downward curve path
b. Air Resistance – slows its flight
c. Mass – is the weight of the bullet
d. Velocity – is the speed of the bullet

4. Range –This refers to the imaginary straight distance from the muzzle of the gun to the target.
a. Accurate range – This refers to the distance within which the firer has control of his shots, meaning he can
place his shots at a desired spots.
b. |Effective range – The distance within which a bullet is still capable of inflicting injury after it has been fired.
c. Maximum range – the distance that a projectile can be propelled from a firearm. The farthest distance the
bullet could travel.
d. Gallery range – indoor target range
 5. Velocity – This refers to the rate of speed of the bullet (during its flight) per unit of time, and it is usually
expressed in feet per second (ft/sec) and measured through the use of a chronograph machine.

a. Velocity – the speed of a bullet measured in ft/sec

b. Energy – The fatal equivalent of a bullet
c. Yaw – This is the unstable rotating motion of the bullet.

Key-hole shot – the tumbling of the bullet in

its flight and hitting the target sideways as a
result of not spinning on its axis.
d. Gyroscopic action – This refers to the
stillness of rotating motion and attains its
highest momentum for stability in flight
penetrating power.

6. Air resistance (Aerodynamic Drag) – This refers to

the resistance encountered by the bullet while in flight.
Three Parts of Drag Bullet
a. Bow resistance – this is due air pressure at the head of the bullet.
b. Skin friction – this is caused by the friction of the air moving along the middle portion of the body of the
bullet.
c. Base Drag – this is due to the pressure and disturbance of the air behind the base of the bullet.

7. Pull of gravity – This refers to the downtown reaction of the bullet towards earth center due to its weight. This
is based on the principle that anything that goes up must goes down.

8. Penetration- Refers to the depth of entry of the bullet on the target.

III. TERMINAL BALLISTICS

It is the study dealing with the effect of the impact of the projectile on the target. The knocking power of
particular powder load of the cartridges makes a devastating lesion, caused by the bullet especially the type of
bullet that open the ogive or nose portion, and expand when it penetrates the body of the victim.

When a projectile hits its target, terminal ballistics phenomenon that occurs maybe one or a combination of the
following:
a. Indentation – a crater look alike as a result of partial penetration.
b. Penetration – occurs when the stress intensities impact exceed the yield stress of the target.
c. Perforation – a face to face opening to the target.
d. Ricochet – it occurs when the target is resistant to the bullet and more frequent when the impact angle increases.
e. Detonation – refers to the physical action of high explosives.
f. Fragmentation – the destructive effect of detonation wave when it strikes a solid material.
g. Combustion and incendiary effects.

Subject of Study, under Terminal Ballistics

a. Terminal Accuracy – This refers to the size of the bullet grouping on the target.
b. Terminal Energy – This refers to the energy of the projectile when it strikes the target. This refers to the fatal
equivalent of a bullet when it struck the victim. The effects will have a visual damage, aside from being
knockdown. It may also create an impending death of the victim due to severe wound and hemorrhage.
c. Terminal Penetration – This refers to the depth of entry of the bullet on the target. Penetration is significant also
in determining the safety requirement for target backstop. At two hundred yards, an average military rifle
projectile, will penetrate abut twenty four inches in case of loam soil, fourteen inches in case of oak tree, seven
inches depth in case dry sand and four inches in case of concrete or cemented wall.
d. Terminal Velocity – This refers to the speed of the bullet upon striking the target.

IV. FORENSIC BALLISTICS

This refers to the study of firearms identification by means of ammunition fired from them. The mechanical
characteristics and idiosyncrasies of firearms are vital for forensic purposes, for besides the striations left on the discharge
bullet the spent cartridge case will also be marked in various ways.

This branch of ballistics is the product of the application of the ballistics to law. The idea comes with the use of the
word forensic. The word Forensic was derived from the Latin word “forum” meaning a “market place” where people
gathered for public disputation or public discussion.
Phases of Forensic Ballistics under Investigation
1. Field investigations – This refers to the work of an investigator in the field. It concerns mostly with the
collection, marking, preservation, packing and transmission of ballistics exhibits such as fired bullets, fired
shells, firearms, and allied matters. Each evidences collected should be reflected in the sketch as to its
location where found. Measurement as to the distance from the fixed post should be indicated, marked and
engraved number on each physical evidence as their identity, to prompt any reconstruction of evidence in
court.

2. Technical Examinations of the Ballistics Exhibits – This refers to the work of firearms examiners or
experts who examine bullets and/or shells whether fired from the suspected firearm submitted; and/or
determine also whether or not cartridges were loaded or ejected from the suspected firearm submitted.
Reports are made by the experts and testify in court.

3. Preparation for court trial – The forensic firearms examiner will prepare the Ballistics Report, the
photomicrograph and other physical evidences such as fired bullets, fired shells and evidence firearms
necessary document related to the physical evidence. It is mandatory on the part of the forensic firearm
examiner, to predict and review all probable questions.

SHOT BALLISTICS
This refers to the study of shots from smooth bore firearms like shotguns and muskets.

 When a shot shell is fired from a shotgun, the pellets leave the barrel and begin to spread or scatter. The farther
the pellets travel, the greater the spread of shot. Shotgun barrels have a choke to control the spread or shot pattern.

Shotgun – has a smooth bore, fire multiple pellets and also it can fire single slug.

Gauge- It refers to the measure of calibre of shotgun; number of lead balls of the given bore diameter required to make
up one pound weight.

CHOKE
The degree of narrowing at the muzzle end of the shotgun barrel.

 It acts like the nozzle of a garden hose. As the nozzle is tightened, water shoots out in a long, narrow stream,
similar to the full choke on a shotgun. As the nozzle is opened, similar to the cylinder choke on a shotgun, water
shoots out in a wider spray.

 Your distance from the target determines the choke you need. The choke does not alter the shotgun’s power—it
just controls how tight or spread out the shot pattern will be at a specific distance.

 The spread effect of the most common chokes is illustrated below.

Shot Spread – Is determined by the choke

a. Full choke - This produces a tight pattern. Suitable for longer ranges. Pattern is too dense and small for hunting at
close range.
b. Modified Choke - This produces a more open pattern, suitable for medium ranges. Recommended for upland
hunting.
c. Improved Cylinder - This produces an even more open pattern, suitable for short ranges. At longer ranges, the
shot pattern is too thin to ensure hits.
d. Cylindrical Bore - This produces the most open pattern, suitable for shortest ranges. At longer range, pattern is
too thin to ensure hits.
Different Shotgun Bore Diameter
Shotgun gauge number I, with equivalent of bore diameter of the barrel, is expressed in thousandths of an inch, in
English System of Measurement, are as follows.

WOUND BALLISTICS
- This refers to the study of projectile penetration on
tissues.

Entry wound are generally clean, round holes slightly

smaller than bullets which caused them; as the bullet travel through
the body it produces a shock wave which damages the tissue around
its path. This is known as “tissue quake”. The bullet will be slowed
by the passage through the body and its exit will leave an irregular
hole. If the bullet exits head-on, the wound will be smaller than the
entry but if it leaves the body at an irregular angle, or take pieces of
bone with it, the exit wound will be ragged. Contact wounding with
the muzzle pressed the skin will produce not a round entry but star
shaped hole with lacerated edges.
RANGE Muzzle- target distance Wound characteristics
1. contact -Muzzle in contact with body (or a - Edges seared by gases and propellant
very short distance – a few centimeters (“baked” into the skin).
– from body)
2. Close range - Muzzle to target distance within - red-brown to orange-red propellant grain
(intermediate near) about arms length i.e. 3 feet tattooing

3. Distant - Muzzle to target distance greater than

- produced by mechanical action of bullet
about 3 feet penetration of skin only; i.e. skin defect
typically with abraded margin.
Gunshot Wound (GSW) - an open wound produced by the penetration of bullet slug within the tissues of the body.
3 basic kinds of gunshot wound

1. Contact wound – gun muzzle is pressed against the skin or within an inch or two.
2. close wound – 6 inches to 2 feet distance
3. distance discharge – over two feet

RANGE OF FIRE OF GUNSHOT WOUNDS

Gun Shot Wound Characteristics

 Muzzle Pattern– indicates contact wound and are often observed in suicide cases; edges are found ragged (torn in
star shape) and the wound is like an exit wound.
 Scorching – caused by the flame or hot gases not by the hot projectiles as is commonly believed; also known as
burning or charring.
 Blackening – caused by the deposition of smoke particles by all types of powders at close ranges.
  Tattooing (a.k.a. peppering) – caused by the embedding of un-burnt and semi burnt powder particles into the
surface of the target.

Other GSW Characteristics:

 Pink Coloration – caused by absorbed carbon monoxide in the skin and flesh.
 Dirt Ring– deposited by some projectile (which carry greases on them) around the wound. Existence of this
indicates the entrance side of a firearm injury.
 Contusion – caused by the impact of the projectile (reddish dark to bluish black - varies somewhat with the age of
the injury). It takes the form of a belt around the wound. It is of uniform in thickness.
 Foreign Materials –not only permits the identification of the firearms injury but they also permit a fairly reliable
guess of firearm.

Factors influencing entrance and exit gunshot wounds:

 Kind of weapon - higher power, the more destruction
 Caliber of the weapon - higher caliber, greater the size of the wound of entrance, hence, greater destruction to the
tissues.
 Shape and composition- conical shape free end of the bullet slug has more penetrating power but less tissue
destruction, while bullet slug with hemispherical free end had less penetrating but more destruction to the tissues.

Deforming bullets (dumdum, hallow point) causes more destruction. Fragmentary bullets may cause further injury.
The tracer bullet may cause burning upon hitting the body.
 Range of fire - in long range fire, the characteristic effect of the bullet alone will produce the injury.
 Direction of fire - right angle: round shape wound, acute angle: oval shape wound
 Part of the body involved: soft tissues of the body, the bullet penetrates and usually without any change in
direction, however upon hitting the bones and other hard body structures the bullet may fracture the bones causing
further injury or may deflect to another direction.
SHOTGUN WOUND
Proximity/Distance Effects and/or Characteristics
Contact Fire irregular with bursting of tissues; burning of the skin and the tissues;
singeing of the hair; presence of wads and particles of gunpowder inside
the wound

Near shot up to 6 laceration of the skin and destruction of tissues; burning of the skin and
inches particles of gunpowder are present inside and around the wound of
entrance; singeing of the hair as well as pieces of wads inside and outside
the wound of entrance.
About 1 yard pellets penetrate the tissues as one mass making the wound with irregular
edge; blackening of tissues with slight burning, singeing of the hair or
gunpowder tattooing.
About 2-3 yards has a big central hole with ragged edges and a few stray wounds of
entrance around the central hole; no more blackening or burning of the
skin, gunpowder tattooing, singeing of the hair and pieces of wads or near
the wound of entrance.
About 4 yards small group of pellets may penetrate the tissues producing a central core,
although plenty of pellets in a wider dispersion may produce separate
wound of entrance; pellets dispersed about one and a half the distance in
yards in non-choked barrel while in full-choked bore the dispersion is one
half less but there is a wider dispersion in short barrel shotgun.

X-rays in Gunshot Wounds

- In gunshot wound cases x-rays should “always” be performed.
To answer the questions:
a. Is the projectile present?
b. If present, where is the projectile located?
c. If the projectile exited, are projectile fragments present and where are they located?
d. What type of ammunition or weapon was used?
e. What was the path of the projectile?
 CHAPTER III
Invention of Firearms
 Due to the desire of man to increase the range of his weapons, firearm was invented

Famous Persons in Ballistics

1. Calvin H. Goddard – Father of modern Ballistics. He is the man who first utilized the
bullet comparison microscope to prove the identity of a fired bullet through comparison
with a test bullet.

2. Horace Smith – Founded the great firm Smith and

Wesson and pioneered the making of breech- lock

3. Daniel B. Wesson – He was an associate or partners of

Smith in revolver making.

4. John M. Browning – He was the wizard of modern firearms and pioneered the breech loading single shot rifle that
was adopted by Winchester.
5. John T. Thompson – He pioneered the making of Thompson submachine gun.

Drum and Box Magazine

6. David “Carbine” Williams – He was the maker of the first known carbine.

7. Alexander John Forsyth – Accorded the father of the percussion ignition. He successfully invented the priming
mixture and caused the integration of the primer, bullet, gunpowder and shell into one unit.
 8. Elisha King Root – He designed machinery of making Colt firearms.
9. Samuel Colt – Produced the most practical revolver bringing to what most gunsmiths would agree was its perfect
form in the colt Army 1873 model, which became famous for its .45 caliber.
10. John C. Garand – He designed and invented the semi – Automatic U.S rifle, Cal. .30 M1 garand

11. Oliver Winchester – He was the one of the earliest rifles and pistol makers.
12. Michael Kalashnikov – Designed the AK (Automat Kalashnikova) 47 (Soviet Union) adopted by the Russian
Army in the year 1951.

WHAT IS FIREARM?
RA 10591 or the Comprehensive Firearms and Ammunition Regulation Act of 2013.

Legal definition:

Under RA 10591, Firearm is any handheld or portable weapon, whether a small arm or light weapon, that expels or is
designed to expel a bullet, shot, slug, missile or any projectile, which is discharged by means of expansive force of gases
from burning gunpowder or other form of combustion or any similar instrument or implement. For purposes of this Act,
the barrel, frame or receiver is considered a firearm

In addition,its legal definition may be found in Sec. 877 of the Revised Administrative Code as well as in Sec. 290 of the
National Internal Revenue Code, and this read as follows:

Sec. 877, Firearms or Arms – as herein used includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, pistols, revolvers, and
all other deadly weapons from which bullets, ball shots, shells, or other explosives. This term also include air rifles,
except, those of being small caliber, limited range and used as toys. The barrel of any firearm shall be considered a
complete firearm for all purposes hereof.

Technical definition: a firearm is an instrument used for the propulsion of projectiles by means of the expansive force of
gases, coming from the burning gunpowder.
- It is a mechanical device that uses pressure from a burning powder to force a projectile through and out of a
metal tube.

IMPORTANT POINTS OF REPUBLIC ACT NO. 10591

This Act shall be known as the “Comprehensive Firearms and Ammunition Regulation Act“.
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the Philippines in Congress assembled:
This Act which is a consolidation of Senate Bill No. 3397 and House Bill No. 5484 was finally passed by the
Senate and the House of Representatives on February 4, 2013 and February 5, 2013, respectively.

It is the policy of the state to maintain peace and order and protect the people against violence. It recognizes
the right of its qualified citizens to self-defense through, when it is the reasonable means to repel the unlawful
aggression under the circumstances, the use of firearms. This law regulates the ownership, possession,
carrying, manufacture, dealing in and importation of firearms, ammunition, or parts thereof, in order to provide
legal support to law enforcement agencies in their campaign against crime, stop the proliferation of illegal
firearms or weapons and the illegal manufacture of firearms or weapons, ammunition and parts thereof.
In order to qualify and acquire a license to own and possess a firearm or firearms and ammunition, the
applicant must be a Filipino citizen, at least twenty-one (21) years old and has gainful work, occupation or
business or has filed an Income Tax Return (ITR) for the preceding year as proof of income, profession,
business or occupation.
In addition, the applicant shall submit the following certification issued by appropriate authorities attesting the
following:
(a) The applicant has not been convicted of any crime involving moral turpitude:
(b) The applicant has passed the psychiatric test administered by a PNP-accredited psychologist or
psychiatrist;
(c) The applicant has passed the drug test conducted by an accredited and authorized drug testing laboratory or
clinic;
(d) The applicant has passed a gun safety seminar which is administered by the PNP or a registered and
authorized gun club;
(e) The applicant has filed in writing the application to possess a registered firearm which shall state the
personal circumstances of the applicant;
(f) The applicant must present a police clearance from the city or municipality police office; and
(g) The applicant has not been convicted or is currently an accused in a pending criminal case before any court
of law for a crime that is punishable with a penalty of more than two (2) years.
The applicant shall pay the reasonable licensing fees as may be provided in the implementing rules and regulations of
this Act.

The Chief of the PNP, through the FEO of the PNP, shall issue licenses to qualified individuals and to cause the
registration of firearms under the following categories;

- Type 1 license “ allows a citizen to own and possess a maximum of two (2) registered firearms;
- Type 2 license “ allows a citizen to own and possess a maximum of five (5) registered firearms;
- Type 3 license “ allows a citizen to own and possess a maximum of ten (10) registered firearms;
- Type 4 license “ allows a citizen to own and possess a maximum of fifteen (15) registered firearms; and
- Type 5 license “ allows a citizen, who is a certified gun collector, to own and possess more than fifteen (15)
registered firearms.

For Types 1 to 5 licenses, a vault or a container secured by lock and key or other security measures for the
safekeeping of firearms shall be required.

For Types 3 to 5 licenses, the citizen must comply with the inspection and bond requirements.

Only small arms may be registered by licensed citizens or licensed juridical entities for ownership, possession and
concealed carry. The licensed citizen or licensed juridical entity shall register his/her/its firearms so purchased with the
FEO of the PNP in accordance with the type of license such licensed citizen or licensed juridical entity possesses. A
certificate of registration of the firearm shall be issued upon payment of reasonable fees.

The licenses granted to qualified citizens or juridical entities as provided in this Act shall include the license to
possess ammunition with a maximum of fifty (50) rounds for each registered firearm: Provided; That the FEO of the
PNP may allow more ammunition to be possessed by licensed sports shooters.

All types of licenses to possess a firearm shall be renewed every two (2) years. Failure to renew the license on or
before the date of its expiration shall cause the revocation of the license and of the registration of the firearm/s under
said licensee.
The registration of the firearm shall be renewed every four (4) years. Failure to renew the registration of the
firearm on or before the date of expiration shall cause the revocation of the license of the firearm. The said firearm
shall be confiscated or forfeited in favor of the government after due process.

The failure to renew a license or registration within the periods stated above on two (2) occasions shall cause the
holder of the firearm to be perpetually disqualified from applying for any firearm license. The application for the
renewal of the license or registration may be submitted to the FEO of the PNP, within six (6) months before the date of
the expiration of such license or registration.

The unlawful acquisition, possession of firearms and ammunition shall be penalized.

CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARMS

Two General Classifications of Firearms

A. According to Interior Barrel Construction
a. Smooth Bore Firearms - firearms that have no rifling (land and grooves) inside their gun barrel.
Ex. Shotguns and muskets
 b. Rifled-bore firearms - firearms that have rifling inside their gun barrel.
Ex. Pistols, revolvers, rifle

B. According to the Caliber of the Projectile Propelled

a. Artillery- those types of firearms that propel projectiles more than one inch in diameter.
Ex. Cannons, mortars, bazookas

b. Small arms- propels projectiles less than one inch in diameter, can be operated by one man.
Ex. Machines gun shoulder arm and hand arms.

1. MACHINE GUN - A firearm with a rifled barrel firing rifle ammunition and capable of fully automatic fire

Machine Gun according to firing operation:

a. Blowback-operated – use the pressure created from a fired round to push a bolt, located directly behind the
round, back and forth against a spring.
b. Recoil operated – the barrel and the breech are pushed backwards as a unit along with the bolt and the ejection
and reloading is complete during this cycle.
c. Gas operated – these weapons were devised to increase the rate of fire of machine guns while reducing their
weight. Gas from the fired round expand in the barrel and is diverted through a port in the barrel to a piston near
the front of the gun. The piston pushes back against a mechanism and a spring, unlocking the breech, extracting
the spent round and powering the reloading of a fresh round.
d. Recoil and gas operated – the gas operation merely serves to unlock the breech block. Recoil action causes the
breech block to move backward and complete the opening cycle. The spring pushes the piston forward closing the
breech and the cycle is repeated for the next round.

SUBMACHINE GUN
The submachine gun is a light, handheld, automatic weapon firing pistol ammunition but today, there are
weapons classed as submachine guns that fire assault rifle cartridges. According to Ivan Hogg, the submachine
gun is the youngest class of small arms having been invented within the living memory.
2. SHOULDER ARMS – are those types of firearms that were normally fired from the shoulder.
a. Rifle– A shoulder weapon designed to fire a projectile with more accuracy through a long rifled bore
barrel, usually more than 22 inches.

Types:
a.1. Single shot rifle – This is the simplest and yet of many types. Some with breech blocked opened by
means of a lever, chamber feed type, breech blocked opened and closed by hand.

a.2. Repeating Rifle – A type of rifle loaded with several cartridges at one time and carries the cartridges
into the chamber when it is ready to be fired, rather than for the shooter to do it by hand.

Types of Repeating Rifles

a.2.1. Bolt action type – The turning bolt type is manipulated by turning the bolt handle first upward,
making the bolt in an unlocked position before pulling the handle to open the chamber causing the
cartridge to be exposed and be ready for another loading and closing before firing. Ex. Schmidt-Rubin

a.2.2. Lever Type – The name was derived from its manipulation system. It is operated by downward-
forward movement of the lever by hand, causing the opening, cocking and placing of the cartridge in its
position for loading. After which the lever is pulled back to close position moving the cartridge to the
chamber and putting the breech block in place, ready for firing. Ex. Winchester model 91

a.2.3. Slide Action Type – In this type of rifle, a box type magazine is attached and removed every time
that loading and unloading is desired. The operation is simple done by pulling the slide backward to open
the breech and forward to move the cartridge from the magazine to the chamber at the same time cocks
the hammer and locks the breech block. Ex. Remington Model 760.

a.2.4Pump Action - It is fast and smooth. It allows the shooter to re-cock the firearm without taking his
or her eye off the target. It is also referred to as “slide action” or “trombone action.”

a.2.5Break (or Hinge) Action - It operates on the same principle as a door hinge. Simple to load and
unload, a hinge action is often chosen as a hunter’s first firearm.

a.3Automatic Type – It is a type of rifle in which firing can be made continuously by a single press of
the trigger and while the trigger is pressed. Firing will only stop either by the action of the gunner or
when all the cartridges have been used.

b. Carbine – Is a short barrel rifle, having a barrel longer than 22 inches. Designed to fire a single shot
though a rifled-bore, either semi-automatic or fully automatic, for every press of the trigger. The maker of
the first known carbine was David Williamsa.k.a Carbine.

c. Musket – Is an ancient smoothbore and muzzle loading military shoulder arms designed to fire shots or a
single round lead ball.
 d. Shotgun – refers to a shoulder gun with smooth bored barrel (25-30 inches long) primarily intended for
firing multiple small, round projectiles, (shot, birdshot pellets), larger shot (buck shot), single round balls
(pumpkin balls) and cylindrical slugs. Some shotgun have rifling to give better accuracy with slugs or
greater pattern spread to birdshot. Paradox Gun is a shotgun having the last few inches of the muzzle
rifled so that it will impart a spin to the patented slug that is used with it when it is desired to fire a large
single projectile instead of a charge of shot.

Types:
d.1 Single Barreled Shotgun – It is similar to single shot rifle. It is loaded with a single shotgun cartridge,
closed, fired and to be reloaded manually by the shooter. This is common in a breaktype, and breech-loading
shotgun.

d.2 Double Barreled Shotgun – It appears in different variation depending on the barrel position. There are
double barreled shotgun positioned side by side, on over the other (over/undershotgun), with individual
trigger pull or with single trigger pull causing two hammer and firing pin to fire at the same time.

d.3 Pump Action Shotgun – It is also known by the name “slide action” type. The hammer of this shotgun is
completely built inside the receiver which makes it unexposed, thus, making it known also as “hammerless
shotgun”. Its operation is done by back and forth manipulation of the slide by the shooter.

d.4. Auto-loading Shotgun – This type of shotgun has a mechanism similar to auto-loading or self-loading
rifles that permits reloading by the action of the recoil without the shooter taking added effort.

3. HANDGUNS – These types of firearms are designed or intended to be fired using one hand.

a. Pistol – is a handgun that is magazine feed. It is a small, portable firearm, that is held, aimed, and fired with
one hand and has a short barrel and a breech locked and load firing mechanism. The origin of the word pistol is
not known for certain, although some historians believe that it may have been derived from Pistoia, anItalian city
and province in Tuscany once famous for its ironworks and an area where primitive handguns were fabricated
during the early years of the 14th century.

Auto-loading pistols (automatics) – A firearm designed to be fired from the hand and having a rifled
barrel and a removable magazine storing cartridges with a mechanism for auto-loading.

b. Revolver – A firearm designed to be fired from the hand and having a rifled barrel and a revolving cylinder
containing several chambers each of which holds one cartridge.

REVOLVER ACCORDING TO MECHANICAL FIRING CONSTRUCTION

1. Single-action type – needs manual cocking of the hammer before squeezing the trigger.
2. Double-action type – pressing the trigger both cocks and releases the hammer causing a more rapid manner
of firing.

3 CLASSES OF REVOLVERS
a. Ejection-rod type – the oldest type which is loaded by pulling a rod under the barrel that will allow the
cylinder to be removed at left side exposing the chambers for fresh cartridges to be loaded.
b. Swing-out type – also known as solid frame revolver which is loaded by pressing the ejector that unlocks the
cylinder form the frame and eventually swings to the left side.
c. Break-top type – popularly produced in U.K. Loading is done by swinging down the barrel to expose the
cylinders.

REVOLVER VS. PISTOL

ADVANTAGE OF REVOLVER DISADVANTAGE OF PISTOL

1. It is safer for inexperience users to handle and 1. Dangerous to handle especially for the
carry , since no automatic feeding inexperience users since after a shot is fired,
automatic feeding take place
2. A misfire , does not put a revolver out of action, 2. A misfire, put the pistol out of action, because it
 but just continue to squeeze the trigger, since the will stock-up, and needs to open the bolt to remove
cylinder will rotate. the misfired cartridge
3. The fired shells will not be ejected from the 3. The fired shells will be ejected in the crime
revolver, but retained in the cylinder’s chamber. scene, and can be taken as evidence against the
firer.
4. In revolver, it does not always require jacketed 4. It requires jacketed bullet, to avoid being
bullet. stocked-up or jam due to the throating in the breech
end of the barrel.

Advantages of Pistol Disadvantages of Revolver

1. The pistol is easier to dismantle and clean after 1. The revolver is difficult to dismantle and clean
firing. after firing.
2. It is easier to load, since it is magazine feeding 2. It is slower to load, since loading should be done
one by one in each chamber.
3. In worn out or corroded barrel, a new one can be 3. It’s difficult to replace worn out or corroded
replaced without necessarily going to the factory barrel, since it requires a factory job.
4. It has a greater fire power and greater ease in 4. Less fire power and lease ease in firing in the
firing the gun absence of slack or inexperience, to use slack in the
gun.

C. TYPES OF FIREARMS (According to Mechanical Construction)

a. Single shot firearms- types of firearms designed to fire only one shot for every loading.
Ex. Pistols, rifles, shotgun- single shots
b. Repeating firearms - these are weapons that are capable of firing several shots in one loading since they are
equipped with semi – automatic firing mechanism
Ex. Automatic pistols, revolvers, rifles, shotguns
c. Bolt action type- reloading is done by manipulation of the bolt.
Ex. Rifles, shots guns, machine guns
d. Automatic – loading type - these are rapid-fire weapons since they are equipped with full- automatic firing
mechanism
e. Slide – action type - firearms of this type are capable of feeding the chamber by the backward – forward
manipulation of the gun’s fore end
f. Lever – type - the loading takes place by applying lever action gun’s stock. This group of firearms is also called
break – type

D. TYPE OF FIREARMS (According to Use)

1. Military Firearms
a. Pistols c. Rifles
b. Revolvers d. Machine guns
2. Pocket and Home Defense Firearms
a. Pistols c. Rifles
b. Revolvers d. Shotguns
3. Target and Outdoor men’s Firearms
a. Pistols b. Revolvers c. Rifles
4. Unusual or Miscellaneous Type – Those type of firearms that are unique in mechanism and construction.
a. Paltik pistols c. Paltik rifles
b. Paltic revolvers d. Paltik shotgun
c.
MISCELLANEOUS TYPES OF FIREARMS

Air guns – these are firearms which use

pneumatic pressure to fire projectile

Home-made firearms – homemade guns are crude,

and adapted to fire available ammunitions. In one study,
homemade guns caused unusual muzzle imprints, intensive
soot deposit at the entrance wounds and on the hands,
intensive CO-effects, burns, and even laceration of the hand
holding the weapon.

Sawed off riffles- firearms of this kind

Are single shot rifles with shorten
 Barrels and no stock.

Flare guns- these are designed to launch tracer missiles or

flares to send signal about specific locations

Paradox gun – this is a special type of

Shotgun that has rifling at the last few
inches from the muzzle. Multi-barreled gun – Refers to all types of
gun containing a number of barrels.

Cane gun, knife pistols, cell phone gun, etc. –

Devices principally designed for other purpose to
which a gun mechanism is incorporated or attached.
It is also called as Freakish Gun. A type of gun designed
to prevent easy identification

Tool guns – Are devices that resemble a gun’s design but are generally used for construction of furniture

Gas gun- Generally referring to all gun designed for firing tear gas.

Harpoon gun – Refers to a barbed spear

in hunting large fish.
 Gatling gun – the first repeating gun having several barrels
arranged in a circle about a central axis capable of sustained and
accurate firing which is invented by Richard Gatling. The first
model had six barrels that used .58-caliber and later .50-caliber
ammunition.

Maxim machine gun – The world’s first true machine gun invented by Hiram
Stevens Maxim. It is a single-barrel recoil operated gun and belt feed for its
ammunition.

Gustav Gun- The largest gun ever used in combat, it had an 80 cm bore (31.5”) and fired either a 10,500 lb. HE
projectile (which would penetrate 264 feet of reinforced concrete). The typical powder charge was about 3000 lb. of
powder. The range was between 23 and 29 miles and the muzzle velocity was about 2700 f/s. The gun weighed 1344 tons
and had a crew of 500 men. It was used in the German’s during the siege at Sevestapol in April 1942.

BASIC MECHANISM OF A FIREARM

1. BARREL MECHANISM – It is primarily composed of metallic tube that initiates the path of the bullet. The
interior part maybe smooth or rifled.
2. BREECH MECHANISM – this mechanism closes the rear end of the barrel, holding the cartridge in the
chamber.
3. FIRING MECHANISM – It consist mainly of the firing pin, hammer, sear and trigger. For harmless firearms, a
spring drives the firing pin through the breech bolt against the primer of the cartridge. The firing pin is cocked
(drawn back) against a hook called sear. When the trigger is pulled the sear releases the firing pin which in turn
strikes the primer.

The Three Main Parts

REVOLVER PISTOL
1. barrel assembly 1. Barrel assembly
2. cylinder assembly 2. slide assembly
3. Frame or receiver 3. Frame or receiver

RIFLE SHOTGUN
1. Barrel assembly 1. Barrel assembly
2. Magazine assembly 2. Magazine assembly
3. Stock group 3. stock Group

MISCELLENEOUS FUNCTIONS OF THE STANDARD PARTS OF COMMON FIREARMS

PART DESCRIPTION/PURPOSE

Action The main operating mechanism of a firearm that loads, fires, and ejects the
cartridge.

Barrel Gives direction to the bullet; the part of the gun that initiates the path of the
bullet
Barrel Bushing Is an auxiliary parts of the firearm fitted to the grooves, rolled inside and around
the front of the slide, designed to lock the recoil spring plug movement, during
the firing of the gun.

Breech The part of the barrel at the opposite end of the muzzle

Breech – block The steel block that closes the rear of the bore against the force of the charge.
The face of the block is known as breech face.
Bolt Disengages center pin to allow opening of cylinder and blocks hammer.

Butt The part of the stock which is held against the shoulder to stabilize the gun
during firing (for rifles and shotguns)

Chamber The part of the bore into which a cartridge is placed; the enlarged space at the
breech of the barrel where the cartridge is fed

Choke The constriction in smoothbore barrels designated to cause the shot to leave the
bore in a more dense pattern and retain this pattern for longer range

Cylinder The part of the revolver that serves as the magazine as well as chamber for
cartridges.

Ejector The mechanism that throws the empty shell (cartridge case) from the firearm

Extractor The mechanism that pulls the empty shell from the chamber
Forearm Also called for – end

Frame Also called receiver, the part of the gun that houses the internal part

Grip The smaller part of the stock behind the trigger guard (for rifles and shotguns)

Hammer The part of the firing mechanism in revolvers and some pistol that is release by
the sear or the main spring once the trigger is pressed

Magazine A device for storing cartridges in a repeating firearm for loading into the
chamber

Main spring The spring in a pistol or revolver which propels the hammer

Muzzle The end of the front end of the barrel where the bullet or pellet exists
Front sight The fixed sight on top of the barrel near the muzzle used to aim the gun at the
target

Rear sight The sight found at the top of the breech area; this sight can be moved to change
where the bullet will hit

Recoil spring The spring in automatic or self – loading weapons which returns the bolt or
breech block after recoil

Trigger The part of the gun that initiates the action when the shooter is ready to fire his
 weapon

Trigger guard The safety device designed to protect the trigger from accidental bumping or
pressing that may result to accidental firing

Safety The gun mechanism that prevents the firearm from firing

Sear The part of the firing mechanism, linked to the trigger

Stock The wooden, plastic, or metal frame that holds the barrel and action
Striker
Alternative term for the firing pin when that firing pin is axially mounted and
spring propelled inside the bolt

Rifle Shotgun
 CHARTER IV
AMMUNITION/CARTRIDGE
Legal Definition

Ammunition refers to a complete unfixed unit consisting of a bullet, gunpowder, cartridge case and
primer or loaded shell for use in any firearm. (RA 10591)

It also refers to any loaded shell for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers and pistols from which a bullet,
ball shot, shell or other missiles maybe fired by means of gunpowder or other explosive. The term also includes
ammunition for air rifles… (Section 290 of the National Internal Revenue Code; Section 877 of the Revised
Administrative Code).

Technical definition
Ammunition refers to a complete unfired unit consisting of bullet, cartridge case, propellant powder, and
primer. The term may be called also, as a single round.

ORIGIN:
The cartridge evolved about the turn of the sixteenth century. In
year 1635, the first cartridge was invented by King
GustavusAdolphus of Sweden. He was credited with this invention.
These were simple packages, which he furnished to his troops,
during the 30 years war.
The package was torn, and the content was poured down inside
the barrel . Most shooters during those days had to carry two powder
horns, the first is for the powder to be poured in the barrel, and the
second, is for the fine grains powder, for priming charge. The
invention of paper cartridge eliminated the package and the use of
horn in carrying of powder mixture in bottles or tubes.
The earliest small arms cartridge consists of a pre-measured powder wrapped in paper. The term cartridge is
derived from the word charta, the Latin word for paper, later on, another word cartouche, a French word, meaning a roll
of paper which indicates, that the original cartridges were not the brass gilding-metal, but a paper cartridge.

PARTS OF A CARTRIDGE
1. Bullet—a projectile propelled from a firearm by means of explosive force of
gases from burning powder.
2. Cartridge case - a tabular metallic container for the gunpowder sometimes called
shell or casing.
3. Gun powder—is the propellant w/c when ignited by the primer flash is
converted to gas under high pressure and propels the bullet or shot charge
through the barrel and on the target.
4. Primer– the metal cap containing the highly sensitive priming mixture of
chemical compound which when hit or struck by the firing pin would ignite, such
action is called “PERCUSSION.”

A modern cartridge consists of the following: 1. the bullet, as the projectile; 2. the case, which holds all parts together; 3. the
propellant, for example gunpowder or cordite; 4. the rim, which provides the extractor on the firearm a place to grip the casing to
remove it from the chamber once fired; 5. the primer, which ignites the propellant.

GENERAL TYPES OF AMMUNITION

1. Dummy(fake model) - this carefully made replica of a cartridge, usually

made of steel and discreetly dimensioned to be used by weapons instructions.
 2. Drill ammo (w/o gun powder) - this type of ammunition is completely inert and without an explosive propellant.
It is used in military training to practice loading and manipulation of firearms.

3. Blank ammo (w/o bullet) - this is a cartridge without a bullet. It may contain gunpowder and priming mixture
thus designated to produce gunshot to indicate firing.

4. Live ammo this is the real ammunition since it is composed of a complete unit of unfired cartridge.

CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGE

A. Classification of Cartridges, according to the types of firearms used

1. Revolver cartridge- designed for revolvers, this type of ammunition has a rimmed base and a straight case that
allows the bullet to be rammed the chamber of the revolving cylinder.
2. Pistol cartridge- designed for pistols, carbines and most submachine guns.
- extracting grooves are designed instead of a rim, allowing easier packing of the rounds in the magazine. The
material used as brass, is the same as in a revolver cartridge. These cartridges are also used in carbines or other
rifle designed cartridges.
3. Assault rifle cartridge - designed for hunting rifles, sniping rifles, assault rifles, machine guns and some
submachine guns this type of cartridge has a bottle – neck shape.
4. Shotgun cartridge - this type of ammunition is for shotguns. The case is generally made of plastic and a cup to
prevent the content from falling.
5. Case-less cartridge – the powder is the casing itself, of the projectiles. It requires varnishing to protect it from
moisture and moderate shocks. There are few residues left after the gunpowder had exploded. The cross section is
generally delicate to cause for deflagration.

B. Classification according to location of primer

1. Pin – fire cartridge this is the type of cartridge in which the primer cup is concealed inside the cartridge case
and has a pin resting upon it. The pin protrudes radially through the side
and the gun chamber has a notch for the pin to stand when loaded and it
will be struck by a falling hammer.

2. Rim – fire cartridge this is the type of

cartridge in which the priming mixture is
 located at the hollow portion of the rim of the cartridge case and can be fired if the cartridge is struck by the firing
pin on the rim of the case (cavity rim).

3. Center - fire cartridge – It refers to a cartridge in which the

primer cap (ignition cap) is centrally placed in the base of the
cartridge case and the priming mixture is exploded by the impact of
the firing pin and with the support of the anvil. The flame produced
by the ignition of the priming mixture will pass through the vent or
flash hole and will ignite and combust the gun powder.

All the three above-mentioned types of cartridges apply the percussion

system. Percussion is a means of igniting the propellant by using spark
produced by the mechanical blow against the primer.

C. Classification of Cartridge According to Rim

Rimmed cartridge this is design of cartridge for revolvers, shotguns and some rifles.
1. Rimmed type – the diameter of the rim, is wider than the diameter of the body of the cartridge.
2. Semi – rimmed type – the diameter of the rim, is a little bit wider than the diameter of the body of the
cartridge.
3. Rimless type – the diameter of the rim, from the breech end to the muzzle end, is same.
4. Rebated type – the diameter of the rim is smaller than the diameter of the body of the shell.
5. Belted cartridge the type of cartridge originally designed for machineguns.
- Around the body of the cartridge near the rim, there is a protruding metal.

D. Classification according to power

1. Low – power cartridge a cartridge that fires a projectile with a muzzle velocity of less than 1,850 fps
2. High – power cartridge a cartridge that fires a projectile with a muzzle velocity between 1,925 and 2,500 fps
3. High – intensity cartridge the projectile fired from this cartridge has muzzle velocity of more than 2,500 fps

SHOTGUN CARTRIDGE
Cartridge for shotgun, have of course a shotgun shell. It is also called a shot shell, and its body may be a metal or
plastic or paper with a metal head which is the subjects for examination.
It refers to a complete unit of unfired cartridge consisting of the pellets, primer, case, wads and gunpowder.

PARTS OF SHOTGUN CARTRIDGE

a. Shot Cup – Is a plastic cup that holds shot in pattern as it leaves from the muzzle of the gun.
b. Tube or Case – prior to 1960, a paper tube or case were use, with mouth closed by rolled crimps or with a plastic body
or hull with mouth closed by die crimp or star crimp, eliminating need for overshot wad.
c. Primer – the collective term for the chemical priming compound, primer cup, anvil, and battery cup which when
struck, ignites the powder charge.
d. Powder – the general term for any chemical compound or gunpowder, used in firearm that burns upon ignition.
e. crimp – the portion of a cartridge case that is bent inward to hold the shot in place.
f. wad – a paper designed to separate the pellets from the powder charge.
- four kinds of wads: base wad, under powder, over powder and filler (both between propellant and shot acting as
gas seal).
g. Lead Shot – three types; 1. drop/soft shot(pure lead). 2) chilled/hard shot (lead hardened by antimony), 3. plated shot
(coated with cupronickel or 70% copper and 30% nickel) or steel shot.

Three Categories of Shot

1. Birdshot – for birds and small game
2. Buckshot – for large game
3. Slug – for dear and bear in heavily populated areas.

SHOT/PELLETS
Shotgun cartridge contains multiple projectiles or pellets called shots. A single projectile in a shotgun shell is
called slug. Shots and slugs are traditionally made of lead. Non toxic shot can be made of bismuth or alloy of metallic,
steel, tin, tungsten-iron, tungsten-matrix or mold, or tungsten-polymer or combine materials.

Kinds of Shots/Pellets
1. Buckshot– Buckshot consists of a number of lead balls that
spread out as they travel. These pellets are not very effective (in
00 buckshot, each one is .33 inch in diameter), but collectively
they result in large and destructive wounds. At longer distance,
however, the shot spreads and fewer pellets hit the target.

2. Slug – instead of a group of lead balls, the shell contains

a single huge bullet with angled grooves cut into its side
to spin it, as it travels down the smooth bore of a shotgun.
The penetration of a slug is better than shot, but the wound
channel is not as wide as the shot.

3. Tungsten-Iron Shot – If formed from powdered tungsten and

powdered iron, they are blended together and pressed into a pellet,
then sintered or bonded together by a heating process. The shot is then coated with a rust inhibitor. Tungsten-iron has a
similar density of lead, but it is harder than both lead and steel.

4. Flechette Shot – A cluster of sturdy steel needle, replaced the shot of

the standard shotgun shell. These flechettes have tiny fins at their base to
stabilize them in flight. Aerodynamics is greatly improved over shot, than
in armor piercing capability.

5. Armor Piercing Bullet – The discharging sabot slug possesses an aerodynamic shape that keeps it stable flight even
though it does not spin. It is smaller in diameter than a standard slug, and surrounded within the shell by a tow-piece
plastic sabot. After exiting the barrel, the sabot splits in half, and falls away because of wind resistance.
6. Steel Shot – Is made by cutting soft steel wire into short lengths, which are formed into shot.

SHELL LIFE OF A CARTRIDGE

The cartridge will have a shelf life for more than 20 years if the component parts used, is as virgin as commercial.
However, the ammunition/cartridge can last at least 40 years without any problem, but the caveat here is the proper
storage.

CHARTER V
The Bullet
A bullet is a metallic or non – metallic cylindrical projectile propelled from a firearm by means of the expansive
force of gasses coming from burning gunpowder. In layman’s term, the bullet is called slug. The word bullet came from
the French word “boulette” which roughly means little ball.

PARTS OF STANDARD BULLET

 Base – the portion of the bullet that receives the thrust and heat from the burning gunpowder
 Heel – the part where the base and bearing surface meet
 Bearing surface – the cylindrical side of the bullet that comes in contact with the barrel rifling
 Cannelure – a serrated groove or depression rolled around the body of the bullet usually used in bottle neck
cartridge , this part is better known as lubricant groove
 Jacket – a metal covering of the bullet’s lead core which could be made of copper, brass, steel, aluminum or an
alloy of these metals; it may partially or completely cover the lead core
 Core – bulk of mass in the bullet; the main component of the bullet that is usually made of lead but sometimes
alloyed or replaced with other metals for special purposes such as deeper penetration and tracing
 Shoulder – the part where the parallel sides end and the ogive begins
 Ogive – the radius of curve between the bearing surface and the point usually stated with respect to the caliber
 Tip/point or Nose – the most forward point of the ogive or tip of the bullet
 Head – height – the length of the bullet from the shoulder to the tip.
 Meplat – the diameter of the flat or blunt end of the nose or ogive of a bullet

CLASSIFICATION OF BULLETS

 Lead bullets these are

Traditionally, lead bullets are for revolvers and caliber .22 rim fire cartridges

 Jacketed bullets metal-jacketed b

jacket.
Two Types of Jacketed Bullet
a. Full – metal jacketed bullets (FMJ) – for military ammunition
b. Semi – jacketed bullets – for hunting rifles and semi – automatic pistol ammunition

Purpose of Jacket:
a. To prevent adherence of lead or metal inside the gun barrel.
b. To have better penetration of the bullet to the target.

Classification of Bullet According to shape

- Flat Base -Boat Tailed -Square Base -Hollow Base

Classification of Bullet According to specific use

1. Ball Bullets – have soft lead core inside a jacket and are used against person. This is the original terminology for
bullet, and probably, used in the commission of crime.

2. Armored Piercing- have hardened steel cores and are a fired against vehicle and other armored target is general.

3. Tracer bullets- contain a compound at the base usually similar barium nitrates w/c is set on fire when the bullet
is projected.
- The flash of the smoke from the burning permits the light of the bullet to be seen.

4. Incendiary bullets - contains a mixture of such phosphorous and other materials that can be set on fire by impact.
They are used against target that will readily burn such as aircrafts or gasoline depot.

5. Explosive (fragmentary) contains a high

changed explosive, because of their small
size it is difficult to make a fuse that will
work reliably in small size ammunition.
For the reason of high explosive bullets is
usually limited to 20m.m & above.

Bullet, Designed For Handgun

 1. Jacketed Hallow Point – the exposed lead at the tip of the jacketed hollow point, rapidly initiates uniform
controlled expansion that progresses to the depth of the hollow point cavity.
2. Semi-Jacketed Hollow Point – with more exposed lead at the tip, that expand less than a jacketed hollow point
bullet.
3. Full Metal Cone, Truncated Cone – the lead core of this bullet is enclosed in a light copper jacket, which has a
cone shape and a flat point. The result is less expansion than a JHP bullet, but more than an FMJ, and deeper
penetration than an SP bullet.
4. Lead Wadcutter – the full wadcutter profile of this solid lead bullet, cuts clean in paper targets for precise
scoring.
5. Lead Semi-wadcutter – solid lead bullet with semi-pointed nose. Formed by swaging (a tool use by workers for
shaping metals by hammering) process with sharp shoulder for clean hole punching in paper targets.
6. Lead round nose – Solid lead bullet with rounded ogive for downrange accuracy. Hard hitting, economical,
generally designed bullet, for all revolvers.

Bullet, Designed For Rifle

a. Full Metal Jacket – the lead core of this bullet is covered with a jacket, except the base, which results in
little expansion, but with deep penetration. This is also called ball ammunition.
b. Full Metal Jacket Boat Tail - the lead core of this bullet is enclosed in a heavy copper jacket, which
results in little or no expansion but deep penetration. Boat tail heel further reduces drag to improve
downrange velocity.
c. Hollow Point Boat Tail – extremely accurate hollow pointed with aerodynamic designed. Boat tail heel
further reduces drag to improve downrange velocity. Precision balance and exceptional concentricity
(having common center, having a common axis) greatly increase bullet stability to assure superb
accuracy.
d. Soft Point – Exposed lead on the tip of the bullet and broader point diameter, provides controlled
expansion of the jacket on the bullet at the lower velocity. The large wound is the results from expansion
of the jacket that would be more or less 200 percent of original bullet diameter.

Different Types of Bullet

1. Hardball Bullet – This type of bullet having a cooper sheath, the jacket cover a
lead core. The jacket that covered the lead core is called, full metal jacket.

2. Depleted Uranium – Is ideal for use in armor penetrations. The solid metal projectiles have the speed, mass and
physical properties and have exceptional performance against armored targets. This kind of bullet is designed, to
defeat an armored target at a greater
distance.
3. Semi-wadcutter – a bullet with a flat nose in front of a sharp wadcutter-style shoulder is too sharp, this will have a
clear cut hole on the target.

4. Silver tip – Winchester trademark for certain bullet designs. The rifle version, have a lead core and a copper-alloy
jacket. The handgun version, have a lead core and an
aluminum jacket. Both do not contain silver actually. In silver tip,
the handgun version, when the bullet penetrates the body, the effect is
that, the jacket will disintegrate into small pieces that will precisely
cause hemorrhage.

5. Fragmentation bullet- This bullet is similar to hard ball bullet, with stress
lines manufactured into the slug. The results is that the bullet splits into
fragments when hitting soft tissue, creating a bigger wound, but tends to retain
its form when penetrating armor.

6. Spitzer – a type of bullet having a sharply pointed nose. This is more

effective than the round ball of the same weight because, there is less
surface presented to the air and the speed of the bullet encountered less
air resistance thus, it moves unhampered speed.

7. Dumdum Bullet – Includes all soft bullets, split nose bullets, hollow
point bullets and jacketed bullets with exposed lead core. The expanding effects of these bullets have tremendous damage.
8. Mushroom bullet or Soft Point Bullet – Is a bullet that will expand upon striking an object and therefore produce
much more serious effects and have correspondingly greater stopping power. Mushroom bullet, when fired from a high
velocity rifle, it will expand upon striking a flesh or soft tissue, until it looks like a mushroom. They are designed to
provide deeper penetration before expansion. However, when it exited from the wound, the exited wound will have bigger
size.

9. Hollow point bullet – Is a bullet with an open ogive or nose, designed to

increase the expansion when it hits the target. Sometimes this is also called
Express Bullet. These are also
designed to provide rapid
expansion and when it exited from
the wound, it will have a
bigger exit wound than the
entrance wound.

10. Steel Jacketed Bullet – Is a bullet having soft steel jacket, often
clad or plated with gilding metal to prevent rusting, and reduce frictional
resistance in the bore.

11. X-Bullet – Is a solid copper projectile, heat treated for extra toughness
with no separate jacket and no lead core. The bullet holds together for deep
penetration. Deep forward cavity causes the nose to peel back into four
razor-edge petals. Viewed head-on, the appearance of these four petals
gives the X-bullet its name. This kind of bullet was introduced in 1989,
designed by Barnes’ owned by Randy Brooks.

12. Boat Tail – a bullet with a base tapering to smaller

diameter.
 CHAPTER VI
The Cartridge Case
- Cartridge case is a plastic or metallic component of cartridge that holds together the primer, gunpowder and
bullet. (70% copper and 30% zinc)
- The other term for cartridge case is shell or casing. Cartridge case is automatically ejected from the automatic
firearm during the firing, this remain at the scene of the crime, and if recovered, can be used as evidence against
the accused. In revolver, the cartridge cases remain in the cylinder after firing. This physical evidence can help a
lot, to trace a particular firearm used in the commission of crime.

Functions of Cartridge Case

1. It serves as means, whereby the bullet, gunpowder and primer are assembled into one unit. Absence of anyone of these
parts, the cartridge cannot be considered as cartridge.

2. It serves as a waterproof container, for the gunpowder. The cartridge even if it gets wet for few seconds, it can still fire
for as long as, there is no leakage on the primer cup and the crimping or cannelure on the bullet;

3. It prevents the escape of the gases to the rear, as the side wall of the chamber by pressure. It serves as a seal at the
breech end of the barrel. Since the gas can’t exit ahead of the bullet because of the cartridge case, the tremendous pressure
of the heated gas will pushed or heaved the bullet towards the muzzle end.

Parts of Cartridge Case

a. RIM – The projecting rimmed and semi-rimmed cartridge cases, serve the purpose of limiting the forward travel of
cartridges into the chamber. This portion of the cartridge case is the usual location of the ejector marked, created by the
ejector in automatic firearm.

b. PRIMER POCKET – Performs triple function:

Holding primer securely in control position.
Providing or means to prevent the escape of jobs to the rear of the cartridges.
Providing a solid support from primer anvil without which the latter could not be fired.

c. VENTS OR FLASH HOLE – is the hole in the web or bottom of the primer pocket thought which the primer “flash”
imparts ignition to the primer charges. The “opening” or “canal” that connects the ignited priming mixture with the
gunpowder.

d. THE HEAD – THE BODY – constitute the “cork” that plugs the breech of the barrel against the escape of the gas.
This portion is the location, where the chamber marked is impressed.

e. NECK – that part of the cartridges case that is occupied by the bullet. In cases of bottleneck, the neck is apparent. But
in the so called straight case, it is not apparent.

f. CANNELURES – are the serrated groves that are sometimes found “rolled” into the neck & bodies of the cases at the
location of the bullets bases to prevent the bullet from being pushed back or loosened.

g. CRIMP – is that part of the mouth of the cartridge case that is turned in upon the bullet. It works two ways: 1) it aids in
holding the bullet in place: and 2) it offers resistance to the movement of the bullet out of the neck which affects the
burning of the gunpowder. The shallow perforation around the bullet is called crimping marked.

h. BASE – the portion of case w/c contains:

- The primer w/c contains the priming mixture
- The shellhead w/c contains the head stamp caliber & the year of manufacture.

i. SHOULDER – that portion which support the neck.

j. EXTRACTING GROOVE – the circular grooves near the base of the case of shell designed for automatic withdrawal
of the case after each firing. This portion where the extractor marked is located, after it was extracted from the chamber of
the firearm.

THREE TYPES OF CRIMP

The purpose of the crimp is to securely hold the bullet in the cartridge case, to avoid being moved or loosened
from its gripped.

1. In a roll crimp – the cartridge case neck was rolled into the bullet material
or groove in the bullet, to secure it, and insure even from tension of the
cartridge case. The roll crimped need to be trimmed to a uniform length. Roll
crimps are primarily used on cartridges that have headspace on the rim or
cartridge case shoulder.

2. The taper crimp – Is used primarily in the cartridge with headspace on the
cartridge case mouth, with lead bullets. While it can be
used to secure jacketed bullets, this can led to bullet
distortion. With a taper crimp, the mouth of the cartridge
case run into a die, with a tapered opening that squeezes
the diameter of the neck down, enough to grip the bullet
securely, but still leaves enough space for headspace on
the chamber.

3. Stab or ring Crimping – The crimp can either enter a groove on the bullet or can just press into the bullet body, which
distorts the bullet. It is primarily used on military or commercial heavy caliber hunting ammunition, where rough handling
may be encountered.

TYPES OF SHELL ACCORDING TO SHAPE (3 GEN SHAPES)

1. Straight cartridge case – used in pistol ammunition. All rimed shell & most center-fire revolver cartridges that
are new manufactured have straight cases.
2. Tapered cartridge case - is very rare but presently being used in the so called “magnum jet” cartridge case of
cal.22 center fire cartridges.
3. Bottle neck case – used in rifle ammunition. Most modern center fire rifle cartridges case are of bottle neck types.
Since this case form provides the greatest powder capacity commensurate w/ over all case length.
CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGE CASE (According to Head Form)

1. Rimmed– rimmed cartridge case is designed to be use in revolver. The diameter of the base of the cartridge is very
much wider than the diameter of the body of the cartridge. The rimmed design was the earliest designed that provides for
easy extraction and head spacing. Rimmed cartridge cases, are not suited for feeding box magazines.

In revolvers and shotguns normally are rimmed cartridge cases, which stop them from sliding towards the
chamber or the breech end, while automatic loading pistol, the cartridge case, is generally rimless or semi-rimmed, and
groove was formed for the extractor, to grip.

2.Semi-rimmed – the semi-rimmed cartridge case was an attempt to combine the advantages of the rimmed and rimless
designs, but it was never very popular.

3. Rimless– The diameter of the body of the cartridge case is the same with the diameter of the base of the cartridge case.
The rimless design allows smooth feeding from magazine, but depends upon accurate case length or a shoulder to insure
heads pacing.

4. Rebated rimless – this cartridge case was designed, to provide the ability of having a larger diameter case but with an
existing smaller bolt face. The rebated rimmed cartridge case was made to allow large diameter cartridge case.

5. Belted Case – this belted case, attempted to combine the smooth feeding characteristics of the rimless with the
consistent head spacing of the rimmed.

CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGE
CASE (According to caliber)

cal. 22- used in revolvers, pistols and

rifles
cal.25- used in pistols and rifles
cal.30- used in carbines and other pistols
cal.32- used in automatic pistols and
revolvers
cal.380- used in pistols
cal. 38- used in revolvers
cal. 357- used in 357 revolvers
( magnum)
cal.44 – used in magnum recovers
cal.44- used in automatic pistols
cal.50- used in cal.50 machines gun (not in use in crimes)

CHAPTER VII
The Primer
Is that portions of the cartridge w/c consist of the brass gilding metal cup containing a highly mixture of chemical
compound/c when struck by the firing pin would detonate or ignite. Such action is called percussion.
 Uses for igniting the gunpowder, a blow from the firing pin on the primer cup compresses the priming mixture and this
causes the composition to detonate on explode. This detonating on explosion produces “flame” w/c passes through the
“event” on “flash hole” in the cartridges case & this ignites the gunpowder.

ORIGIN of PRIMER
-1807- Alexander John Forsyth - first one to conceive the idea of using denoting compounds for igniting powder charges
in small arms by percussion and in 1807 he obtained a patent for this idea.
 A scotch Presbytorian minister chemist & hunter
 A well known authority on firearms
 First successful priming mixture was one composed of potassium chlorate, charcoal in powder form

Two Types/Kinds of Primer

1. Berdan Primer – was invented by U.S Army Colonel Hiram Berdan. The
primer of this type, have two vents or flash holes towards the gunpowder.
Berdan primer is non-replaceable, since the anvil of the primer, formed an
integral part of the cartridge case, and can be deformed by firing.

2. Boxer Primer – was invented by the British Army Colonel Edward M.

Boxer. The primer has only one vent or flash hole towards the gun powder. The
boxer primer can be replaced and can be reused, since the primer cup is
removable from the cartridge, and consequently
minimized expenses on expensive brass cartridge case.

PARTS: in a typical center fire cartridges have four parts

a.) PRIMER CUP- container of the priming mixture made up of brass, gilding metal or copper
b.) PRIMING MIXTURE- highly sensitive chemical mixture contained in the primer cup.
c.) ANVIL- that portion of the primer against w/c the priming mixture is crushed by a blow from the firing pin.
To provide the resistance necessary to fire the priming mixture.
d.) DISC- piece of small paper on disc of the thin, foil w/c is pressed over the priming mixture.

Two fold purposes

 to help hold the priming mixture in place
 to exclude moisture

PRIMING COMPOUNDS: CLASSES

 Corrosive primers- Is a chemical compound inside the primer cup that produces plumes, vapor and chloride after
the explosion. One of the chemicals in corrosive primers is potassium chlorate, which when ignited by the primer
flash, it produces potassium chloride. Potassium chloride draws moisture from the air, and this moisture speeds in
rusting the gun barrel.

 Non corrosive – One which is designed for less chance or rusting by replacing the potassium chlorate with
barium nitrate.

Formula of a Typical Mercuric Primer

-Potassium chlorate (initiator &fuel 45%)
-Antimony Sulfide (element & fuel 23%)
-Fulminate of mercury (initiator) 32%
Standard Mixture used by Frankford Arsenal known as FH-24 had the ff. composition:
- sulfur -21.97 %
- Potassium chlorate -47.20 %
- Antimony Sulfide - 30.33 %

Winchester Repeating Arms Primer Company Formula, the 35-NF

- Potassium Chloride - 52%
- Antimony Sulfide - 18%
- Lead Sulphur Cyanide - 25%
- Tri-Nitro Toluene - 5%

Typical Rim-fire Priming Compound, Used in Caliber .22 Cartridge

- Potassium Chlorate - 41.43%
- Antimony Sulfide - 9.54%
- Copper Sulpho-cyanide - 4.70%
- Ground Glass - 44.23%
 Germans have their own composition barium nitrate in the place of Potassium chlorate together w/ some Picric acid to
strengthen mixture.

German Formula on Priming Compound

- Fulminate of Mercury - 39%
- Barium Nitrate - 41%
- Antimony Sulfide - 9%
- Picric Acid - 5%
- Ground Glass - 6%

Swiss Army had been using non-corrosive primer since about 1911. This was base on the formula of a Swiss
inventor named ZIEGLER: Swiss Formula:
- Fulmirate of mercury - 40%
- Barium nitrate - 25%
- Antimony sulfide - 25 %
- Barrium carbonate -6%
- Ground glass - 4%

Major Components Inside the Primer

1. The initiator – lead styphnatePb, which is set off with a sharp blow, as when the firing pin strikes the primer

2. The Oxidizer – Barium Nitrate Ba, which gives up its oxygen readily; the oxygen is needed to burn the fuel.

3. The fuel – Antimony Sulfide Sb, which burns at a very high rate; the purpose of this initial burn, is to ignite the
gunpowder, which propels the bullet.

CHAPTER VIII
The Gun Powder
Gunpowder (also called as propellant or Power charge.) Is the propellant w/c when ignited by the primer flash is
converted into gas under high pressure and this propels the bullet or shot changes through the barrel & on the target.

The development of Gunpowder:

The history of gunpowder is the most controversial of all topics incorporated in their field of study. Powders,
explosives are at most times credited to the Chinese and the Arabs; but there is no warrant for considering that they had
invented gun and gun powder. On the other hand, according to Prof. J.K Partington, a British Chemist, at about 1000 A.D.
, the Chinese knew about saltpeter-based gun powder.

A question of where it was discovered, who first used it for gun and who invented it is still a mystery. Maybe this
is caused of lack of proof beyond doubt as to the claim of various writers as to who invented the gun powder and realized
its capabilities. Two of the most popular individual whose name is always attached to gunpowder discovery were Roger
Bacon and Berthold Schwartz.

Roger Bacon, (1242 A.D) a Franciscan Monk, who wrote the ----“De MirabiliPotestateArtis et Naturae” (On the
Marvelous Power of Art and Nature”, including an anagram. This anagram was only re-arranged and properly punctuated
by a British Artillery Ofiicer named Colonel Hime, and it read – “but of salpetre takes seven part, five of young hazel twig
and five of sulfur, and so thou wilt call up thunder and destruction of thou know the art”. This is practically a working
gunpowder formula.

Berthold Schwartz – a mysterious monk of Freiburg, who according to legend that is supported by an engraving
dated 1643, while experimenting on some powder in a cast iron vessel he ignited a charge and thus blew off the lid, and
from this deduced the principle of containing a charge in a tube and propelling a shot. The engraver dated the scene 1380,
and it was evident that well before that date, cannons were already used.

In 1886, Paul Vieille, invented smokeless gunpowder with nitrocellulose, a single-base propellant, called Poudre
B, made from gelatinized guncotton mixed with ether and alcohol. Ether is a light volatile flammable liquid. It was
passed through rollers to form thin sheets, which were cut into flakes of the desired size. The propellant today known as
pyrocellulose, contains less nitrogen than guncotton and is less volatile.
 In 1887 Alfred E. Nobel of Great Britain, developed smokeless gunpowder (40% nitroglycerine and 60%
nitrocellulose as the main composition) called Ballistite, a double base propellant. In 1890, Sir Frederick Abel and James
Dewar obtained a patent on a modified form of smokeless powder, known as Cordite, this is another term that is being
used for powder charge. All these terms can be used interchangeably because they refer to the same thing. In Great
Britain, they utilized picric acid in addition to cellulose powder which they called “Lyddite”, while in Germany
TNT (Tri-nitrotoleune) was used.

Class or Composition:

1. BLACK POWDER – Is a propellant which when fired, it produces large volumes of grayish smoke and
considerable amount of residue left in the barrel of the gun. Although if features loss important still manufactured
by the Europeans. In recent time has completely superseded by smokeless powder.

Ingredients:
Potassium nitrate - 75 %
Sulfur - 10 %
Charcoal - 15 %

Black Powder – relies for its explosive properties on 3 quantities w/c

are typical of all explosives.
 FIRST – when ignited it will burn by itself w/o aid from the
outside air.
 SECOND – in burning, it gives off a large amount of gas.
 THIRD – a considerable amount of heat is evolved

2. SMOKELESS POWDER – the term smokeless powder is misnomer for there are neither powder nor are they
smokeless. The letters terms being applied to them only because they do not give off huge cloud of white smoke
like the black powder.

Two main classes of smokeless powder

1. SINGLE – BASE PROPELLANT OR NITROCELLULOSE

- contains only the pure nitroglycerine gelatinized w/ nitrocellulose. This type of
propellant, have a perfect shape in grains, like small squares, disc, flakes, strips, pellets or
perforated cylindrical grains.

2. DOUBLE – BASE PROPELLANT

- composed of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine as their major ingredients according by one or more ingredients
such as:
- Vaseline Phthalate esters
- Inorganic salt

Purpose of Minor ingredients

- Insure stability
- Reduce flash or flame temperature (or both)
- Double – base propellant are gray green color and the grains are similar in size and shape to the single – base
propellants.

THE FOUR MAIN CLASSES OF PROPELLANTS

 1. Single – based propellant this is composed of pure nitroglycerin gelatinized with nitrocelluse.
Double – based propellant this type is composed of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin mixed with any or all of the
following minor ingredients: Vaseline phathalate esters, and inorganic salts.

2. Triple – based propellant this is composed of three principal ingredients that are nitrocellulose,
nitroglycerin, and nitroguanidine.
3. HIT (high – ignition temperature) propellant the main ingredient of this class of propellant is the RDX
(cyclonite) group of high explosives

EXPLOSIVES
An explosive is any substance that may cause an explosion by its sudden decomposition or combustion. It is a
material either a pure single substance or mixture of substance which is capable of
producing an explosion by its energy.

TWO TYPES/MAIN CLASSES OF EXPLOSIVES

1. Low explosives
- burns but do not explode and function by
producing gas which produces explosion. E.g. black
powder and smokeless powder.
- The Term smokeless powder as
propellant is properly applied to low explosive, which
is called gelatinized nitrocellulose. Low explosives
burn at the rate of inches per second. Low explosives
undergo deflagration at the rates that vary, from a few
centimeters per second to approximately 400 meters
per second.
- It is possible for them to deflagrate very
quickly, producing an effect similar to a detonation.
This usually occurs when ignited in a confined space.
Low explosives are normally employed as propellants. Included in this group are gun powders.

2. High Explosives – detonates under the influence of the shock of the explosion of a primary explosive. They do
not function by burning; in fact, not all of them are combustible, but most of them can be ignited by a flame and in
small amount generally burn tranquilly and can extinguished easily. E.g. TNT, dynamite, nitroglycerine, picric acid.

Classification of High Explosives (according to sensitivity)

1. Primary Explosives – These are extremely sensitive to chemical shock, friction, and heat, which they will
respond by burning rapidly or detonating
Ex. Fulminate of mercury, lead styphnate and lead azide.

2. Secondary explosives –
These explosives are also called
base explosive, and these are
relatively insensitive to shock, friction and heat. They are burn when exposed
to heat or flame in small amount of blasting caps, to boost their power.
Ex. Dynamite, TNT, RDX, PETN, HMX, and other explosives.

3. Tertiary Explosives – These explosives are also called blasting agents, are insensitive to shock, they cannot
be reliably detonated with practical quantities of primary explosive, and instead, require an intermediate explosive
booster of secondary explosive, like ammonium nitrate/fuel oil mixture (ANFO) and slurry (wet bag) explosives
that are primary used in large scale mining construction.
Mixture of an Oxidizer and Fuel, in Explosives
An explosive may consist of either chemically pure compound, such as nitroglycerine, or a mixture of an oxidizer
and a fuel, such as black powder. An oxidizer is a pure substance (molecule) that in a chemical reaction can
contribute some atoms of one or more oxidizing elements, in which the fuel component of the explosive burns. On
the simplest level, the oxidizer may itself be an oxidizing element, such as gaseous or liquid oxygen, cited below:

1. Black powder – Potassium nitrate, charcoal and sulfur;

2. Flash powder – Fine metal powder (usually aluminum or magnesium) and strong oxidizer (like potassium
chlorate or perchlorate);
3. Ammonal – Ammonium nitrate and aluminum powder;
4. Armstrong’s mixture – Potassium chlorate and red phosphorous. This is a very sensitive mixture. It is a primary
high explosive in which sulfur is substituted with phosphorous to slightly decrease sensitivity;
5. Sprengel Explosives – A very general class incorporating any strong oxidizer and highly reactive fuel, although
in practice the name most commonly was applied to mixtures of chlorates and nitro aromatics.
a. ANFO – Ammonium nitrate and fuel oil.
b. Cheddites – Chlorates or perchlorates and oil.
c. Oxyliquits – Mixtures of organic materials and liquid oxygen.
d. Panclastites – Mixtures of organic materials and dinitrogen tetroxide.

Chemically Pure Compounds

Some chemical compounds are unstable, when shocked, they react, which is possible to the point of detonation.
Each molecule of the compound dissociates into two or more new molecules (generally gases) with the release of
energy.

1. Nitroglycerine – a highly unstable and sensitive liquid.

2. Acetone Peroxide – very unstable white organic peroxide.
3. Tri nitro-toluene (TNT) – yellow insensitive crystals that can be melted and cast without detonation.
4. Nitrocellulose – a nitrated polymer which can be a high or low explosive depending on nitration level and
conditions.
5. RDX, PETN, HMX – very powerful explosives which can be used in pure or in plastics explosives, C-4 or
Composition C-4 and RDX plastic explosive plasticized to be adhesive and malleable. Malleable means capable of
extended shape by hammer.

Chemical Explosive Reaction

Generation of heat in large quantities accompany every explosive chemical reaction. It is a rapid liberation of heat
that causes the gaseous products of reaction to expand and generate high pressures. This rapid generation of high
pressures released of gas, constitutes the explosion.

Rapidity of reaction distinguishes the explosive reaction from an ordinary combustion reaction, by the great speed
when it takes place. Unless the reaction occurs rapidly, thermally expanded gases will be dissipated in the medium,
and there will be no explosion.

Nomenclature on Explosives
1. Hand Grenade – is an anti-personnel weapon that explodes
at a short time after release. The first hand grenade was
designed by Milo Vasic, a Serbian Army Colonel, in 1903. In
1912, it was re-designed by Colonel Vasic into Vasic M12
Model. Grenade, are filled with explosives or chemical filler
and have a hole into which a fuse is inserted. If this will
explode, projecting shrapnel, like a piece of casing, serrated
wire or incendiary materials will be released. Hand grenade
have effective casualty radius from 30-45 meters, thus,
necessitating the subject to be thrown from behind cover.

2. Fragmentation Grenade – is an anti-personnel weapon that

is designed to disperse shrapnel upon explosion. The body is
made up of hard plastic or steel, and when the word is use without specification,
it is assumed to refer to fragmentation grenade.

3. Incendiary Grenades or Thermite Grenades – contains a filler of 600 to

800 grams of thermate, powdered aluminum metal and iron oxide, which when
burn, it produces intense heat of chemical reaction which is called thermite
reaction. The reaction produces tremendous amount of burning heat at 2,200 C°
(3,992 F°) that can destroy weapon caches, artillery and vehicles without external
oxygen source, allowing to burn even underwater. White phosphorous can be use in smoke grenade and also use as
incendiary agent.

4. Concussion Grenade – is an anti-personnel device that is designed to

damage its target with explosive power alone. The explosive filler is usually of
a greater weight and volume, the case is thinner designed to have little
fragment. This is especially effective in enclosed areas.

5. Stun Grenade – is a non lethal

weapon, used to temporarily neutralize
the combat effectiveness of the enemy
by disorienting their senses. This is
known as flashbang, was first created in
1960, upon the order of the British Special Air Service. The effect of flash
or light temporarily activates all light sensitive cells in the eye, making
the vision impossible for five seconds, until the eye vision is restore to
its normal un-stimulated state. The incredible loud blast produced by the
grenade, adds to its incapacitating hearing, by disturbing the fluid inside
the ear.

6. Percussion Grenade – is an explosive that detonates upon impact with

the target. This type of grenade have conventional pyrotechnic fuse,
fitted, as back up detonation
device.

7. Smoke Grenade – are used as a ground-to-ground or ground-to-air signaling device, target or landing zone
marking devices, and screening devices for unit movement. The body is sheet steel cylinder with emission holes in
top and bottom, to allow the smoke to be released when the grenade is ignited.

a. Colored
Smoke
Grenade (for
signaling) –
the filler
consist of 250
to 350 grams
of colored
smoke
mixture of mostly potassium chlorate, lactose and dye.

b. Screening Smoke Grenade (for unit movement) – usually

contains hexachloroethane/zinc (HC) smoke mixture or
terephthalic acid (TA) smoke mixture. HC smoke is harmful to
breath, since it contains hydrochloric acid.

8. Tear Gas Grenade – are similar to smoke grenade in terms of shape and
operation. In this type of grenade, the filler is generally 80 to 120 grams of CS
gas combined with pyrotechnic composition which when burn, it generate an
aerosol of CS laden smoke, this cause extreme irritation of the nose and throat.
 9. Sting Grenade or Rubber Ball Grenades – are base on the design of
fragmentation grenade, using two spheres of hard rubber inside the smaller
sphere is the explosive charge, primer and detonator. The space between two
spheres, are filled with many small hard rubber balls. Upon detonation, the
subject is incapacitated or at least dislodge from cover by the blunt force of
the projectiles. This is ideal for small groups of rowdy prisoner, providing
shooting opportunity, when the subjects are hiding behind cover. These types
of grenade is sometimes called stringer grenade.

10. Nuclear Weapon – is an explosive device that derives it destructive

force from nuclear reactions, either fission or a combination of fission
and fusion. Both reactions release vast quantities of energy from
relatively small amount of matter. A modern thermonuclear weapon
weighing little more than a thousand kilograms can produce an explosion
comparable to the detonation of more than a billion kilogram of
conventional high explosives. Nuclear weapons are considered a weapon
of mass destruction and their use is subject to control by international relation policy.

11. Atomic Bombs or Atom Bombs – is the first basic type of nuclear
weapon, their energy comes from the nucleus of an atom. Its explosive
energy is produce through nuclear fission reaction alone. In fission
weapon, a mass of fissile material (enrich uranium or plutonium) is
assemble into a supercritical mass, the amount of material needed to start
an exponentially growing nuclear chain reaction.

12. Hydrogen Bombs or H-Bombs – is the second basic types of nuclear

weapon, produces large amount of energy through fusion reaction. This
weapon, rely on fission reactions between isotopes of hydrogen
(deuterium and tritium). However, all weapons derive significant portion
of their energy from fission, including fission induced by neutron fusion
reaction.

CHAPTER IX
Gun Manufacturing Processes
A gun barrel is the tube, usually metal, through which a controlled explosion or rapid expansion of gases are
released in order to propel a projectile out of the end at a high velocity. All barrel irrespective of the type of the
weapons for which they are made, are manufactured from a solid piece of metal.

The processes of manufacturing the barrel, striker, bolt, extractor, and ejector may be defining the individual
characteristics of the firearm. Thus, firearm examiners should have adequate knowledge how firearm components,
particularly the barrel and the bolt are manufactured.

It is important that a ballistician or the forensic firearms examiner be adequately familiar with the various steps in
the manufacture of a firearm to enable him to explain the source and cause of the different markings found on
evidence firearms, which may be the basis for identification.

There should always be a sound reason for all markings, scratches or dents which is visible on evidence firearms.
It is the role of the forensic firearms examiner, to determine how and why they were made, and also to interpret
there significance, both to himself and to the court. Most of these markings are transferred by the evidence firearm
through deliberate or accidental operations of the tools, during the process of manufacture.

Manufacturing the gun barrel involves four stages, which are as follows:
1. DRILLING this is the process of making a hole from one end to another end through the center of a
steel rod.
 2. REAMING this stage involves the process of cleaning or uniformly scrapping the interior surface of
the barrel to achieve the desired bore diameter.

3. RIFLING this stage is the process of necessary for making the helical grooves inside the barrel. This
stage produces a barrel with lands and grooves at the interior surface.

Methods of Making Rifling

 Hook- cutter system (cutter)
 Scrape-Cutter \system (scraper)
 Broaching System (broach)
 Button System (button)

4. LAPPING this is the process of polishing the inner surface of the gun barrel. This will remove large
imperfection on the inside surface of the barrel both to the lands and grooves.

THE BREECH FACE

Just like any barrel of every firearm, the breech face also bears with it the same importance. It is that portion of
the firearms against which the shell or the cartridge case and the primer is pressed backward every time that a
cartridge is fired in the chamber. If this happens, the base of the cartridge will be marked by the breech face of the
gun.

- During the process of making the firearm by the gun smith, the breechface is subjected to filing or polishing
operation in order to remove the irregularities, imperfection, roughness and scratches created by tools used
in making the breechface. But despite several polishing operation, again, it is beyond the control of man to
polish the breechface as smooth as the mirror. Hence, the remnants of those scars will become individual
characteristics, and the breechface markings will be the basis for firearm identification.

- Assuming that this will occurred in the process, the primer and the
base of the cartridge case or shell, will be imprinted with the tool
markings, wherein the individual characteristics on the breechface
of the firearms are located. As these developed, the theory of the
principle of firearms identification will come into play that, when a
soft surface comes in contact with a harder surface under
tremendous pressure, the soft surface is left with the toll marks from
the hard surface of the firearm.

Factors that Affects Breechface Impression

1.Powder Charge of the cartridge
2.Softness of the primer cup and the surrounding brass
3.Sharpness of the striations on the breechblock
4.Presence of oil, grease or foreign matters on the block
5.Factory stampings on the cartridge head

Other Basis for Firearms Identification

a. Firearm identification is actually a refined toolmark identification. Every tools of the firearms that will
create striations or markings like for example firing pin. It will be refined to prevent damage on the primer cup. If
this won’t be refined, firing pin marks on primer cup, cannot be examined anymore due to damage.

b. The natural wear and tear of the tools involved. Constant firing of the firearm, especially in the wear area, the
bore of the barrel of the gun will become worn out. The result of the worn out barrel, is that, some of the previous
individual characteristics will be change, and a new individual characteristics will be created in the worn out lands
and grooves in the bore of the barrel.

c. When a soft surface and the hard surface comes in contact. Like bullet and the bore of the barrel of the gun, it
is the bullet that will receive or left with impressions from any irregularities, imperfections, roughness and scratches
on the hard surface of the barrel of the gun.

d. The fact that no two things are absolutely identical. These refers to tool marks created by the firearm. Even
ten or more firearms of the same caliber, the same manufacturer, and same type of firearm. If the question asked,
whether they have the same individual characteristics, the answer is that, they will have different individual
characteristics because every firearm have their own individual characteristics.
 - But if the question is about the class characteristics, the answer is that, they have the same class characteristics,
if the firearms have same caliber, the same manufacturer and the type of firearm. Class characteristics, is just a
factory specification and can be determined even before the manufacturer of the firearm.

FIREARM CHARACTERISTICS

Types of Characteristics in Firearm:

A. Class Characteristics – Those characteristics which are common to a particular group of firearms that are
determinable prior to the manufacturing of the firearm and are within the control of the man. These serve as basis to
identify a certain class or group of firearm.

The following are Class Characteristics:

1. Bore Diameter or Caliber – is the diameter in which the bore was reamed. The diameter of the bore, prior to spiral
cutting along the side of the lands, is the actual calibre of the firearm. Once the grooves are cut, the remaining inside the
bore is called lands. It is the distance measure between two opposite lands inside the bore, in order to determine the
calibre of the firearm.

2. Number of Lands and Grooves – The number of Lands and grooves inside the bore of the firearm are always the
same. If the bore has six lands, it will also have six grooves. It is impossible for a bore to have six lands and five grooves.
The number of lands and grooves is valuable in class characteristics. Number of lands and grooves of the bore of the
firearm, may have four to ten or more for newly factory specification, but most common have at least five or six usual
factory specification, for convenient reason.

 Lands – are the elevated portion of the bore of the firearm.

 Grooves – are the depressed portion of the bore between the lands.

3. Width of the lands – It is dependent upon the bore diameter of the gun, grooves, width and number. The lands are the
remainders of the circumference after subtracting all the grooves width.

4. Width of the grooves – It is measured as the shortest distance between the two dies or edge of a groove.

5. Direction of the twist – Rifling inside the barrel of the gun is either twisted to the right or to the left which causes the
bullet to rotate as it passes through the bore, in order to ensure gyroscopic action stability in its flight.

6. Pitch of rifling – The pitch of rifling is the measure of the twisting of the lands and the grooves. It refers to the measure
of the distance advance by the rifling in order to make a complete turn inside the barrel.

7. Depth of the grooves – The groove’s depth is measured on a radius of the bore. Grooves are usually few thousandths
of an inch deep, which is equal to the height of the lands.

Different Types of Rifling

1. Steyr type – is the type of rifling having four (4) lands and grooves, right twist and the width
of the lands is equal to the width of the grooves. (4R G=L)

2. Carbine Type – Rifling having (4) Lands and grooves, right twist, the
width of the grooves is two times the width of the lands. (4R G2X)

3. Smith and Wesson – rifling having (5) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the width
of the land and grooves are equal. (5R G=L)

4. Colt type – type of rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, left twist, the width
of the grooves is twice (2X) the width of the lands. (6L G2x)
 5. Browning type – type of rifling having (6) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the
width of the grooves is twice the width of the lands. (6R G2X)

6. Webley type – rifling having seven (7) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the width
of the groove is three times larger than the boarder of the lands. (7R G3x)

7. Winchester – Rifling having six (6) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the width of
the grooves is three times larger than the width of the lands. (6R G3X)

8. Army type – rifling having four (4) lands and grooves, right hand twist, the width of
the grooves is three times wider than the width of the lands. (4R G3X)

B. Individual/ Accidental Characteristics - Those which are determinable only after the manufacturer of the firearm.
They are characteristics whose existence is beyond the control of man and which have random distribution. Their
existence in a firearm is brought about by the tools in their normal operation resulting through wear and tear, abuse,
mutilations, corrosions, erosion and other fortuitous causes.

- Individual characteristics in firearms are usually determined by the test firing which will give us both the test
firing which will give us both the test bullet and the test shell that will show the individuality of its property based
on the marks that are left on every bullet and shell fired from it. Such marks are so minute that the use of the lens
with high magnification is necessary to discover individuality.
- Marks left on fired shells or fired bullets are generally categorized as either accidental or Repetitive. Accidental
marks are those marks that bare some importance to the investigation but are considered to be not of significant
value in the identification of a particular firearm or weapon since they are not regularly formed in the operation of
the gun. On the other hand, repetitive marks are those marks which are very useful in identifying a firearm. They
show the identity of performance.

MARKS FOUND ON FIRED AMMUNITION COMPONENTS

In firearms identification, the marks imparted by the firearm on ammunition components are not treated as
ordinary marks. These marks contain a degree of forensic value which experts in firearms identification must be
preserve. When ammunition components bearing these marks are brought at the crime laboratory, these are
scientifically investigated to develop evidence that can be used in:

1.Establishing the element/s of a crime

2.Associating suspects/accused with crimes
3. Helping reconstruct the crime or the crime scene

Marks/ Striations on Fired Bullet

1. Landmarks - these are marks on a fired bulled caused by contact
between the elevated portions of the rifling and the bearing surface
of the bullet.
2. Groove marks - these are marks found on a fired bullet caused by
the contact between the bullet’s bearing surface and the rifling
grooves. Groove marks are more obvious in lead bullets.
3. Skid Marks – It is caused by the worn out barrel. In this condition
of the bullet, usually some of the individual characteristics was
removed and changed with a new individual characteristic.
4. Stripping/Shaving Marks – this is caused by bullet jumping
towards the forcing cone or breech end of the barrel, creating
shaving marks. Usually, it is caused by misalignment of the
chamber of the revolver and the breech end of the barrel.
5. Slippage Marks – It is caused by rotating resistance of the bullet upon entering in the rifling of the breech end.
Thus, it will create a different direction of twist of the landmarks and groove marks. This is not the basis for
comparison between the test and evidence bullet, but the remaining correct direction of the twist, is the basis for
comparison between the test bullet and evidence bullet.

* Landmarks and Groove marks are called rifling marks. These are found on the cylindrical or peripheral surface
of fired bullets, caused by the rifling inside the gun barrel. These marks are distinct and clear on the cylindrical
surface of the fired bullet.
Marks/ Striations on Fired Cartridge Case

1. Firing Pin Marks – Found on the primer cup, which is

the central area of the base of the cartridge, especially in
center - fire cartridges, wherein the priming mixture is
contained in the primer cup located at the center of the base.
But it would be different in rim-fire cartridges, the firing pin
strikes in any portion of the rim, where the priming mixture
is located.

2. Breechface Markings – Are found on the base or the

shellhead of the cartridge case and also found in the primer
of the primer cup. This is caused by the tools of the firearm
called breechface. The backward reaction of the shell after
the explosion of the gun powder, which comes in contact
with the breechface, is the subject for comparison in firearms
identification.

3. Extractor Marks – Are marks caused by the tools of the firearms, which is called extractor. The extractor mark
is located in extracting grooves of the shells, fired either from pistols, rifles, or machine guns. The extractor will
grasp the extracting grooves of the shell by force, to remove the shell from the chamber of the firearm.

4. Ejector Marks – Are located in the rim in the base of cartridge cases, fired from automatic firearms. The
purpose of this tool called ejector, is to throw out the shell from the ejector port, in preparation for next empty shell.

5. Shearing Marks – are sometimes called secondary firing pin mark, which are found in the primer, near the firing
pin marks. This can easily be detected because it is shallow, compared to the firing pin marks. This is a form also of
individual characteristics, since not all firearms can produce similar character like shearing marks of the primer.

6. Chamber Marks – Are found in the body of the cartridge case. It is caused by the irregularities, imperfection,
roughness and scratches inside the chamber of the firearm. That’s why the investigator or forensic firearms
examiner should, be very careful in marking the body of the shell. It should be marked only after examining the
presence of chamber marks.

7. Magazine Lips Marks – are markings of two parallel lines on the rim or on the body of the empty shell. These
are caused by the magazine lips during the loading and dragging of the cartridges by the slide from the magazine to
the chamber of the firearm for firing. Eventually this marks serves as a good guide for the firearm examiner, in
determining the relative position of the cartridge in actual explosion in the chamber of the suspected firearms.

8. Pivotal Marks – these marks are caused by the break type revolver. After firing of this type of revolver, in order
to unload the empty shell in the chamber, it must be folded downward, from the portion of the breech end and the
hand grip of the firearm. This tool of the firearm will, at the same time, pull the empty shell from the chamber, and
replace with another live cartridge for firing. The pivotal marks can be found in the base of the rim, of the rimmed
type cartridge.

9. Ejector port Marks – These are marks caused by the contact between the cartridge case and the ejector port of
the firearm.

-All the markings or striations imprinted in the bullet and cartridge case are all produced by the tools of the
firearms. Sometimes it is also called tool marks.

CHAPTER X
The Forensic Ballistics Problem
The problems in forensic ballistics are the summary of the work objectives in the field of firearm
identification. This serves as a general guide to every firearm examiner in determining the course of action to be
undertaken depending on the situation at hand and in the end to serve the ends of justice.

1. Given a fired bullet to determine the calibre, type; make of firearm from which it was fired.
2. Given a fired shell to determine the calibre, type, and make of firearm from which it was fired.
3. Given a fired bullet and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the fired bullet was fired from the
suspected firearm.
 4. Given a fired shell and a suspected firearm, to determine whether or not the fired shell was fired from the
suspected firearm.
5. Given two or more fired bullets, to determine whether or not they were fired from one and the same
firearm.
6. Given two or more fired shell/cartridge case, to determine whether or not they were fired from one and the
same firearm.
7. Given a suspected firearm, to determine whether it is serviceable or not.

Problem No. 1
Given: A fired bullet
Objective: To determine the calibre, type and make of firearm from which it was fired.

Procedure:
a. Identify the bullet based on its various features such as type, shape and design.
b. Use a calliper or a micrometer or a torsion balance to measure the calibre of the bullet or use a
standard bullet at hand and match the base of the bullets. In case of fragmented or deformed bullets,
it will be difficult to determine its base diameter. Thus, use the torsion balance in order to get the
equivalent weight of the bullet and its approximate calibre.
c. After determining the caliber of the fired bullet, examine its cylindrical surface for the land marks
and groove marks. Identify the type of rifling by determining the number of lands and grooves, the
direction of twist, the pitch of rifling, the width of the lands and grooves and the depth of
landmarks.

Problem No. 2
Given: A fired shell/cartridge case
Objective: To determine the caliber, type and make of firearm from which it was fired.

Procedure:
a. Determine the caliber of the shell utilizing the calliper to measure its body diameter or the diameter
of the mouth of the shell or simply match it with standard shell.
b. Check on the base of the fired shell for the head stamp. This part of the shell will gice the examiner
information as to the caliber, the maker, and at certain case even the date of its manufacture
Problem No 3
Given: A fired bullet and a suspected firearm.
Objective: To determine whether or not the fired bullet was fired from the suspected firearm.]

Procedure:
a. Examine the fired bullet as to its calliper, type and make applying the procedure in problem no.1.
b. Examine the suspected firearm as to its condition and basic characteristics as to whether there is
probability of its being the one used in the fired bullet. (verify the type of the rifling)
c. Test-fire the suspected firearm using the bullet recovery box. Use at least three (3) cartridges with
the same caliber and mark as the fired bullet. Make sure to mark the cartridge with letter “t-1, t-2,
and t-3” as the case maybe plus the last two digit of the serial number of the suspected firearm
d. Get the test bullet from the recovery box and identify its general characteristics to determine
probability with the fired bullet.
e. Match the fired bullet with the test bullet using the bullet comparison microscope or forensic digital
comparator.
f. If similar individual marks (striations) were observe on each bullet, then we can conclude that the
fired bullet was fired from the suspected firearm. Otherwise another firearm was used in its
discharge.

Problem No. 4
Given: A fired shell and a suspected firearm
Objective: To determine whether or not the fired shell was fired from the suspected firearm.

Procedure:
a. Examine the fired shell as to its caliber, type and make.
b. Examine the suspected firearm as to its conditions and rifling characteristics.
c. Test-fire the suspected firearm using the bullet recovery box. Use at least three (3) cartridges
for test firing. Make sure to mark the cartridge with letter “t1, t2 and t3” as the case may be
plus the two digit of the serial number of the suspected firearm.
d. Get all the test shell and identify its general characteristics to determine probability with the
fired shell.
e. Match the fired shell with the test shell using the bullet comparison microscope or forensic
digital comparator.
 f. If similar individual marks (striations) were observed on the breech face or firing pin marks
then we can conclude that the fired bullet was fired from the suspected firearm. Otherwise
another firearm was used in its discharge. If problem will be encountered as to the use of the
breech-face or firing pin mark, used the combined extractor and ejector mark as a secondary
option for identification.

Problem No. 5
Given: Two or more fired bullets.
Objective: To determine whether or not they were fired from one and the same firearm.

Procedure:
a. Identify those bullets as to their caliber, type and make by applying the principle in problem no. 1
(do not forget to mark the bullets).
b. Bullets of the same caliber, type and make should be compared at the bullet comparison
microscope.
c. The fired bullets that show a magnified image of similar characteristics will be considered fired
from one and the same firearm, while those that would not match positively were fired from
different firearms.

Problem No. 6
Given: Two or more fired shells.
Objective: To determine whether they were fired from one and the same firearm.
Procedure:
a. Identify each fired shells as to their caliber, type and make applying the procedures in problem
no. 2 (do not forget to mark each fired shell)
b. Compare each fired shell of the same caliber, type and make using the bullet comparison
microscope. The fired cartridge case having similar individual marks (striations) will prove that
they were fired from one and the same firearm while the non-identity of their individual marks
would mean that they have been fired from different firearm.

Problem No. 7
Given: A suspected firearm.
Objective: To determine whether it is serviceable or not.

Procedure:
a. Examine the suspected firearm, its caliber, type and make and its condition as to whether or not
it is functional.
b. Check its serial number and records of its identification.
c. Mark the suspected firearm for further reference.

CHAPTER XI
Crime Scene Search Operations
Crime scene is the place where the physical evidence is left by the perpetrator, after the commission of the
crime. These involved the routine jobs of the investigator, in recognizing, sketching, photographing, collecting,
marking, preserving, itemizing and transmitting the physical evidence to the Crime Laboratory for forensic
examination.

Purpose of Crime Scene Search

The primary purpose of crime scene search, is the preservation of the physical evidence in the place
of the commission of the crime, and to retained its evidentiary value in preparation for proper searching, collection,
care, handling, preservation in appropriate container and transporting of evidence from the scene of the crime to the
Crime Laboratory, until it reaches the court for final disposition of the case.

To conceptualize, the purpose of crime scene search operation in the law enforcement is to render public
service effectively and efficiently. Inform and guide field investigators about the importance of crime scene search,
with the application of scientific investigation, to assist investigators in the speedy solution of criminal cases
specially, heinous ones, through the proper processing of evidences.

Procedure In Crime Scene Search:

A. Received of Report/Complaints
 - The police officer of the station who first received the report of the incidents, hall record the time and
date, the complaint was received. Identify the person who made the report, the place of the incident and the
circumstances of the incident.
- The desk officer shall immediately inform his superior.
- The duty officer should immediately dispatch a mobile team to the place of incident for verification.
B. Upon Arrival at the Crime Scene
- Record the time and date of arrival at the crime scene, location of the scene, condition of the weather,
condition and type of lightning, direction of wind and visibility, and then secure the crime scene by installing crime
scene tape, rope or police line.
- Before touching or moving any object of the crime scene, determine first the status of the victim, whether
he is still alive or already dead.
- Designate a member of the team or summon other policemen, or responsible person to stand, watch and
secure the scene. Permit only those authorized persons to enter the crime scene. Identify and retain for questioning,
the person who first notified the police, and other possible witnesses.
- Determine the assailant through inquiry, observe him if his identity is immediately apparent. Arrest him if
he is still in the vicinity. Separate the witnesses during the interview, in order to get independent statements.

C. Conduct of search and Recording of Activities at the Crime Scene

Assess the situation before conducting an actual search, to determine the number, kind and views to be
photographs, then made the plan of the search. Immediately designate a headquarters or safe area, where you could
stay, in which there are no possible evidences that may accidentally be disturbed or altered.
Different Method of Search

1. Strip or Lane method of Search

2. Double Strip or Grid Method of Search
3. Spiral or Circular Method of Search
4. Zone or Sector Method of Search
5. Point to point Method of Search
6. Clockwise and Counter Clockwise Method of Search

Do not touch or move any evidence once it is located, until it has been identified, measured, recorded, until
it has been identified, measured, recorded, and photographed. Consider all objects or items found inside or within
the crime scene, as significant, and take appropriate documentation and recording.

Photograph the crime scene by making a series of overlapping shots, from the parameter inward, to
obtain maximum information on how the crime scene was committed. Take the following photographs at the crime
scene;
d. Over-all Photographs – are done clockwise until the four general view of the areas have been taken.
e. Photograph of the victim – a set of picture showing the relationship of the cadaver over the
surroundings including the injuries sustained.
f. Photograph of evidence
g. Photograph of the vicinity or environment
h. Take note of the following photographic data;
 Data to identify the photographs with the offense
 Name of the photographer
 Data on the orientation or position of the camera with the scene
 Date and hour when each photograph was taken.
 Data about the light and weather condition when each photograph was taken.
 Data about the type and make of the camera and the kind of film used.
 Focal length of the lens.
 Data on the developing, printing and other special laboratory techniques.

Prepare a rough sketch of the crime scene , indicating the actual measurement of things, but need not
be drawn with scale as basis of a finished sketch for court presentation. The following sketches should be
made;
1. Sketch from locality – provides a picture of the scene, the crime and its vicinity including
neighboring buildings and roads leading to the crime scene.
2. Sketch of Grounds – pictures out the scene of the crime with the nearest physical surroundings such
as, house with its garden, floor plan, and other.

D. Coordination with Other Investigating Agencies:

- The unit who first arrived in the crime scene and took the initiative to investigate the case, shall be the one
to handle the investigation, except upon the request of the families/relatives of the victims.
- Lateral coordination is highly encouraged, between investigators of other units and the scene of the crime
operation team, in-charge in investigating the crime scene.
E. Composition of the Team
1. Team Leader
2. Assistant team leader
3. Photographer and photographic log recorder
4. Sketcher/Measurer
5. Evidence recorder/custodian
6. Evidence recovery personnel
7. Driver Security

F. Recognition of Physical Evidence

At the crime scene, the investigator must recognize and exercise keen power of observation and extreme
care in his search for those physical evidences like; fired bullets, fired shells, firearm or firearms, and allied items
related to the used of firearms.

The success of the case lies solely on how the investigator conducted in handling these ballistics evidences.
Supposedly, and as part of recognition, the investigator should be aware already what kind of incident, whether it is
a shooting incident or stabbing incident. Knowing this simple things, are vital in the preparation of the necessary
equipment, needed in the crime scene before they responded, to avoid unnecessary delay.

G. Collection of Physical Evidence

In collecting physical Evidence, the officer or investigator should collect all articles, which may, in some
future date, be of value as evidence. Any physical object which may show, and indicate that crime was committed,
and anything that may connect to particular person with the crime or crime scene, should be collected. The
following are example of physical evidence;
- Firearms - holster
- Fired bullets - magazine for automatic firearm
- Fired shells - cartridges
- Metallic fragments - gloves
- Broken glass or allied items - masks

Extra ordinary care, should be afforded in the exercise of collecting physical evidences. Evidence should
not be mutilated in any way, such as crushing. It should not be altered in any way that may change its original
nature. Should alterations of the evidence occurred, the police officer or investigator should include in his
report why this happened. The evidence should notbe contaminated, that is, by adding anything which may
change the very nature of the physical evidence. In short, don’t’ mutilate, alter and contaminate physical
evidence.

Evidence firearm found at the crime scene, it is necessary that the following pertinent facts or features should be
noted:
a. Type of firearm – ex. Pistol, revolver, rifle or shoygun etc.
b. Caliber of the firearm – ex. Cal. 9mm, .45, .357 etc.
c. Serial number of the firearm – SN. 274469.
d. Number of load in the cylinder, if revolver – ex. 5 live ammunitions or load, and in the magazine, if
pistol ex. 7 live ammunitions.
e. Position of the firearm relative to a body at the scene – held by victim’s hand.
f. Other distinct or significant features – nickel plated barrel etc.

When bullets are found at the crime scene, the following description should be noted.
a. Type of the bullet
b. Caliber of the bullet
c. Shape or form of the bullet – round nose, flat nose, pointed etc.
d. Other metallic fragments – deformed broken jacket
e. Place of recovery and date of recovery

When shells are found at the crime scene, the following description should be noted down:
a. Number of shells – should be in order of recovery with physical identity each
b. Caliber of the shells – if it is found on the base of the shell, it should be noted
c. Trademark or brand of the shell – ex. Luger, AP, ACP etc.
d. Place of recovery and date of recovery

NOTE: The rule in recovering firearm at the crime scene is – “Do not lift or handle suspected firearms by inserting
objects at the barrel”. The proper method is to insert a string at the trigger guard then lift it. Modern onoscope,
helixometer and similar instruments are capable of detecting minute clues from interior of the gun.
H. Rules in Marking Physical Evidence (Ballistics Exibits)

a. Make use of a hard pointed instrument called stylus in marking ballistics evidence such as metallic or plastic
cartridge case, bullet and firearm. In case of paper cartridge case or shell, it is better to use a fountain pen for
marking.

b. Use distinctive marks such as initials of the investigator, victim or suspects if identified plus the date of recovery.
It is more advisable to use the victims initial for easy distinction between evidence of the case to another. Do not
make use of the mark “x” for such mark is considered universal that almost everybody is in use of it.

c. Put the mark on the surface of the evidence that would not in any way alter its very nature.

d. Make a complete record of the mark used, where it is placed and other distinctive marks that the evidence
possesses.

e. If tags are to be used, make the necessary entry, attach it securely before putting on the evidence bag or
container. Mark the container or the evidence tag for proper entry.

f. Keep a complete record of the chain of possession of the ballistics evidence.

1. Marking of Fired Bullets

The investigator should mark his initials, or the initials of victim in the ogive or nose or on the base of
the bullet, together with the corresponding date of recovery. If it is deformed bullet, the marks should be in the
base or in the place where there is no more landmarks and groovemarks. The officer can do this with the use of
stylus or any pointed instrument. Never in any instance that the initial, should be placed at the cylindrical or
peripheral surface of the bullets, because this portion of the bullet, contains the rifling marks, where the striations,
are also located.

2. Marking of Fired Cartridge Case

Fired shells should be marked with the initials of the investigator or initials of the victim together with the
date of recovery. The officer can do this also, with the use of stylus or a sharp pointed instrument, the following are
the best areas where the investigating officer should place his marks;
 Inside, near the open mark
 Outside near the open mark
 On the body of the shell, after examining the presence of the chamber markings.

3. Marking of Suspected Firearm

Aside from noting down its pertinent features of the evidence firearms, it should be marked also with the
initials of the recovering officer or the initials of the victim, either in the three main inseparable parts, such as the
barrel cylinder, and the frame as in revolver. The initial, if it is a pistol, should be placed on the barrel,
slide, and frame or receiver.
For firearm, a tag should be filled up with the following entries
a. Type of firearm
b. Make or model of the firearm
c. Caliber of the firearm
d. Serial Number
e. Date of recovery
f. Name of victim
g. Name of suspect
h. Other physical features of value

I. Preservation Process
Evidence like firearm, fired bullets, fired shells should be properly preserved for future identification and
presentation. These physical evidences should be kept in proper storage, in proper place and conditions conducive
for preservation, so that it will retain their top evidentiary value for effective presentation and final prosecution of
the case.
For small objects, like bullets and metallic fragments, after having been marked by the recovering officer, it
should be wrapped in tissue paper and sealed in pill box, match box, vial or any similar container. The
container should also be properly label with tag. Evidence should be placed each in a separate container and
each container should be marked accordingly. The container should be durable enough, that it will not easily
break, and it should be large enough for the evidence to be easily removed and replaced.

J. Transmittal Process
The physical evidence after marking and preparation of letter request will be transmitted to duly personnel
or the designated receiving officer in the laboratory. The duty officer, who received, must itemize the
evidences, and must be duly aware of the Chain of Possession of Physical Evidences.
 The investigator must bear in mind and must be able to state clearly the following:
a. Name of the person, who recovered the evidences in the crime scene
b. Name of the person, who received the evidence from him when it was submitted.
c. Date and time, when the evidences were submitted to the laboratory.
d. Date and time received.
e. Name of the person, who issue the receipt. Note: the file copy received by the officer, who delivered the request
and the corresponding itemized physical evidence, is already the receipt itself, based on the filled up facsimile,
stamped on the letter request. Hence, this file copy is the proof of chain of custody.

“The cardinal rule of firearm safety is that every gun must be treated as if it were
loaded.”

CHAPTER XII
Laboratory Equipment Used In Firearms
Identification
1. Bullet recovery box

2. Bullet Comparison Microscope – is a piece of optical

equipment frequently used by firearms identification expert or forensic
firearm examiner. This instrument is especially designed, for use by the
forensic firearms examiner to examine and compare two fired bullets
or two fired shells mounted in separate stage plate,
simultaneously observing the merged magnified image in the
eyepiece of the bullet comparison microscope.

Two Position in Comparing Evidence and Test

a. Intermarriage – is the position of both evidence bullet and test bullet, wherein half of the same image of
evidence bullet and half of the same image of the test bullet of the same direction, the same magnification and the
same level or plane, are merged into one image.

This image depicts the control bullet fired at the lab (left) and the
questioned bullet collected from the crime scene (right), viewed under
a comparison microscope.
b. Juxtaposition – is the critical side by side comparison of
evidence bullet and test bullet, through the bullet comparison
microscope, to find the same feature, structure of striations or
markings from the base portion, up to ogive or nose portion of the fired bullet, created by the same tools of the
firearm.

Col. Calvin H. Goddard

- The person responsible for the invention of bullet comparison microscope in April 1925.
- He is known as the Father of Modern Ballistics.

3. Stereoscopic Microscope – This is another piece of

equipment used in firearms identification. Unlike the bullet
comparison microscope, it does not have any other camera
attachment and no photomicrograph can be taken for court
presentation. The first stereoscopic-Style Microscope having
two eyepieces and matching objectives, was designed and
invented by Cherubind’Oreans in 1671, but the instrument
was actually a pseudo stereoscopic system that achieved image
erection by the application of supplemental lenses.

4. Shadowgraph – This is another equipment used in firearms

identification. It contains a series of microscopic lenses of different
magnifications that can be used in examining fired bullets or fired shells, to
determine their class characteristics and also for orientation purposes. It
differs from the bullet comparison microscope and the stereoscopic
microscope. This instrument contains a large circular ground glass, and a
diameter about 14 inches, wherein the observation and comparison of the
class characteristics is done by the forensic firearms examiner. Similarly,
with the bullet comparison microscope, it can take photomicrographs of the
observations and comparisons made in the circular ground glass.

5. CP-6 Comparison Projector – Equipment very much similar

with the bullet comparison microscope, in which two fired bullets or
fired shells can be compared simultaneously. The instrument was
invented by William Howard Livens. The evidence bullet can be
compared immediately with test bullet, or the evidence fired shell
can be immediately compared with the test fired shell. With the use
of this equipment, there is absolutely no strain to the eye. There are
no bulbs in the goose neck lights, and the connections to the fiber
optic light supply are cut.

6. Helixometer – This is a type of instrument used in measuring the pitch

of rifling of firearms. Pitch of the Rifling is the distance advanced by the
rifling in one complete turn, equivalent to 360 degress or it may mean the
distance travelled by the bullet in completing a 360 degress rotation.
- it was invented by
John H. Fisher,

7. Micrometer – This device is similar in use, as callipers. The word

micrometer is derived from Greek words micros, refers to small, and
metron refers to measure. The first ever micrometric screw was invented by William Gascoigne in 17 thcentury, this
is an enhancement of the Vernier. It was used in a telescope no measure angular distance between stars.

8. Caliper – Is an instrument used in making measurements of the bullet diameter, shell length, rim diameter, bore
diameter, barrel length. This instrument is precisely used in determining the calibre of the bullet and the firearm
with each standard measurement.

9. Analytical or Torsion Balance – This is used

for determining weight of bullets or shotgun pellets
for possible determination of type, calibre, and make
of firearm from which it was fired. This device could
either be, expressed in grains or in grams.

10. Anoscope – A small instrument sometimes

used in examining the internal surface of the gun
barrel. It has a tiny lamp at the terminal portion, and
this is inserted inside the bore, for internal
examinations. This instrument can detect
irregularities, imperfection, roughness and scratches
inside the bore of the barrel.

11. Chronograph – This is the first portable instrument used for

measuring muzzle velocity and striking power. Chronograph consisted of an aluminum disk spooled or wind with
thicker tape, which, a small motor kept revolving at a constant speed.
Instead of breaking a circuit on contact, the shell created an electrical
impulse when it hit each screen, causing a spark to burn a small hole in
the tape. The shell velocity could easily be calculated by measuring the
distance between spark holes. It was invented by Alfred Lee Loomis in
1918.

12.Taper Gauge – Used primarily for determining the bore diameter of

firearms. It could be applied in smooth bore firearm or rifled bore firearm. The
sole purpose of this instrument is also the determination of the calibre.

13.Electric Gun Marker – Used

in the laboratory for marking fired bullets, fired shells and firearms
submitted for examination. This equipment operates with a cord that is
plug to the female outlet.