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 HOLT'Z ., KOVACS • SIHEAHAN
-

A.n,Introduction, ·to
GEOTECHNICAL
ENGINEERING
 AN INTRODUCTION TO
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
Third Edition

Robert D. Holtz, Ph.D., P.E., D.GE

University of Washington

William D. Kovacs, Ph.D., P.E., D.GE

University of Rhode Island

Thomas C. Sheahan, Sc.D., P.E.

Northeastern University

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Names: Holtz, R. D. (Robert D.), author. I Kovacs, William D., author. I

Sheahan, Thomas C., author.
Title: An introduction to geotechnical engineering/ Robert D. Holtz,
Ph.D., P.E., D.GE, University of Washington, William D. Kovacs, Ph.D.,
P.E., D.GE, University of Rhode Island, Thomas C. Sheahan, Sc.D., P.E.,
Northeastern University.
Description: Third edition. I Hoboken, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc., [2023]
I Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022011439 I ISBN 9780137604388
Subjects: LCSH: Soil mechanics-Textbooks. I Rock mechanics-Textbooks. I
Geotechnical engineering-Textbooks.
Classification: LCC TA710 .H564 2023 I DDC 624.1/5136-dc23/eng/20220316
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Contents

Preface xiii
Chapter 1 Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering 1
1.1 Geotechnical Engineering 1
1.2 The Unique Nature of Soil and Rock Materials 3
1.3 Scope of This Book 4
1.4 Historical Development of Geotechnical Engineering 5
1.5 Suggested Approach to the Study of Geotechnical ENgineering 6
1.6 Notes on Symbols, Units, and Standards 6
1.7 Some Comments on How to Study in General 7
Suggested Activities 8 • References 8
Chapter 2 Index and Classification Properties of Soils 9
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Basic Definitions and Phase Relations for Soils 9
2.2.1 Solution of Phase Problems 14
2.2.2 Submerged or Buoyant Density and Unit Weight 22
2.2.3 Specific Gravity 25
2.3 Soil Texture 27
2.4 Grain Size and Grain Size Distribution 28
2.5 Particle Shape 34
2.6 Atterberg Limits 35
2.6.1 One-Point Liquid Limit Test 40
2.6.2 Additional Comments on the Atterberg Limits 41
2.7 Introduction to Soil Classification 43
2.8 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) 44
2.8.1 Visual-Manual Classification of Soils 51
2.8.2 Limitations of the USCS 54
2.9 AASHTO Soil Classification System 55
Problems 55 • References 62
Chapter 3 Geology, Landforms, and the Evolution of Geomaterials 64
3.1 Importance of Geology to Geotechnical Engineering 64
3.1.1 Geology 64
3.1.2 Geomorphology 65
3.1.3 Engineering Geology 65
3.2 The Earth, Minerals, Rocks, and Rock Structure 66
3.2.1 The Earth 66
3.2.2 Minerals 66
3.2.3 Rocks 67
3.2.4 Rock Structure 68

V
vi Contents

3.3 Geologic Processes and Landforms 71

3.3.1 Geologic Processes and the Origin of Earthen Materials 71
3.3.2 Weathering 71
3.3.3 Gravity Processes 77
3.3.4 Surface-Water Processes 80
3.3.5 Ice Processes and Glaciation 93
3.3.6 Wind Processes 104
3.3.7 Volcanic Processes 106
3.3.8 Grounc.lwaler Processes 108
3.3.9 Tectonic Processes 109
3.3.10 Plutonic Processes 111
3.4 Anthropogenic Geology 112
3.5 Properties, Macrostructure, and Classification of Rock Masses 113
3.5.1 Properties of Rock Masses 113
3.5.2 Discontinuities in Rock 113
3.5.3 Rock Mass Classification Systems 115
3.6 Products of Weathering 120
3.7 Clay Minerals 120
3.7.1 The 1:1 Clay Minerals 122
3.7.2 The 2:1 Clay Minerals 124
3.7.3 Other Clay Minerals 127
3.8 Specific Surface 128
3.9 Interaction Between Water and Clay Minerals 128
3.9.1 Hydration of Clay Minerals and the Diffuse Double Layer 129
3.9.2 Exchangeable Cations and Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) 131
3.10 Soil Structure and Fabric of Fine-Grained Soils 132
3.11 Granular Soil Fabrics 135
Problems 140 • References 142
Chapter 4 Compaction and Stabilization of Soils 146
4.1 Introduction 146
4.2 Compaction and Densification 147
4.3 Theory of Compaction 147
4.3.1 Process of Compaction 150
4.3.2 Typical Values; Degree of Saturation 152
4.3.3 Effect of Soil Type and Method of Compaction 153
4.4 Structure of Compacted Fine-Grained Soils 155
4.5 Compaction of Granular Soils 156
4.5.1 Relative or Index Density 156
4.5.2 Densification of Granular Deposits 157
4.5.3 Rock Fills 160
4.6 Field Compaction Equipment and Procedures 161
4.6.1 Compaction of Fine-Grained Soils 161
4.6.2 Compaction of Granular Materials 165
4.6.3 Compaction Equipment Summary 168
4.6.4 Compaction of Rockfill 168
 Contents vii

4.7 Specifications and Compaction Control 169

4.7.1 Specifications 170
4.7.2 Compaction Control Tests 171
4.7.3 Problems with Compaction Control Tests 176
4.7.4 Most Efficient Compaction 180
4.7.5 Overcompaction 181
4.7.6 Rock Fill QA/QC 182
4.8 Estimating Performance of Compacted Soils 183
Problems 186 • References 190
Chapter 5 Hydrostatic Water in Soils and Rocks 193
5.1 Introduction 193
5.2 Capillarity 193
5.2.1 Capillary Rise and Capillary Pressures in Soils 198
5.2.2 Measurement of Capillarity; Soil-Water Characteristic Curve 202
5.2.3 Other Capillary Phenomena 202
5.3 Groundwater Table and the Vadose Zone 205
5.3.1 Definition 205
5.3.2 Field Determination 205
5.4 Shrinkage Phenomena in Soils 208
5.4.1 Capillary Tube Analogy 208
5.4.2 Shrinkage Limit Test 209
5.4.3 Shrinkage Properties of Compacted Clays 211
5.5 Expansive Soils and Rocks 213
5.5.1 Physical-Chemical Aspects 215
5.5.2 Identification and Prediction 215
5.5.3 Expansive Properties of Compacted Clays 218
5.5.4 Swelling Rocks 218
5.6 Engineering Significance of Shrinkage and Swelling 222
5.7 Collapsible Soils and Subsidence 223
5.8 Frost Action 225
5.8.1 Terminology, Conditions, and Mechanisms of Frost Action 226
5.8.2 Prediction and Identification of Frost-Susceptible Soils 230
5.9 Intergranular or Effective Stress 233
5.10 Vertical Stress Profiles 238
5.11 Relationship Between Horizontal and Vertical Stresses 241
Problems 242 • References 246
Chapter 6 Fluid Flow in Soils and Rock 249
6.1 Introduction 249
6.2 Fundamentals of Fluid Flow 249
6.3 Darcy's Law for Flow Through Porous Media 251
6.4 Measurement of Permeability or Hydraulic Conductivity 254
6.4.1 Laboratory and Field Hydraulic Conductivity Tests 257
6.4.2 Factors Affecting Laboratory and Field Determination of k 257
6.4.3 Empirical Relationships and Typical Values of k 258
6.5 Heads and One-Dimensional Flow 262
viii Contents

6.6 Seepage Forces, Quicksand, and Liquefaction 271

6.6.1 Seepage Forces, Critical Gradient, and Quicksand 271
6.6.2 Quicksand Tank 278
6.6.3 Liquefaction 281
6.7 Seepage and Flow Nets: Two-Dimensional Flow 281
6.7.1 Flow Nets 284
6.7.2 Quantity of Flow, Uplift Pressures, and Exit Gradients 289
6.7.3 Other Solutions to Seepage Problems 293
6.8 Seepage Toward Wells 294
6.9 Seepage Through Dams and Embankments 298
6.10 Control of Seepage and Filters 300
6.10.1 Basic Filtration Principles 301
6.10.2 Design of Graded Granular Filters 302
6.10.3 Geotextile Filter Design Concepts 304
6.10.4 FHWA Filter Design Procedure 305
Problems 310 • References 316
Chapter 7 Compressibility and Consolidation of Soils 318
7.1 Introduction 318
7.2 Components of Settlement 319
7.3 Compressibility of Soils 320
7.4 One-Dimensional Consolidation Testing 322
7.5 Preconsolidation Pressure and Stress History 325
7.5.1 Normal Consolidation, Overconsolidation, and Preconsolidation Pressure 325
7.5.2 Determining the Preconsolidation Pressure 326
7.5.3 Stress History and Preconsolidation Pressure 327
7.6 Consolidation Behavior of Natural and Compacted Soils 329
7.7 Settlement Calculations 329
7.7.1 Consolidation Settlement of Normally Consolidated Soils 338
7.7.2 Consolidation Settlement of Overconsolidated Soils 340
7.7.3 Determining C, and C, 0 342
7.8 Factors Affecting the Determination of O'~ 344
7.9 Prediction of Field Consolidation Curves 346
7.10 Approximate Methods and Typical Values of Compression Indices 351
7.11 Compressibility of Rock and Transitional Materials 353
7.12 Introduction to Consolidation 353
7.13 The Consolidation Process 354
7.14 Terzaghi's One-Dimensional Consolidation 1l1eory 355
7.15 Classic Solution for the Terzaghi Consolidation Equation 357
7.16 Determination of the Coefficient of Consolidation cv 368
7.16.1 Casagrande's Logarithm of Time Fitting Method 368
7.16.2 Taylor's Square Root of Time Fitting Method 372
7.17 Determination of the Coefficient of Permeability 374
7.18 Typical Values of the Coefficient of Consolidation cv 375
7.19 In Situ Determination of Consolidation Properties 376
7.20 Evaluation of Secondary Settlement 376
Problems 384 • References 393
 Contents ix

Chapter 8 Stresses, Failure, and Strength Testing of Soil and Rock 397
8.1 Introduction 397
8.2 Stress at a Point 397
8.3 Stress-Strain Relationships and Failure Criteria 405
8.4 The Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion 407
8.4.1 Mohr Failure Theory 407
8.4.2 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion 409
8.4.3 Obliquity Relationships 411
8.4.4 Failure Criteria for Rock 413
8.5 Stress Paths 414
8.6 Laboratory Tests for the Shear Strength of Soils and Rocks 420
8.6.1 Direct Shear Test 420
8.6.2 Triaxial Test 424
8.6.3 Special Laboratory Soils Tests 427
8.6.4 Laboratory Tests for Rock Strength 429
8.7 In Situ Tests for the Shear Strength of Soils and Rocks 430
8.7.1 In Situ Tests for Shear Strength of Soils 431
8.7.2 Field Tests for Modulus and Strength of Rocks 437
Problems 438 • References 442
Chapter 9 An Introduction to Shear Strength of Soils and Rock 445
9.1 Introduction 445
9.2 Angle of Repose of Sands 446
9.3 Behavior of Saturated Sands During Drained Shear 447
9.4 Effect of Void Ratio and Confining Pressure on Volume Change 449
9.5 Factors That Affect the Shear Strength of Sands 457
9.6 Shear Strength of Sands Using In Situ Tests 462
9.6.1 SPT 462
9.6.2 CPT 463
9.6.3 DMT 464
9.7 The Coefficient of Earth Pressure at Rest for Sands 464
9.8 Behavior of Saturated Cohesive Soils During Shear 467
9.9 Consolidated-Drained Stress-Deformation and Strength Characteristics 468
9.9.1 Consolidated-Drained (CD) Test Behavior 468
9.9.2 Typical Values of Drained Strength Parameters for Saturated Cohesive Soils 472
9.9.3 Use of CD Strength in Engineering Practice 472
9.10 Consolidated-Undrained Stress-Deformation and Strength Characteristics 474
9.10.1 Consolidated-Undrained (CU) Test Behavior 474
9.10.2 Typical Values of the Undrained Strength Parameters 479
9.10.3 Use of CU Strength in Engineering Practice 480
9.11 Unconsolidated-Undrained Stress-Deformation and Strength Characteristics 482
9.11.1 Unconsolidated-Undrained (UU) Test Behavior 482
9.11.2 Unconfined Compression Test 485
9.11.3 Typical Values of UU and UCC Strengths 488
9.11.4 Other Ways to Determine the Undrained Shear Strength 489
9.11.5 Use of UU Strength in Engineering Practice 491
x Contents

9.12 Sensitivity 494

9.13 The Coefficient of Earth Pressure at Rest for Clays 495
9.14 Strength of Compacted Clays 499
9.15 Strength of Rocks and Transitional Materials 503
Problems 505 • References 508
Chapter 10 Shallow Foundations 512
10.1 Introduction to Foundations 512
10.2 Methodologies for Foundation Design 513
10.3 Introduction to Bearing Capacity 514
10.3.1 Bearing Capacity Failure Types 515
10.3.2 Terzaghi's General Bearing Capacity Theory 516
10.3.3 Modifications to the Basic Bearing Capacity Equation 517
10.4 Calculating Bearing Capacity for Different Loading Conditions 521
10.5 Bearing Capacity in Sands-The Drained Case 522
10.5.1 Determination of Input Parameters for Foundations on Sands 523
10.5.2 Effect of Water Table on Bearing Capacity of Shallow Foundations on Sand 525
10.6 Bearing Capacity in Clays 532
10.6.1 Bearing Capacity in Clays-The Drained Case 532
10.6.2 Bearing Capacity in Clays-The Undrained Case 535
10.7 Bearing Capacity in Layered Soils 536
10.7.1 Stiff Clay Layer over Soft Clay 537
10.7.2 Sand Layer over Clay 538
10.8 Determination of Allowing Bearing Capacity in Practice 539
10.9 Shallow Foundation Settlement 540
10.9.1 Introduction to Shallow Foundation Settlement 540
10.9.2 Components of Geotechnical Settlement 541
10.9.3 Stress Distribution Under Foundation 542
10.10 Immediate Settlement Based on Elastic Theory 551
10.11 Settlement of Shallow Foundations on Sand 554
10.11.1 Settlement in Sand Based on Standard Penetration Test 555
10.11.2 Settlements in Sand from Schmertmann Strain Influence Factor Method 557
10.11.3 Direct Estimate of Settlement Using CPT 560
10.12 Settlement of Shallow Foundations on Clay 560
10.13 Combined Foundations 564
10.13.1 Combined Footings 565
10.13.2 Mat Foundations 566
Problems 567 • References 580
Chapter 11 Lateral Earth Pressures and Earth Retaining Structures 583
11.1 Introduction to Lateral Earth Pressures 583
11.2 Lateral Earth Pressure at Rest and Idealized Retaining Wall 584
11.3 Rankine Active Earth Pressure 588
11.3.1 Rankine Active State for Sands 590
11.3.2 Rankine Active Earth Pressure for Inclined Backfill 593
11.3.3 Rankine Active Earth Pressure for Clays 596
11.4 Coulomb Active Earth Pressure 602
 Contents xi

11.5 Rankine Passive Earth Pressure 608

11.5.1 Rankine Passive Case for Sands 608
11.5.2 Rankine Passive Case for Clays-Drained Case 612
11.5.3 Rankine Passive Case for Clays-Undrained Case 613
11.5.4 Rankine Passive for Inclined Backfill 613
11.6 Retaining Wall Design 615
11.6.1 Introduction to Retaining Wall Design 615
11.6.2 Initial Proportioning of Retaining Walls 616
11.6.3 Provisions for Drainage Behind Retaining Walls 617
11.6.4 Applying Lateral Earth Pressure Theories to Wall Design and Analysis 619
11.6.5 Retaining Wall Stability Analysis Checks 620
Problems 628 • References 639
Chapter 12 Deep Foundations 640
12.1 Introduction to Deep Foundations 640
12.2 Types of Deep Foundations and Installation Methods 641
12.2.1 Driven Pile Foundations 642
12.2.2 Vibratory-Installed Pile Foundations 646
12.2.3 Jacked Pile Foundations 646
12.2.4 Rapid Impact Piles 647
12.2.5 Jetted Piles 647
12.2.6 Screw Piles 647
12.2.7 Bored Piles 647
12.3 Determination of Pile Load Capacity and Settlement 653
12.3.1 End Bearing Resistance of Deep Foundations 654
12.3.2 Side Resistance of Deep Foundations 658
12.3.3 Deep Foundation Group Behavior 671
12.3.4 Bearing Capacity of Piles in Rock 674
12.3.5 Settlement of Piles 675
12.4 Piles Loaded in Tension and Laterally 678
12.4.1 Bearing Capacity of Piles Loaded in Tension 678
12.4.2 Laterally Loaded Piles- Ultimate Load Analysis 682
12.4.3 Laterally Loaded Piles-Deflection Analysis 685
12.5 Additional Topics in Deep Foundations 691
12.5.1 Negative Pile Side Friction 691
12.5.2 Pile Capacity Verification 692
Problems 694 • References 702
Chapter 13 Advanced Topics in Shear Strength of Soils and Rocks 704
13.1 Introduction 704
13.2 Stress Paths for Shear Strength Testing 704
13.3 Pore Pressure Parameters 710
13.3.1 Introduction to Pore Pressure Parameters 710
13.3.2 Pore Pressure Parameters for Different Stress Paths 713
13.4 Stress Paths During Undrained Loading-Normally and Lightly Overconsolidated Clays 714
13.5 Stress Paths During Undrained Loading-Heavily Overconsolidated Clays 724
13.6 Applications of Stress Paths to Engineering Practice 727
xii Contents

13.7 Critical State Soil Mechanics 732

13.8 Modulus and Constitutive Models for Soils 743
13.8.1 Modulus of Soils 743
13.8.2 Constitutive Relations 748
13.8.3 Soil Constitutive Modeling 749
13.8.4 Failure Criteria for Soils 750
13.8.5 Classes of Constitutive Models for Soils 752
13.8.6 The Hyperbolic (Duncan-Chang) Model 753
13.9 Fumlamenlal Basis of LheDrained Slrenglh of Sands 755
13.9.1 Basics of Frictional Shear Strength 755
13.9.2 Stress-Dilatancy and Energy Corrections 757
13.9.3 Curvature of the Mohr Failure Envelope 761
13.10 Behavior of Saturated Sands in Undrained Shear 762
13.10.1 Consolidated-Undrained Behavior 762
13.10.2 Using CD Tests to Predict CU Results 766
13.10.3 Unconsolidated-Undrained Behavior 770
13.10.4 Strain-Rate Effects in Sands 773
13.11 Plane Strain Behavior of Sands 773
13.12 Residual Strength of Soils 779
13.12.1 Drained Residual Shear Strength of Clays 779
13.12.2 Residual Shear Strength of Sands 781
13.13 Stress-Deformation and Shear Strength of Clays: Special Topics 782
13.13.1 Definition of Failure in CU Effective Stress Tests 782
13.13.2 Hvorslev Strength Parameters 783
13.13.3 The T 1!a~0 Ratio, Stress History, and Jlirgenson-Rutledge Hypothesis 788
13.13.4 Consolidation Methods to Overcome Sample Disturbance 799
13.13.5 Anisotropy 801
13.13.6 Plane Strain Strength of Clays 805
13.13.7 Strain Rate Effects 806
13.14 Strength of Unsaturated Soils 808
13.14.1 Matric Suction in Unsaturated Soils 808
13.14.2 The Soil-Water Characteristic Curve 810
13.14.3 The Mohr-Coulomb Failure Envelope for Unsaturated Soils 811
13.14.4 Shear Strength Measurement in Unsaturated Soils 812
13.15 Properties of Soils Under Dynamic Loading 814
13.15.1 Stress-Strain Response of Cyclically Loaded Soils 814
13.15.2 Measurement of Dynamic Soil Properties 817
13.15.3 Empirical Estimates of G max, Modulus Reduction, and Damping 820
13.15.4 Strength of Dynamically Loaded Soils 826
13.16 Failure Theories for Rock 827
Problems 831 • References 840

Index 850
Preface

It has been over a decade since the publication of the second edition of An Introduction to Geotech-
nical Engineering. The impetus for this edition comes from a frequently heard need from faculty and
students for a textbook that covers both the fundamentals of soil mechanics and soil properties, and
also the basics of foundation engineering. As we noted in the preface to the second edition, technical
content in engineering degree programs continues to be reduced, and these three areas of geotechnical
engineering are often covered in a single undergraduate course. However, we continue to believe that
even in such a compressed course, a textbook that is sophisticated and carries appropriate rigor is an
ongoing necessity.
We still believe that there is a need for more detailed and modern coverage of the engineering
properties of geo-materials than is found in most undergraduate texts. This applies to students who
concentrate in geotechnical engineering as well as the general civil engineering undergraduate student.
Our students will be involved in increasingly more complex projects, especially those in transportation,
structural, construction, and environmental engineering. Those projects will increasingly involve envi-
ronmental, economic, and political constraints that will demand innovative solutions to civil engineering
problems. Modern analytical techniques using digital computers have had a revolutionary effect on en-
gineering design practice, allowing multiple what-if design scenarios to be produced and graphically de-
picted. However, the validity of the results from these computational procedures is highly dependent on
the quality of the geotechnical engineering design parameters as well as the geology and site conditions.
This edition is intended for use in either a stand-alone soil mechanics course or, as noted above,
a geotechnical engineering course that includes fundamental foundation engineering, both usually
taught to third- and fourth-year undergraduate civil engineering students. It might also be used in an
introductory graduate school soils mechanics class. We assume the students have a working knowledge
of undergraduate mechanics, especially statics and mechanics of materials, including fluids. In the first
part of the book, we introduce the "language" of geotechnical engineering-that is, the classification
and engineering properties of soils and rocks. Once the student has a working knowledge of the behav-
ior of geo-materials, he/she can begin to predict soil behavior, and then carry out the design of simple
foundations and earth structures.
We have tried to make the text easily readable by the average undergraduate. To this end, An
Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering is written at a rather elementary level, although the material
covered may at times be quite sophisticated and complex.
The emphasis throughout is on the practical, and admittedly empirical, knowledge of soil and
rock behavior required by geotechnical engineers for the design and construction of foundations, em-
bankments, earth retaining structures, and underground works. To strengthen this connection between
the fundamental and applied, we have tried to indicate wherever possible the engineering significance
of the property being discussed, why the property is needed, how it is determined or measured, and, to
some extent, how it is actually used in specific design applications. We illustrate some simple geotech-
nical designs-for example, determining the flow, uplift pressures, and exit gradients in 2-D seepage
problems, and estimating the settlement of shallow foundations on sands and saturated clays.
One thing that has not changed over the years is that units remain a problem with U.S. geo-
technical engineers. While this edition continues to use both the British and Systeme International
(SI) sets of units, we have chosen to abandon seldom used units in the SI system such as megagrams
(Mg), but continue to have examples and problems that use kilograms (kg) and kilonewtons (kN).
We continue to be careful to use the correct definitions of density (mass/unit volume) and unit weight

xiii
xiv Preface

(force or weight/unit volume) in phase relationships as well as in geostatic and hydrostatic pressure
computations.
If you have a laboratory component with your course, we consider this to be an important part of
the student's experience with soils as a unique engineering material. This is where you begin to develop
a "feel" for soils and soil behavior, so essential for the successful practice of geotechnical engineering.
An emphasis on laboratory and field testing is found throughout the text. The organization and devel-
opment of the material in the text are traditional and generally follow the order of a typical laboratory
portion of many courses. The early chapters introduce the discipline of geotechnical engineering, phase
relationships, index, and classification properties of soils and rocks, geology, landforms, and the origin
of geo-materials, clay minerals, soil and rock structures, and rock classification. These chapters provide
the background and terminology for the remainder of the text.
Following a very practical discussion of compaction in Chapter 4, Chapters 5 and 6 describe how
water influences and affects soil behavior. Topics presented in Chapter 5 include groundwater and
vadose water, capillarity, shrinkage, swelling, and collapsing soils, frost action, and effective stress.
Chapter 6 discusses permeability, seepage, and seepage control.
Chapters 7 through 9 deal with the compressibility and shear strength of soils and rocks. Chap-
ter 7 covers both compressibility behavior of natural and compacted soils and rock masses and basic
time-rate consolidation of soils. Chapter 8 begins with the theoretical underpinnings of stresses in a
soil mass, followed by a description of laboratory and field tests that attempt to model those conditions
in order to measure stress-strain-strength properties. Chapter 9 is an introduction to shear strength of
soils and rock and is suitable for undergraduate students if the course schedule permits, and can be
covered more extensively in a first soil mechanics course in graduate school.
Chapters 10 through 12 are new chapters in this edition, covering three fundamental areas of
foundation engineering: shallow foundations, lateral earth pressures and earth retaining structures,
and deep foundations. Chapter 10 introduces bearing capacity theory, followed by its application to
bearing capacity in sands and clays, and approaches to determining settlement of shallow foundations.
Chapter 11 covers the two theories of lateral earth pressure, Rankine and Coulomb, and then how
these are used for the design of retaining structures. Chapter 12 describes the estimation methods for
deep foundation bearing capacity, how we compute the tensile and lateral load capacity of piles, and
advanced topics in deep foundations that are often the source of significant field performance issues.
Chapter 13 first covers advanced applications of stress paths, and also includes sections on crit-
ical-state soil mechanics and an introduction to constitutive models. We then discuss some advanced
topics on the shear strength of sands that start with the fundamental basis of their drained, undrained,
and plane-strain strengths. The residual shear strength of sands and clays provides a transition into the
stress-deformation and shear strength of clays, where we discuss failure definitions, Hvorslev strength
parameters, stress history, the Jurgenson-Rutledge hypothesis, consolidation methods to overcome
sample disturbance, anisotropy, plane-strain strength, and strain-rate effects. We end Chapter 13 with
sections on the strength of unsaturated soils, properties of soils under dynamic loading, and failure
theories for rock.
Even though it is primarily for the beginning student in geotechnical engineering, advanced
students in other disciplines and engineers desiring a refresher in engineering properties may find
the book helpful. Advanced students, researchers, and practitioners will also likely make use of the
advanced topical coverage in Chapter 13.
Because of the many fully worked example problems, students and others learning from this
book can follow the solution steps for various types of geotechnical engineering problems, and assess
their understanding of the material. From the previous two editions, we know that many practicing
geotechnical engineers will find this book useful as a refresher and for the typical values given for
classification and engineering properties for a wide variety of soils; we have found such a compendium
very useful in our own engineering practice. We hope that the new chapters on foundation engineering
will provide further value in this regard.
 Preface xv

RESOURCES FOR INSTRUCTORS

The solutions manual and test manual as well as PowerPoint figures of all images and tables from this
book can be downloaded electronically from our Instructor's Resource Center located at www.pearson
highered.com. The material available through the Instructor Resource Center is provided solely for
the use of instructors in teaching their courses and assessing student learning. If you are in need of a
login and password for this site, please contact your local sales representative for additional assistance
or support.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
To acknowledge all who have contributed to this edition and previous editions is a formidable task.
We have continued the practice of trying whenever possible to indicate by references or quotations,
concepts and ideas originating in the literature or with our former teachers, especially Profs. B. B.
Broms, A. Casagrande, R. J. Krizek, C. C. Ladd, J. K. Mitchell, J. 0. Osterberg, and H.B. Seed. Others
have made helpful suggestions or reviewed portions of the text, resulting in improvements to the final
product, including Prof. Mal Hill from Northeastern. We are indebted to Prof. Alan Lutenegger, who
provided considerable editing contributions to the foundation engineering chapters, and Prof. Aaron
Gallant and Danilo Botero Lopez were instrumental in revising the worked examples and end-of-
chapter problems. Molly Liddell provided invaluable administrative assistance in preparing the final
versions of chapters for copyediting.
Thank you to the reviewers of this edition: Andrew Assadollahi, Ph.D., P.E. (Christian Brothers
University), Ghada Ellithy, Ph.D. (Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University), Evert Lawton, Ph.D.,
P.E. (University of Utah), Anne Lemnitzer, Ph.D., M.Sc. (University of California, Irvine).

IN MEMORIAM
We are saddened by the loss of our dear friend and colleague, Bill Kovacs, who passed away in March
2020 at the age of 84. Bill was devoted to his family, especially to his wife Eileen. Besides his wife, he
is survived by his 7 children and 19 grandchildren. Bill will be remembered as a dedicated educator
who also loved being a geotechnical engineer. In his lectures he regularly drew on lessons learned from
his days in practice or his consulting experiences, and his delivery was peppered with deadpan humor,
clever puns, and subtle jokes. He was a remarkable mentor who was very generous with his time for
students and younger colleagues, never said an unkind word about anyone, and was a true friend to
many of us. His contributions to the three editions are inestimable in both their technical content and
overall presentation of the material. And, while we never divulge the source or even acknowledge the
existence of humor in the book, we do hope students and others using this book will think fondly of Bill
when they discover something to smile about in its pages.

R. D. HOLTZ
SEATTLE, WASHINGTON

W.D.KOVACS
(DECEASED)

T. C. SHEAHAN
BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS
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 CHAPTER 1

Introduction to Geotechnical
Engineering

1.1 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Geotechnical engineering is concerned with the application of civil engineering technology to some
aspect of the earth, usually the natural materials found on or near the earth's surface. Civil engineers
call these materials soil and rock. Soil, in an engineering sense, is the relatively loose agglomerate of
mineral and organic materials and sediments found above the bedrock. Soils can be relatively easily
broken down into their constituent mineral or organic particles. Rock, on the other hand, has very
strong internal cohesive and molecular forces which hold its constituent mineral grains together. This is
true for massive bedrock as well as for a piece of gravel found in a clay soil. The dividing line between
soil and rock is arbitrary, and many natural materials encountered in engineering practice cannot be
easily classified. They may be either a "very soft rock" or a "very hard soil."
Other scientific disciplines have different meanings for the terms soil and rock. In geology, for
example, rock means all the materials found in the earth's crust, including what most of us would call
soil. Soils to a geologist are just decomposed and disintegrated rocks found in the very thin upper part
of the crust and usually capable of supporting plant life. Similarly, pedology (soil science) and agron-
omy are concerned with only the very uppermost layers of soil- that is, those materials important
to agriculture and forestry. Geotechnical engineers can learn much from both geology and pedology.
Geotechnical engineering has considerable overlap with these fields, especially with engineering geol-
ogy and geological engineering. But beginning students should remember that these fields may have
different terminology, approaches, and objectives than geotechnical engineering.
Geotechnical engineering has several different aspects or emphases. Soil mechanics is concerned
with the engineering mechanics and properties of soil, whereas rock mechanics is concerned with the
engineering mechanics and properties of rock- usually, but not limited to, the bedrock. Soil mechanics
applies to soils the basic principles of mechanics including kinematics, dynamics, fluid mechanics, and
the mechanics of materials. In other words, soil-rather than water, steel, or concrete, for example-is
the engineering material whose properties and behavior we must understand in order to build with it
or upon it. A similar statement could also be made for rock mechanics. However, because in significant
ways soil masses behave differently from rock masses, in practice, there is not much overlap between

1
2 Chapter 1 Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering

the two disciplines. This divergence is unfortunate from the viewpoint of the practicing civil engineer.
Inconveniently, the world does not consist only of soft or loose soils and hard rock, but rather, most
geo-materials fall somewhere between those extremes. In your professional practice you will have to
learn to deal with a wide range of material properties and behaviors.
Foundation engineering applies engineering geology, soil mechanics, rock mechanics, and structural
engineering to the design and construction of foundations for civil engineering and other structures. The
foundation engineer must be able to predict the performance or response of the foundation soil or rock to
the loads the structure imposes. Examples include foundations for industrial, commercial, and residential
buildings, bridges, towers, and retaining walls,as well as foundations for oil and other kinds of storage tanks
and offshore structures. Ships must have a drydock during construction or repairs, and the drydock must
have a foundation. During construction and launch, rockets and appurtenant structures must be safely
supported. Related geotechnical engineering problems that the foundation engineer faces are the stabil-
ity of natural and excavated slopes, the stability of permanent and temporary earth-retaining structures,
problems of construction, control of water movement and water pressures, and even the maintenance and
rehabilitation of old buildings. Not only must the foundation safely support static structural and construc-
tion loads, but it must also adequately resist dynamic loads due to wind, blasting, earthquakes, and the like.
If you think about it, we cannot design or construct any civil engineering structure, whether built
on the earth or extraterrestrial, without ultimately considering the foundation soils and rocks. The
performance, economy, and safety of any civil engineering structure ultimately are affected or even
controlled by its foundation.
Earth materials are often used as a construction material because they are the cheapest possible
building material. However, their engineering properties such as strength and compressibility are often
naturally poor, and measures must be taken to densify, strengthen, or otherwise stabilize and reinforce
soils so that they will perform satisfactorily. Highway and railway embankments, airfields, earth and
rock dams, levees, and aqueducts are examples of earth structures, and the geotechnical engineer is
responsible for their design and construction. Dam safety and rehabilitation of old dams are important
aspects of this phase of geotechnical engineering. A related consideration, especially for highway and
airfield engineers, is the design of the surface layer on the earth structure-the pavement. Here the
overlap between the transportation and geotechnical disciplines is apparent.
Rock engineering, analogous to foundation engineering for soils, is concerned with rock as a
foundation and construction material. Because most of the earth's surface is covered with soil ( or
water), rock engineering usually occurs underground (tunnels, underground power houses, petroleum
storage rooms, mines, yours, and so on). But some rock engineering problems occur at the surface, such
as in the case of building and dam foundations carried to bedrock, deep excavations to bedrock, stabil-
ity of rock slopes, and the like.
In recent years, geotechnical engineers have become increasingly involved in the solution of
environmental problems involving soil and rock. This interdisciplinary field is called geoenvironmental
engineering or environmental geotechnics. Especially challenging are problems of polluted groundwa-
ter, proper disposal and containment of municipal and industrial wastes, design and construction of
nuclear waste repositories, and remediation of hazardous waste repositories and other contaminated
sites. Although all these problems have a major geotechnical engineering component, they are inter-
disciplinary in nature, and their solutions require that geotechnical engineers work together with envi-
ronmental and chemical engineers, environmental and public health specialists, geohydrologists, and
regulatory agency personnel.
In presenting some of the typical problems facing the geotechnical engineer, we wanted you to
see, first, how broad the field is and, second, how important it is to the design and construction of civil
engineering structures, as well as to the basic health and safety of society. In a very real sense, geotech-
nical engineering combines the basic physical and mathematical sciences, geology, and pedology, with
environmental, hydraulic, structural, transportation, construction, and mining engineering. It truly is an
exciting and challenging field.
 1.2 The Unique Nature of Soil and Rock Materials 3

1.2 THE UNIQUE NATURE OF SOIL AND ROCK MATERIALS

We mentioned earlier that soil-from a civil engineering point of view-is the relatively loose agglom-
eration of mineral and organic materials found above the bedrock. In a broader sense, of course, even
shallow bedrock is of interest to geotechnical engineers, as illustrated by examples given earlier.
The nature and behavior of soil and rock are discussed in greater detail throughout this text. For
now, we want just to set the stage for what you are about to study. We assume you understand that rock
refers to any hard solid aggregate or mass of mineral matter found in the earth's crust. You also already
have a layperson's idea about soil. At least you know in general what sand and gravel are, and perhaps you
even have an idea about fine-grained soils such as silts and clays. These terms have quite precise engineer-
ing definitions, as we shall later see, but for now the general concept that soils are particles will suffice.
Soils are particles of what? Well, soils are usually particles of mineral matter or, more sim-
ply, broken-up pieces of rock that result from weathering and other geologic processes (described in
Chapter 3) acting on massive rock deposits and layers. If we talk for the moment about the size of the
particles, gravels are small pieces of rock and typically contain several minerals, whereas sands are
even smaller pieces, and each grain usually consists of only a single mineral. If you cannot see each
individual grain of a soil, then the soil is either a silt or a clay or a mixture of each. In fact, natural soils
generally are a mixture of several different particle sizes and may even contain organic matter. Some
soils, such as peat, may be almost entirely organic. Furthermore, because soils are a particulate mate-
rial, they have voids, and the voids are usually filled with water and air. The physical and chemical
interaction of the water and air in the voids with the particles of soil, as well as the interaction of the
particles themselves, makes soil's behavior complicated and leads to some of its unique properties. It
is also what makes it a very interesting and challenging engineering material to study and understand.
Because of the nature of soil and rock materials and the complexity of the geological environ-
ment, geotechnical engineering is highly empirical, and requires both fundamental knowledge and expe-
rience. Soils and rocks are often highly variable, even within a distance of a few millimeters. In other
words, soils and rocks are heterogeneous rather than homogeneous materials. That is, their material or
engineering properties may vary widely from point to point within a soil or rock mass. Furthermore,
these materials in general are nonlinear; their stress-strain curves are not straight lines. To further com-
plicate things, soils in particular "remember" their previous loading history, and this fact strongly affects
their subsequent engineering behavior. It means that the geotechnical engineer must have knowledge of
the geologic history of a soil deposit. Instead of being isotropic, soils and rocks are typically anisotropic,
which means that their material or engineering properties are not the same in all directions.
Most of our theories about the mechanical behavior of engineering materials assume that they are
homogeneous and isotropic and obey linear stress-strain laws. Common engineering materials such as
steel and concrete do not deviate too significantly from these ideals, so we can use, with discretion, simple
linear theories to predict the response of these materials to engineering loads. With soils and rock, we are
not so fortunate. We may assume a linear stress-strain response, but then we must apply large empirical
correction or "safety" factors to our designs to account for the real materials' behavior. Furthermore, the
behavior of soil and rock materials in situ is often controlled by joints Gust don't inhale), fractures, weak
layers and zones, and other "defects" in the material, which our laboratory tests and simplified methods
of analysis often do not or are unable to take into account. That is why the practice of geotechnical engi-
neering is sometimes seen as more an "art" than a science. Successful practice depends on the good judg-
ment and experience of the designer, constructor, or consultant. Put another way, the successful geotech-
nical engineer must develop a "feel" for soil and rock behavior before a safe and economic foundation
or tunnel design can be made, an earth structure can be safely built, or an environmentally sound waste
containment and disposal system or a site remediation plan can be developed.
In summary, because of their nonlinear, nonconservative, and anisotropic mechanical behavior,
plus the variability and heterogeneity of natural deposits due to the capriciousness of nature, soils and
rocks are indeed complex engineering and construction materials. Helping you find some order in this
potential chaos is our primary objective in this book.
4 Chapter 1 Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering

1.3 SCOPE OF THIS BOOK

In this revised introductory text, the emphasis is on the classification and engineering behavior of soil
and rock materials, followed by an introduction to the most important aspects of foundation engineering.
Successful practice of geotechnical engineering requires a thorough knowledge and understanding of the
engineering properties and behavior of soils and rocks in situ-that is, when they are subjected to engi-
neering loads and environmental conditions. Therefore, the beginning student must first develop an appre-
ciation for the engineering properties of geo-materials as distinct from other common civil engineering
materials before learning how to analyze and design foundations, earthworks, tunnels, and the like.
Actually, this first part is the hard part. Most engineering students (and engineers) are very good
at analysis and performing design calculations. But in geotechnical engineering, these calculations
alone cannot tell the whole picture. If an incorrect picture of the site geology has been assumed or the
wrong engineering properties assumed for the design, significant errors can result.
Since much of the practice of geotechnical engineering depends on the site geology, landforms,
and the nature of the soil and rock deposits at a site, we have included a portion of Chapter 3 on
geology and landforms. If you have had such a course, that portion of the chapter will serve as a good
review. If you haven't, you are strongly encouraged to take a physical geology or an engineering geol-
ogy course in connection with your studies of geotechnical engineering, and this chapter can provide
initial, basic information.
In the early chapters, we introduce some of the basic definitions, index properties, and classifica-
tion schemes for geo-materials that are used throughout the book. Classification of soils and rocks is
important because it is the "language" engineers use to communicate certain general knowledge about
the engineering behavior of the materials at a particular site.
The greatest portion of the book is concerned with the engineering properties of soils and rocks-
properties that are necessary for the design of foundations, earth and underground structures, and geoenvi-
ronmental systems.We describe how water affects soil and rock behavior, including hydraulic conductivity
and seepage characteristics. Then we get into compressibility, the important engineering property we need
to understand in order to predict the settlement of structures constructed on soil and rock masses.We then
describe some elementary strength characteristics of both soils and rocks. Strength is very important for
the stability of, for example, foundations, retaining walls,slopes, tunnels, and waste containment systems.
The later part of the book introduces key concepts and design methods for the most basic parts
of foundation engineering: shallow and deep foundations, and retaining structures. This is by no means
meant to serve as an exhaustive reference on all foundation engineering topics. However, as more civil
engineering programs offer a "merged" geotechnical engineering course with both soil mechanics and
foundation engineering, these later chapters provide foundation engineering fundamentals.
Finally, we have included a chapter on advanced topics in the shear strength of soil and rock that
is meant primarily for graduate study or for those who wish to extend their knowledge beyond the
coverage in earlier chapters on these topics.
Consistent with this emphasis on fundamentals, keep in mind that this is an elementary text that
emphasizes such basics, but with an eye toward the practical applications that you as a civil engineer
are likely to encounter. Having studied this text, you will be well prepared for any follow-up, more spe-
cialized studies in foundations and earthwork engineering, environmental geotechnics, rock mechanics,
and engineering geology. You should have a fairly good idea of what to look for at a site and how to
obtain the soil and rock properties required for most designs. If you are able to accurately classify the
materials, you will know the probable range of physical and engineering values for a given soil or rock
property. You will have some idea of how to estimate foundation capacity and the stresses on an earth
support structure. Finally, we hope you will learn enough about soils and rocks to be aware of your own
limitations, and to avoid costly and dangerous mistakes in those aspects of your professional career
that involve soils and rocks as engineering materials.
 1.4 Historical Development of Geotechnical Engineering 5

1.4 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

As long as people have been building things, they have used soils and rocks as a foundation or
construction material. The ancient Egyptians, Babylonians, Chinese, and Indians knew about
constructing dikes and levees out of the soils found in river flood plains. Ancient temples and monu-
ments built all around the world involved soil and rock in some way. The Aztecs constructed temples
and cities on the very poor soils in the Valley of Mexico long before the Spaniards arrived in the
so-called New World. European architects and builders during the Middle Ages learned about the
problems of settlements of cathedrals and large buildings. The most noteworthy example is, of course,
the Leaning Tower of Pisa. Vikings in Scandinavia used timber piles to support houses and wharf struc-
tures on their soft clays. The "design" of foundations and other constructions involving soil and rock
was by rule of thumb, and very little theory as such was developed until the mid-1700s.
Coulomb is the most famous engineering name of that era. He investigated the problems of
earth pressures against retaining walls, and some of his calculation procedures are still in use today. The
most common theory for the shear strength of soils is named after him (Coulomb, 1776). During the
next century, the French engineers Collin and Darcy and the Scotsman Rankine made important dis-
coveries. Collin (1846) was the first engineer to systematically examine failures in clay slopes as well as
the measurement of the shear strength of clays. Darcy (1856) established his law for the flow of water
through sands. Rankine (1857) developed a method for estimating the earth pressure against retaining
walls. In England, Gregory (1844) utilized horizontal subdrains and compacted earth-fill buttresses to
stabilize railroad cut slopes.
By the turn of the century, important developments in the field were occurring in Scandinavia,
primarily in Sweden. Atterberg (1911) defined consistency limits for clays that are still in use today.
During the period 1914-1922, in connection with investigations of failures in harbors and railroads,
the Geotechnical Commission of the Swedish State Railways (Statens Jarnvagers Geotekniska
Kommission, 1922) developed many important concepts and apparatuses in geotechnical engineer-
ing. They developed methods for calculating the stability of slopes as well as subsurface investigation
techniques such as weight sounding and piston and other types of samplers. They understood import-
ant concepts such as sensitivity of clays and consolidation, which is the squeezing of water out of the
pores of the clay. At that time, clays were thought to be absolutely impervious, but the Swedes made
field measurements to show they weren't. The Commission was the first to use the word geotechnical
(Swedish: geotekniska) in today's sense: the combination of geology and civil engineering technology.
Even with these early developments in Sweden, the true father of modern soil mechanics
is an Austrian, Prof. Karl Terzaghi. He published the first modern textbook on soil mechanics in 1925,
and in fact the name "soil mechanics" is a translation of the German word Erdbaumechanik, which was
part of the title of that book (Terzaghi, 1925). Terzaghi was an outstanding and very creative engineer.
He wrote several other important books (for example, Terzaghi, 1943; Terzaghi and Peck, 1967; and
Terzaghi, Peck, and Mesri, 1996) and over 250 technical papers and articles. His name will appear often
in this book. He was a professor at Robert College in Istanbul, at Technische Hochschule in Vienna, at
MIT, and at Harvard University from 1938 until his retirement in 1956. He continued to be active as a
consultant until his death in 1963 at the age of 80. An excellent reference about his life and engineering
career is that of Goodman (1999) and is well worth reading.
Another important figure is Prof. Arthur Casagrande, who was at Harvard University from 1932
until 1969.You will see his name often in this book, because he made many important contributions to
the art and science of soil mechanics and foundation engineering. Since the 1950s, the field has grown
substantially, and many people have been responsible for its rapid advancement. Important contributors
to the field include Taylor, Peck, Tschebotarioff, Skempton, Bjerrum, Seed, Ladd, and Leonards.
Both Terzaghi and Casagrande began the teaching of soil mechanics and engineering geology in
North America. Before the Second World War, the subject was offered only at a very few universities,
6 Chapter 1 Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering

mostly as a graduate course. After the war, it became common for at least one course in the subject to
be required in most civil engineering curricula. Graduate programs in geotechnical engineering were
implemented at many universities. Finally, there has been a real information explosion in the number
of conferences, technical journals, and textbooks published on this subject during the past four decades.
In terms of foundation engineering, we have already mentioned the important role that Coulomb
and Rankine played in the development of limit state analyses of lateral earth pressures for retaining
structures. It should come as no surprise that Terzaghi was a pioneer in this area as well, offering some of
the first rational methods for estimating soil capacity to support shallow foundations. In the 1950s,George
Meyerhof and Aleksandr Vesic and others similarly began to formulate more fundamentals-based meth-
ods for deep foundations. A number of advances in this area of geotechnical engineering were often
driven by contractors, innovating to build in difficult soils or use familiar materials in more efficient ways.
Important recent developments you should know about include soil dynamics and geotechni-
cal earthquake engineering, the use of computer modeling for the solution of complex engineering
problems, deformation-based analyses and designs, the introduction of probability and statistics into
geotechnical engineering analysis and design, and geo-environmental engineering and technology.

1.5 SUGGESTED APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Because of the nature of soil and rock materials, both laboratory and field testing are very important
in geotechnical engineering. Student engineers can begin to develop a feel for soil and rock behavior in
the laboratory by performing the standard tests for classification and engineering properties on many
different types of soils and rocks. In this way, the novice can begin building up a "mental data bank"
of how certain soils and rocks actually look, how they might behave with varying amounts of water
in them and under different types of engineering loads, and the range of probable numerical values
for the different tests. This is sort of a self-calibration process, so that when you are faced with a new
soil deposit or rock type, you will in advance have some idea as to the engineering problems you will
encounter at that site. You can also begin to judge, at least qualitatively, the validity of laboratory and
field test results for the materials at that site.
Also important is a knowledge of geology. Geology is, of course, the "geo" part of geotechnical
engineering, and you should get as much exposure to it as you can during your academic career. After
a basic course in physical geology, courses in geomorphology and engineering geology are recom-
mended. Geomorphology is concerned with landforms, which are important to geotechnical engineers
because the soils and rocks at a site (and therefore the engineering problems) are strongly related to
the particular landform. Engineering geology is concerned with the applications of geology to primar-
ily civil engineering and has considerable interaction and overlap with geotechnical engineering.
The theoretical and analytical aspects of geotechnical engineering design also require a sound
knowledge of engineering mechanics, including strength of materials and fluid mechanics. It also helps
if you are familiar to some extent with basic structural analysis, reinforced concrete and steel design,
hydraulic engineering and hydrology, surveying and engineering measurements, basic environmental
engineering, and civil engineering construction - in other words, just about all the courses in a typical
undergraduate civil engineering curriculum.

1.6 NOTES ON SYMBOLS, UNITS, AND STANDARDS

As with most disciplines, a standard notation is not universal in geotechnical engineering, so we have tried
to adopt the symbols most commonly used. For example, the American Society for Testing and Materials
has a list of Standard Definitions of Terms and Symbols Relating to Soil, Rock, and Contained Fluids,
standard designation D 653. The International Society for Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
 1.7 Some Comments on How to Study in General 7

(ISSMFE, 1977) published an extensive list of symbols. Although we sometimes deviate from these rec-
ommendations because of our personal preference, we have generally tried to follow them.
Units used in geotechnical engineering can be politely called a mess, and, less politely, several
worse things. There has developed in practice, at least in the United States, a jumbled mixture of
cgs-metric, Imperial or British Engineering units, and hybrid European metric units. With the intro-
duction of the universal and consistent system of units, "Le Systeme International d'Unites" (SI) in
the United States and Canada, the profession had a wonderful opportunity to bring some coherence
to units in geotechnical engineering practice. However, since British Engineering units are still rather
commonly used in the United States, students need to be familiar with the typical values in both sets
of units. This edition of the book could be characterized as Jess tolerant of SI units than previous edi-
tions since efforts to use SI units more in the United States have largely failed. There are a number of
excellent, open source units conversions sites on the web, and we recommend you find and bookmark
one that suits your purposes.
We referred earlier to the American Society for Testing and Materials, commonly known as
ASTM, which develops and publishes technical standards for a multitude of materials, products, sys-
tems, and services through a highly organized volunteer committee structure. These committees arrive
at consensus to determine these standards. Throughout the text, we cite only active ASTM, AASHTO,
and British standards without associated years. In the case of ASTM standard, complete ASTM stan-
dards do have a date ( e.g., D 2216-19), which indicates the year of last revision (in this case, 2019).
Standards remain in the system for 8 years, and if not reapproved through the balloting process within
that period, are withdrawn from active status. AASHTO standards are generally reviewed every
4 years, and if a standard is no longer used, it may be discontinued and then ultimately deleted from the
book of standards. We have cited only those standards that were active at the time of publication and
have excluded the year in the citation.

1.7 SOME COMMENTS ON HOW TO STUDY IN GENERAL

It takes a while to learn how to study most effectively. You are probably using the study habits that you
got by with in grade school and high school. As you progress professionally, things are going to get harder,
starting in your third year of university or college, when you take mostly preprofessional courses. We have
all used the following methods to do homework assignments. (1) Just read the assignment to satisfy the
moral obligation to do so. (2) Go further by underlining or highlighting passages to emphasize the main
points. Consider what you are doing physically: the information goes through the eyes, down your neck
and arm into the writing fingers, completely bypassing the brain! Both (1) and (2) are pretty much a waste
of time unless you have a photographic memory. If we are really going to learn anything, most of us need
to study a third way: (3) Read a few pages and then close the book. Write down in your own words what
the main concepts are; a "bullet" format is OK, and you could also use index cards to capture details of
a particular topic on each card. You may have to cheat occasionally and look back at the book to create
your own notes, but you will have started the process of having the material in the brain. Yes, this will take
more time than "studying" using methods (1) and (2), but you will not be wasting your time.
A useful argument for doing it the recommended way is that you will have already started pre-
paring for the exams, because now you know the material. The rest of the time, you are brushing up or
reviewing the material, so you won't need to cram.
One big problem is that there may not be enough time in the week to use method (3) when you
are taking three or four other courses. However, follow it as much as you can. You have invested a lot
in your education. Don't waste time with methods (1) and (2).
Don't ask us to tell you how long it took for us to learn the correct way to study (it's too
embarrassing).
8 Chapter 1 Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering

Our suggested approach will help you prepare for the Fundamentals of Engineering (FE or EIT)
exam and later the PE or PEng (professional engineer's exam). We strongly encourage you to take
(and pass) the FE exam before you graduate and receive your engineering degree.

SUGGESTEDACTIVITIES
1.1 Attend a lecture with a geotechnical engineering topic, either through your department's research seminar
series, your student chapter of the American Society of Civil Engineers, your local professional chapter, or
other organizing group in your area. Not only will you learn something about an engineering topic or project,
you may also be able to meet the speaker to build your professional network and learn why they became
interested in geotechnical practitioner or researcher.
1.2 Visit a local project site where the geotechnical phase is still underway. Ideally, an engineer or contractor may
be able to host you and other students, and explain the project and any details related to the geotechnical
design and construction.
1.3 Speak to one of your geotechnical faculty members about research and/or consulting they are doing, and if
you are interested, see if there are opportunities to participate in the research.

REFERENCES
ATTERBERG, A. (1911). "Lerornas Forhallande till Vatten, deras Plasticitetsgranser och Plasticitets- grader," ("The
Behavior of Clays with Water, Their Limits of Plasticity and Their Degrees of Plasticity"), Kungliga Lantbruk-
sakademiens Handlingar och Tidskrift, Vol. 50, No. 2, pp.132-158; also in Internationale Mitteilungen fur Boden-
kunde, Vol. 1, pp. 10-43 ("Uber die Physikalische Bodenuntersuchung und tiber die Plastizitat der Tone").
COLLIN,A. (1846). Recherches Experimentales sur Jes Glissements Spontanes des Terrains Argileux, Accompagnees
de Cunsideratiuns sur Quel4ues Principes de la Mechanic4ue Terreslre, Carilian-Gueury and Dalmunl, Paris.
Translated by W.R. Schriever under the title "Landslides in Clays by Alexandre Collin 1846," University of
Toronto Press, Canada, 1956, 161 p. (21 plates).
CouLOMB,C.A. (1776). "Essai sur une application des regles de Maximus et Minimis a Quelques Problemes de
Statique, Relatifs a lA.rchitecture," Memoires de Mathematique et de Physique, Presentes a l' Academie Royale
des Sciences, par Divers Savans, et lus dans ses Assemblees, Paris, Vol. 7 (Vol. for 1773 published in 1776),
pp. 343-382.
DARCY, H. (1856). Les Fontaines Publiques de la Ville de Dijon, Dalmont, Paris.
GOODMAN, R.E. (1999). Karl Terzaghi: The Engineer as Artist, ASCE Press, 340 p.
GREGORY, C.H. (1844). "On Railway Cuttings and Embankments with an Account of Some Slips in London Clay, on
the Line of the London and Croydon Railway," Minutes and Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Vol. 3, pp.135-145. Reprinted in A Century of Soil Mechanics, Institution of Civil Engineers, London, 1969,482 p.
INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FORSOILMECHANICS ANDFOUNDATION ENGINEERING (1977). "List of Symbols, Units, and
Definitions," Subcommittee on Symbols, Units, and Definitions, Proceedings of the Ninth International Confer-
ence on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Tokyo, Vol. 3, pp.156-170.
RANKINE,W.J.M. (1857). "On the Stability of Loose Earth," Abstracts of the Papers Communicated to the Royal
Society of London, Proceedings of the Royal Society, London, Vol. VIII, pp.185-187.
STATENSJARNVAGERS GEOTEKNISKA KoMMISSION(1922). 1914-1922 Slutbetiinkande, (1914-1922 Final Report),
Presented to the Board of the Royal Swedish Railroads, Stockholm, 180 p. (42 plates).
STOKOE, K.H., II ANDLODDE,P.F.(1978). "Dynamic Response of San Francisco Bay Mud," Proceedings of the Earth-
quake Engineering and Soil Dynamics Conference, Los Angeles, ASCE, Vol. H, pp. 940-959.
TERZAGHI, K. (1925). Erdbaumechanik auf Bodenphysikalischer Grundlage, Franz Deuticke, Leipzig und Wein, 399 p.
TERZAGHI, K. (1943). Theoretical Soil Mechanics, Wiley, New York, 510 p.
TERZAGHI, K. ANDPECK,RB. (1967). Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, 2nd ed., Wiley, New York, 729 p.
TERZAGHI,K., PECK,RB., AND MESRI,G. (1996). Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, 3rd ed., Wiley, New
York,549 p.
 CHAPTER 2

Index and Classification

Properties of Soils

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we introduce the basic terms and definitions used by geotechnical engineers to index
and classify soils. We need to establish a common language around how these properties are defined so
that when different engineers refer to and use property values, it means the same thing to all. Some of
these properties will have actual physical meaning (like density), while others may be so-called "index"
properties that only make sense relative to some comparative scale. Additionally, as in many sciences,
we want to be able to classify soils in some sort of commonly understood taxonomy. You may be famil-
iar with this term from biology, where biological organisms have a genus and species. We shall define
a relatively rigorous classification system for soils as well. The determination of physical, index, and
classification properties is typically the first step in understanding how the soils in question are then
used as engineering materials.

2.2 BASIC DEFINITIONS AND PHASE RELATIONS FOR SOILS

In general, any assemblage of soil consists of solid particles with voids in between. The solids are small
grains of different minerals, whereas the voids can be filled with either water or other fluid (for exam-
ple, a contaminant) or with air (or other gas), or filled partly with some of each (Fig. 2.1 ).
Su, the total volume V 1 of the soil mass consists of the volume of soil solids Vs and the volume of
voids Vv. The volume of voids is in general made up of the volume of water V w and the volume of air V0 .
A phase diagram (Fig. 2.2) shows the three phases separately. It's as if we could "melt down" all
the solids into a single layer at the bottom, then have the water sit on top of that, and finally have the
air in a single layer at the top. The phase diagram helps us solve problems involving soil phase relation-
ships. On the left side we usually indicate the volumes of the three phases; on the right side we show the
corresponding masses or weights. Even though the diagram is two-dimensional, it is understood that
the volume shown is in units of L3, such as cm 3 or ft 3 . Also, since we're not chemists or physicists, we
assume that the mass of air is zero.

9
10 Chapter 2 Index and Classification Properties of Soils

w In engineering practice, we usually measure the total vol-

ume VI' the mass of water Mw, and the mass of dry solids Ms.
Then we calculate the rest of the values and the mass-volume
relationships that we need. Most of these relationships are inde-
pendent of sample size, and they are often dimensionless. They
are very simple and easy to remember, especially if you draw
the phase diagram.
Three volumetric ratios that are very useful in geotech-
nical engineering can be determined directly from the phase
diagram (Fig. 2.2).

1. The void ratio e is defined as

V
e = _v (2.1)
vs

s where Vv = volume of the voids, and

Vs = volume of the solids.
FIGURE2.1 Soil skeleton containing The void ratio e is normally expressed as a decimal
solid particles (S) and voids with air rather than a percentage. The maximum possible range of e is
(A) and water (W).
between 0 and However, typical values of void ratios for
00 •

sands may range from 0.4 to about 1.0; typical values for clays
vary from 0.3 to 1.5 and even higher for some organic soils.
2. The porosity n is defined as
(2.2)

where Vv = volume of voids, and

V 1 = total volume of soil sample.
Porosity is traditionally expressed as a percentage. The maximum range of n is between 0 and 100%.
From Fig. 2.2 and Eqs. (2.1) and (2.2), it can be shown that
e
n= (2.3a)
1+e
and
n
e=-- (2.3b)
l-n

Volume Mass

v,

FIGURE2.2 Volumetric and mass

relationships for a soil shown in a phase
diagram. Note: Weights, W, may also be
used on the right side.
 2.2 Basic Definitions and Phase Relations for Soils 11

3. The degree of saturation S is defined as

S = ~w X 100(%) (2.4)
V

The degree of saturation tells us what percentage of the total void space contains water. If the soil is
completely dry, then S = 0%, and if the pores are completely full of water, then the soil is fully satu-
rated and S = 100%.
Now let us look at the other side, the mass or weight side, of the phase diagram in Fig. 2.2. First,
we will define a mass or weight ratio that is probably the single most important thing we need to know
about a soil-its water content w. It is also the only strictly mass- or weight-based parameter that we'll
define for phase relationships. The water content tells us how much water is present in the voids rela-
tive to the amount of solids in the soil, as follows:
M
W = ------1£. X 100(%) (2.5a)
Ms
where Mw = mass of water, and
Ms = mass of soil solids.
or in terms of weights,
w = WW x 100(%) (2.5b)
ws
where Ww = weight of water, and
Ws = weight of soil solids.
The ratio of the amount of water present in a soil volume to the amount of soil grains is based
on the dry mass or weight of the soil and not on the total mass or weight. The water content, which is
usually expressed as a percentage, can range from zero (dry soil) to several hundred percent. The nat-
ural water content for most soils is well under 100%, although in some marine and organic soils it can
range up to 500% or higher.
The water content is easily determined in the laboratory. The standard procedure is detailed in
ASTM standard D 2216. A representative sample of soil is selected and its total or wet mass or weight
is determined. Then it is dried to constant mass or weight in a convection oven at ll0°C. Normally, a
constant mass or weight is obtained after the sample is left in the oven overnight. The mass or weight
of the drying dish must, of course, be subtracted from both the wet and dry masses or weights. Then the
water content is calculated according to Eq. (2.5a) or (2.5b ). Example 2.1 illustrates how the calcula-
tions for water content are actually done in practice.

Example 2.1

Given:
A specimen of wet soil in a drying dish has a mass of 388 g. After drying in an oven at ll0°C
overnight, the sample and dish have a mass of 335 g. The mass of the dish alone is 39 g.

Required:
Determine the water content of the soil.

Solution: Set up the following calculation scheme; fill in the "given" or measured quantities a, b, and d,
and make the calculations as indicated for c, e, and f.
12 Chapter 2 Index and Classification Properties of Soils

a. Mass of total (wet) sample + dish = 388 g

b. Mass of dry sample + dish = 335 g
c. Mass ofwater(a - b) = 53g
d. Mass of dish = 39 g
e. Mass of dry soil(b - d) = 296 g
f. Water content(c/e) x 100% = 17.9%
In the laboratory, masses are usually determined in grams (g) on an ordinary balance. The required
sensitivity of the balance depends on the size of the specimen, and ASTM D 2216 gives some
recommendations.

The water content may also be determined using an ordinary microwave oven. ASTM stan-
dard D 4643 explains the procedure. To avoid overheating the soil specimen, microwave energy
is applied for only brief intervals and repeated until the mass becomes nearly constant. A heat
sink, such as a glass beaker filled with water, helps to prevent overheating of the soil by absorbing
microwave energy after water has been removed from the soil pores. Otherwise, the water con-
tent is determined exactly as indicated in Example 2.1. Note that the microwave water content is
not a replacement for the oven dry water content but is used when the water content is needed
quickly. Other methods sometimes used in the field for water content determination are described
in Sec. 4.7.
Another very useful concept in geotechnical engineering is density. You know from physics that
density is mass per unit volume, so its units are kg/m The density is the ratio that connects the volu-
3

metric side of the phase diagram with the mass side. Several densities are commonly used in geotech-
nical engineering practice. First, we define the total, wet, or moist density p; the density of the particles,
solid density Ps; and the density of water Pw·We also give the corresponding unit weights,"/, which are
obtained by substituting M with the corresponding weight, W.
Ml Ms+ Mw
P ---
- - (2.6a)
vi v,

1=-
WI ws + WW
(2.6b)
vi vi
Ms
Ps (2.7a)
vs

ws
"Is =- (2.7b)
vs

= MW (2.8a)
Pw
vw

"fw - WW (2.8b)
vw
In natural soils, the magnitude of the total density p will depend on how much water hap-
pens to be in the voids as well as the density of the mineral grains themselves. Thus, p can range
from slightly above 1000 kg/m to as high as 2400 kg/m with corresponding units weights of
3 3

9.81 kN/m 62.4 lb/ft

3

(
3

to 23.4 kN/m (150 lb/ft

)
3

The high end of this range would be essentially

3

).

solid mineral, with a corresponding density/unit weight close to that of concrete.

 2.2 Basic Definitions and Phase Relations for Soils 13

Typical values of Ps for most soils range from 2500 to 2800 kg/m 3 (156 to 175 pcf). Most sands
have Ps values ranging between 2600 and 2700 kg/m 3 (162 to 169 pcf). For example, a common min-
eral in sands is quartz; its Ps = 2650 kg/m 3 . Most clay soils have a value of Ps between 2650 and
2800 kg/m 3 , depending on the predominant mineral in the soil, whereas organic soils may have a Ps
as low as 2500 kg/m 3 . Consequently, for most phase problems, unless a specific value of Ps is given, it
is usually close enough for geotechnical work to assume a Ps of 2650 or 2700 kg/m 3 . The density of
water varies slightly, depending on the temperature. At 4°C, when water is at its densest, Pw exactly
equals 1000 kg/m 3 (1 g/cm 3 ), and this density is sometimes designated by the symbol Po.For ordinary
engineering work, it is sufficiently accurate to take Pw ~ p = 1000 kg/m 3 . 0

Three other densities very useful in soils engineering are the dry density pd, the saturated density
PsaP and the submerged or buoyant density p' or Pb, and their corresponding unit weights.

Pd =vMs I
(2.9a)

- w
_s
'Yd - (2.9b)
Vt

Psat
Ms + M w( V = 0 S = 100 % ) (2.10a)
VI a '

'Ysat
ws +
VI
WW(V
a
= 0' S = 100%) (2.10b)

1
P = Psat - Pw (2.lla)

'Y
1
= 'Ysat - 'Yw (2.llb)
Among other uses, the dry density Pd is a common basis for judging a soil's degree of compaction
after we have applied some mechanical energy to it, for example by using a roller or vibratory plate
(Chapter 4). The saturated density PsaP as the name implies, is the total density of the soil when 100% of
its pores are filled with water; in this special case, p = Psai. The concept of submerged or buoyant density
p' is often difficult for students to understand, so it is discussed later after we have done a few example
problems. However, you may be familiar with this concept from studying aggregates, where a "basket" of
aggregate is weighed while it is submerged under water. Typical values of Pd, PsaP and p' for several soil
types are shown in Table 2.1, and Table 2.2 shows typical unit weights in terms of kN/m 3 and pcf.
From the basic definitions provided in this section, other useful relationships can be derived, as
we show in the examples that follow.

TABLE 2.1 Some Typical Values for Different Densities of Some Common Soil Materials

Density (kg/m 3)
Soil Type Psat Pd p'
Sands and gravels 1900-2400 1500-2300 900-1400
Silts and clays 1400-2100 600-1800 400-1100
Glacial tills 2100-2400 1700-2300 1100-1400
Crushed rock 1900-2200 1500-2000 900-1200
Peats 1000-1100 100-300 0-100
Organic silts and clays 1300-1800 500-1500 300-800
Modified after Hansbo (1975).
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several days with no fear of losing moisture. This method is
especially useful in having samples taken by observers in different
localities who can enclose the tubes in a cloth sack and send them to
the laboratory by mail daily or at stated intervals. A tube of the size
given holds about fifty grams of soil.
66. Taking Samples to Determine the Permeability of Soil
to Water or Air.—Whitney[49] determines the permeability of soil
or subsoil to water or air in the following manner:
An excavation two feet square and eighteen inches deep is made in
the soil. On one side of this hole the sample of soil or subsoil is taken
by means of a narrow saw blade and a sharp carving knife. The
sample of soil taken should be two inches square and 3½ to 4 inches
long.
It is placed in a brass cylinder three inches long and 3¼ inches in
diameter. The open space in the cylinder is filled with paraffin heated
just to its melting point. As the paraffin cools the upper surface
should be kept stirred to prevent the mass when set from receding
from the square column of soil. Care must be taken to keep the
paraffin from the ends of the soil columns and these should be left,
as far as possible in their natural condition.
The rate of percolation of the water may be determined at the time
the sample is taken. For this purpose an additional section of brass
tube two inches deep is secured to the one holding the sample by a
rubber band. An iron rod is driven into the earth carrying a retort
stand ring supporting a funnel filled with fine gravel. The lower end
of the soil column in the brass cylinder is placed on this gravel.
Water is next carefully poured upon the top of the sample of soil
being careful not to disturb the surface. The surface of the sample
may be protected with a little fine sand. The water should be poured
on the paraffin thus affording an additional protection to the soil
surface. When the water begins to drop from the funnel a graduated
glass is set under it and the time required for a given volume to pass
through under an initial pressure of two inches is noted. The volume
required represents one inch in depth over the four square inches of
soil surface, viz.: four cubic inches.
67. Sampling of Soil for Staple Crops.—Some variations from
the usual methods are recommended by Whitney when the samples
are taken from fields growing staple crops.
 The immediate object of the work, for which these samples are
desired, is to make a thorough study of the physical and chemical
properties of a number of typical soils adapted to the different staple
crops, such as grass, wheat, truck, and the different types of tobacco.
They should be taken for a careful study of the texture of the soils,
the relative amount and arrangement of sand and clay, the relation
of the soils to moisture and heat, and the ease with which they can
maintain a proper water supply for the different staple crops under
existing climatic and cultural conditions. The ultimate object of such
a study is to see how these conditions can be changed so as to make
the soils more productive, and make them yield a better quality of
crop, or to change the conditions in other soils, which differ from
these, so that the culture of the different staple crops can be
extended over wider areas by improved methods of cultivation and
manuring.
The soil selected for sampling for these investigations should be
typical, should represent fairly well a considerable area of land. It
should represent either the very best type of land for the staple crop
or crops of the locality, or the very poorest lands for these same
crops. Both of these extremes are desired for contrast. For example,
if the staple crop of the locality is wheat or a certain type of tobacco,
select the soil best adapted to this staple crop, and another soil, if
possible, in the same locality, representing considerable area of land
upon which this staple crop cannot be successfully grown on account
of the inferior yield, quality, or the time of ripening of the crop. The
soil sampled should be, or should recently have been, under actual
cultivation in the crop or crops best adapted to it, so that the real
agricultural value of the land can be accurately known.
The samples should be taken inside the field, some distance away
from fences, roads, or trees. If there are plants growing in the field,
the sample should be taken about midway between two plants. The
samples should be taken where they will typify fairly well the average
soil of the field and of the large area of land which they are to
represent.
The samples are taken in some one of the ways described herein.
Each sample should be carefully labelled at the time of taking. The
following blank form will be found convenient for this purpose:
 Locality:
LABORATORY
No.:
No. of sack:

Description: (virgin or cultivated).

Date: (a) Natural herbage:
(b) Crops best adapted to land (grass, wheat, tobacco,
truck, barren).
Collector:

Depth of sample:
(Soil or Subsoil?) Geologic formation:
... in. to ... inches.
68. Method of the Royal Agricultural Society.[50]—Have a
wooden box made, six inches long and wide, and from nine to twelve
inches deep, according to the depth of soil and subsoil in the field. At
one of the selected places mark out a space of twelve inches square;
dig around it in a slanting direction a trench, so as to leave
undisturbed a block of soil, with its subsoil, from nine to twelve
inches deep; trim this block to make it fit into the wooden box, invert
the open box over it, press down firmly, then pass a spade under the
box and lift it up and gently turn it over.
In the case of very light, sandy, and porous soils, the wooden box
may be at once inverted over the soil and forced down by pressure,
and then dug out.
Proceed in the same way for collecting the samples from all the
selected places in the field, taking care that the subsoil is not mixed
with the surface soil. The former should be sampled separately.
In preparing the plot for the gathering of the sample, take care to
have it lightly scraped so as to remove any débris which may be
accidentally found there.
The different samples thus procured are emptied on a clean,
boarded surface, and thoroughly mixed, so as to incorporate the
different samples of the same field together. The heap is then divided
into four divisions, and the opposite quarters are put aside, taking
care to leave the two remaining ones undisturbed; these are
thoroughly mixed together, the heap divided into quarters, and the
opposite ones taken away as before. This operation of mixing,
dividing into quarters and taking away the opposite quarter is
continued until a sample is left weighing about ten or twelve pounds.
Thus is obtained the average sample of the soil. Of course where
only a single sample is taken from the field this method of quartering
is not resorted to, but the bottom of the box is nailed directly on and
sent to the laboratory, where the soil is to be analyzed.
69. Grandeau[51] suggests that in taking soil samples there are
two cases to be considered; first a homogeneous soil and second, a
soil variable in its appearance and composition. First, if the soil is
homogeneous, being of the same geologic formation it will be
sufficient to take a mean sample in accordance with the following
directions:
The field is first divided by diagonals or by transverse lines the
direction of which need not be fixed in advance but as inspection of
the form and configuration of the field may indicate. In the ordinary
conditions, of homogeniety (marly, granite, argillaceous or silicious
soils) it will be sufficient to select about five points per hectare from
which the samples are to be taken. These points having been
determined the surface is cleaned in such a way as to remove from it
the detritus which may accidentally cover it; such as dry leaves,
fragments of wood, foreign bodies, etc. The surface having been
prepared, (five to six square meters) a hole is dug four-tenths of a
meter long and as wide as the spade employed. The sides should be
as nearly vertical as possible. As to depth it varies with the usage of
the country in regard to tillage. The layer of arable earth is what in
effect properly constitutes the soil. It ought not to be mixed with any
fragments of the subsoil. When the hole is properly cleaned the
samples are secured with a spade from the sides of the excavations.
About five kilograms are taken. The soil is placed in a proper
receptacle as it is removed from the hole.
This operation is repeated on as many points as may be necessary
to obtain a mean sample of the soil of the whole field.
All the samples are now collected on a table sufficiently large, and
intimately mixed together. Two samples, each of about five
kilograms, are then taken from the mixed material. One sample is
immediately placed in bottles and carefully stoppered and sealed; the
other is dried in the sun or on the hearth of a furnace. When
sufficiently dry the second sample is also placed in bottles and well
stoppered. While mixing the samples, pebbles, etc., of the size of a
nut and larger are removed, the weight of the rejected matter being
determined. The nature of the pebbles should also be noted; whether
silicates, limestone, etc.
The sample of subsoil is taken in exactly the same manner, using
the same holes from which the samples of soil were taken. The
nature, the arrangement and the appearance of the strata will
indicate the depth to which the subsoil should be taken. In general, a
depth equal to that of the sample of soil will be sufficient. The depth
to which the roots of cultivated plants reach is also a good indication
in taking a sample of the subsoil. In forests the sample of subsoil
should be taken from four to five-tenths of a meter below the surface.
If the soil in respect of its geologic formation, its fertility or its
physical aspect presents great differences, special samples should be
taken in each part in accordance with the directions given above.
70. Method of the Official Agricultural Chemists.—In the
directions given by the Association of Official Agricultural
Chemists[52] it is stated that the soil selected should be as far as
possible in its natural condition, not modified by recent applications
of manure, or changed by the transporting action of water or wind.
Surface accumulations of decaying leaves, etc., should be removed
before taking the sample.
To eliminate accidental variations in the soil, select specimens
from five or six places in the field which seem to be fair averages of
the soil, remove two or three pounds of the soil, taking it down to the
depth of nine or ten inches[53] so as to include the whole depth. Mix
these soils intimately, remove any stones, shake out all roots and
foreign matter, and dry the soil until it-becomes friable.[54] Break
down any lumps in a mortar with a wooden pestle, but avoid
pulverizing any mineral fragments; pass eight to ten pounds of the
soil through a sieve, having circular perforations one twenty-fifth of
an inch in diameter, rejecting all pebbles and materials too coarse to
pass through the sieve. Once more mix intimately the sifted soil.
Expose in thin layers in a warm room till thoroughly air dry (or dry it
in an air-bath at a temperature of 40°), place six to eight pounds in a
clean bottle, with label of locality and date, and cork the bottle
containing the soil, for analysis.
The soil is rapidly dried to arrest nitrification; it is not heated
above 40° lest there should be dissipation of ammonia compounds,
or a change in solubility. The normal limit to which the soil may be
heated in place by the sun’s rays should not be exceeded in preparing
a sample for an agricultural chemical analysis.
The relative amount of fragments too coarse to pass through the
sieve should be made a matter of record. They are soil material, but
not yet soil, so far as agricultural purposes are concerned.
71. Method of Lawes.—In a late method of sampling proposed
by Sir J. B. Lawes[55] a steel frame ten by twelve inches, and nine
inches deep open at top and bottom is driven into the earth until its
upper edge is level with the surface of the soil. All above-ground
vegetation is then cut off as closely as possible with scissors. The soil
within the frame is then removed exactly to the depth of the frame,
and immediately weighed. It is then partially dried, and mechanically
separated by a series of sieves, all visible vegetable matter being at
the same time picked out. The stones and roots and the remaining
soil are thus separated, and the determinations of dry matter,
nitrogen, etc., are made in the separated soil after being finely
powdered. The loss of water at each stage of preparation and on
drying the samples as analyzed is also carefully determined. This
method, which requires the soil to be taken to an arbitrary depth of
nine inches, could not be used when samples of strictly arable soil
are to be taken.
72. In taking a sample by the French commission[56] method it is
necessary to remove from the surface, the living and dead vegetation
which covers the soil. With a spade a square hole is then dug to the
depth of about 500 millimeters; in other words, to a depth
considerably exceeding that of the arable layer. Afterwards on each
of the four sides of the hole there is removed by the spade, a
prismatic layer of the arable portion of a thickness equal to its depth.
The samples thus obtained are united together and carefully mixed
for the purpose of forming a sample for analysis. If there are large
stones they are removed by hand and their proportion by weight
determined.
 In all cases it would prove useful to take a sample of the subsoil
which is far from playing a secondary rôle. The rootlets bury
themselves deeply in it and seek there a part of their nourishment.
The subsoil, therefore, furnishes an important addition to the
alimentation of the plants. For taking a sample of the subsoil a ditch
is dug of sufficient depth, say one meter, and the arable soil carefully
removed from the top portion. Afterwards pieces are taken from the
four sides of the hole at variable depths, which should always be
indicated, and which should extend in general, from six to eight-
tenths of a meter below the arable soil since it is demonstrated that
the roots of nearly all plants go at least to this depth. The analysis of
the subsoil, however, is less important than that of the soil, properly
so-called, because the agronomist does not act directly upon it and
takes no thought of modifying it and enriching it as he does the layer
of arable soil. But the composition of the subsoil is a source of
information capable of explaining certain cultural results and
capable sometimes, of leading to the correct way of improving the
soil, as in cases where the subsoil can be advantageously mixed with
the superficial layer.
73. Wolff[57] suggests that a hole thirty centimeters square be dug
perpendicularly and a section from one of the sides taken for the
sample. To the depth of thirty centimeters the sample shall be taken
as soil and to the additional depth of thirty centimeters as subsoil.
The thickness of the section taken may vary according to the quantity
of the sample desired. For analytical purposes, five kilograms will
usually be sufficient. When culture experiments are also
contemplated a larger quantity will be required.
74. Method of Wahnschaffe.—The method of sampling
advised by Wahnschaffe[58] is but little different from that of Wolff
already mentioned.
A square sample hole is dug with a spade having its sides
perpendicular to the horizon. The soil which is removed is thrown on
a cloth and carefully mixed. From the whole mass a convenient
amount is next removed care being taken not to include any roots. In
a similar manner it is directed to proceed for the sample of subsoil.
At first the subsoil should be removed to a depth of two to three
decimeters. The number and depth of subsequent samples will
depend chiefly upon the character of the soil. Where samples are
taken to the depth of two meters the use of a post-hole auger is
recommended.
The samples taken should not be too small. In general from two to
three kilograms should remain after all preliminary sampling is
finished.
75. Method of König.—The directions given by König[59] for
taking soil samples are almost identical with those prescribed by
Wahnschaffe and do not require any further illustration.
76. Special Instruments Employed in Taking Samples.—In
general a sharp spade or post-hole auger is quite sufficient for all
ordinary sampling but for certain special purposes other apparatus
may be used.
The instrument which is used by King[60] consists of a thin metal
tube of a size and length suited to the special object in view, provided
with a point which enables it to cut a core of soil smaller than the
internal bore of the tube and at the same time make a hole in the
ground larger than its outside diameter. Its construction is shown in
figure 11, in which A B represent a soil tube intended to take samples
down to a depth of four feet. A′ is a cross-section of the cutting end of
the tube, which is made by soldering a heavy tin collar, about three
inches wide, to the outside of a large tube allowing its lower end to
project about one-half an inch. Into this collar a second one is
soldered with one edge projecting about one-quarter of an inch and
the other abutting directly against the end of the soil tube. Still inside
of this collar is a third about one-half an inch wide which projects
beyond the second and forms the cutting edge of the instrument.

Figure 11.
 The construction of the head of the tube is shown at B′. It is
formed by turning a flange on the upper end of the tube and then
wrapping it closely with thick wire for a distance of about three
inches, the wire being securely fixed by soldering. The soil tube
should be of as light weight as possible not to buckle when being
forced into the ground, and the cutting edge thin. The brass tubing
used by gas fitters in covering their pipes has been found very
satisfactory for ordinary sampling. With a one inch soil tube four feet
long it is possible to get a clear continuous sample of soil to that
depth by simply forcing the tube into the ground with the hand and
withdrawing it, or the sample may be taken in sections of any
intermediate length. Later in the season when the soil becomes dryer
it is necessary to use a heavy wooden mallet to force the tube, and
this should be done with light blows.
The closeness with which it is possible to duplicate the samples in
weight by this method will be seen below, where from each of four
localities three samples were taken from the surface to a depth of
four feet.
Showing Variations in the Dry Weight of Triplicate Samples
of Soil.
A. B. C.
I. Surface to four feet 716.6 gms. 715.5 gms. 710.3 gms.
II. Surface to four feet 715.4 gms. 687.1 gms. 731.2 gms.
III. Surface to four feet 654.0 gms. 688.3 gms. 709.0 gms.
IV. Surface to four feet 714.0 gms. 687.8 gms. 719.3 gms.
These four series of samples were taken at the four corners of a
square twelve feet on a side and serve to show how much samples
may vary in that distance. The large difference shown in III, A is due
to the fact that the soil tube penetrated a hole left by the decay of a
rather large root as shown by the bark in the sample.
77. Auger for Taking Samples.—It has already been said that
the ordinary auger used for boring fence post-holes may be used to
advantage in taking soil samples. Large wood augers can also be used
to advantage for the same purpose. For special purposes, however,
other forms of augers may be used.
Norwacki and Borchardt[61] have described a new auger for taking
samples of soil for analytical purposes.
 In figure 12, A, B and C show
the general exterior and
interior form of the
instrument. The handle is
hollow and made of iron gas
pipe covered with leather. On
the inside of this, in the
middle, is fixed a wooden plug
a, which leaves two
compartments, one in each
end for holding the brass plug
bb,’ and the wicker lubricating
wad cc.’ The stem of the auger
a, is heavy and made of eight-
Figure 12. sided steel and the under end
is strengthened with a heavy
casting fitting into the auger
guide g g. The end of the auger I I′ is triangular and hardened. The
auger guide g g, is made out of a single piece of drawn steel tubing.
Above it is strengthened by a ring-shaped piece of iron or copper and
its lower end is furnished with saw teeth as shown in K and is
hardened. The fixing key e, is bent in the form of a hook and can be
passed through the two holes o o, of the auger stem and through the
one hole o′ in the strengthened part of the auger guide. It permits the
auger guide to be fixed upon the auger stem in two different
positions, higher and lower. On one end it is cut squarely across and
on the other provided with a conical hole drilled into it. It fits on the
one hand exactly in the auger guide and on the other loosely plays in
the cavity of the handle at b, designed to hold it when not in use. The
cap d′ is made of heavy sheet brass and is fastened upon the end of
the handle at c c′ after the manner of a bayonet. The wicker cartridge
is made of rolled and sewed wicker-work. At the upper end it is
provided with a metallic button and before use it is saturated with
paraffin oil. It fits on the one side firmly in the auger guide and on
the other in the cavity, of the handle c where it is kept when not in
use. The union h is made of a brass tube which below is closed with a
piece of solid brass upon the inside of which a hole is bored. In this
hole rests the end of the auger stem when the union is placed firmly
upon the auger guide.
 The auger is placed together as is shown in A B, the union h is
taken off and it is driven with gentle blows, turning it back and forth,
to the proper depth into the soil. After the key is loosened the auger
is lifted high enough so that the second hole appears and then it is
fixed in position by the key. Then the boring is continued, turning
the auger to the right, by which the auger, eating its way with its saw
teeth, presses deeper into the ground and withdraws the material for
analysis. After the auger guide has been filled through any desired
length, say five to ten centimeters with the sample of soil, the whole
auger is drawn out of the soil, the key removed, the auger stem
withdrawn from the auger guide, the apparatus opened by turning
the bayonet fastening of the stopper on the handle, the brass plug
placed in the end and then with the smooth part forward, from
above, it is allowed to fall into the auger guide until it reaches the
soil. The auger stem is then put back, the point of it fitting into the
hole of the plug and the sample of soil shoved out of the auger guide.
The auger guide is again fixed on the auger stem by the key and then
the apparatus is ready for a second operation. When the borings
cease the wicker cartridge is drawn out of the handle and shoved, the
soft end forward, from above, into the auger guide and the brass plug
after it and pushed through with the auger stem. By this process the
wicker cartridge gives up a sufficient amount of paraffin oil to
completely grease the inside of the auger guide and to protect it from
rust. After use the instrument should be cleaned on the outside by
means of a cloth, the plug and wicker wad replaced in their proper
positions, the cap fixed on the handle and the union on the point of
the instrument.
The length of the whole apparatus may reach one meter or more;
the internal diameter sixteen millimeters. The apparatus weighs with
a length of one meter, together with all its belongings, about two
kilograms. For the investigation of peat and muck soils as well as
sand, instead of the steel auger guide one of brass or copper can be
used. For this purpose the length of the apparatus may reach three to
four meters.
In comparison with other apparatus which are used for taking
samples, it appears without doubt that with the one just described a
better and less mixed portion of the soil can be obtained at great
depths. The apparatus is said to have many advantages over a similar
one known as Fraenkel’s, and is much more easy to clean. The
advantages of the apparatus are said to be the following: The farmer
with this piece of apparatus in a short time can go over his whole
farm taking samples to the depth of ninety centimeters since a single
boring does not take more than one minute. Geologists and others
interested in the soil at greater depths can use an apparatus three to
four meters in length and obtain unmixed samples from these lower
depths. These are also interesting from a bacteriologic point of view.
The entire apparatus is especially valuable for the investigation of the
lower parts of peat and muck soils. The apparatus has been tried in
the collection of samples for the laboratory of the Department of
Agriculture and is too complicated to be recommended for ordinary
use. When however samples are to be taken at great depths as in peat
soils it is highly satisfactory.
78. Soil Sampling depends for its success more on the judgment
and knowledge of the collector than on the method employed and the
apparatus used. One skilled in the art and having correct knowledge
of the purpose of the work will be able to get a fair sample with a
splinter or a jack-knife while another with the most elaborate outfit
might fail entirely in collecting anything of representative value.
There are some special kinds of soil sampling, however, which
cannot be left to the method of the individual and it is believed that
with the descriptions given above nearly all purposes for which
samples are desired may be served.
For the study of nitrifying organisms, however, special precautions
are required and these will be noted in a more appropriate place.
In taking samples for moisture determinations the method of
Whitney is recommended as the best. For the general physical and
chemical analytical work the standard methods are all essentially the
same. The principles laid down by Hilgard will be found a sufficient
guide in most cases.
 TREATMENT OF SAMPLE IN THE
LABORATORY.

79. The Sample, or mixed sample, taken by one of the methods

above described, is placed on a hard smooth board, broken up by
gentle pressure into as fine particles as possible and all pieces of
stone and gravel carefully removed and weighed; all roots, particles
of vegetable matter, worms, etc., are also to be weighed and thrown
out. This can be done very well by using a sieve of from one to two
millimeter mesh. Care should be taken that the soil be made to pass
through, which can be accomplished by subjecting the lumps to
renewed pressure with a rubber-tipped pestle. In the above operation
the soil should be dry enough to prevent sticking. The relative
weights of the pebbles, roots, etc., and the soil should be determined.
80. Order of Preliminary Examination.—Hilgard[62]
commences the examination of a soil sample by washing about ten
grams of it into a beaker with a water current of definite velocity,
stirring meanwhile actively the part carried into the vessel. The
residue not carried by the current is examined macro- and
microscopically to determine the minerals which may be present,
and the condition in which the fragments exist—whether sharp or
rounded edges, etc.
This examination will give some general idea of the parent rocks
from which the sample has been derived and of the distance the
particles have been transported. Next follows the hand test, viz.,
rubbing the soil between the thumb and fingers first in the dry state
and afterwards kneading it with water and observing its plasticity.
Following this should come a test of the relations of the sample to
water, viz., its capacity for absorbing and retaining moisture. Finally
the separation of the soil into particles of definite hydraulic value
and a chemical examination of the different classes of soil concludes
the analytical work.
 81. Air Drying.—The sifted soil should be thoroughly mixed and
about one kilogram spread on paper and left for several days exposed
in a room with free circulation of air and without artificial heat. The
part of the sample to be used for the determination of nitrates should
be dried more quickly as described in another place. The sample is
then placed in a clean, dry glass bottle, corked, sealed, and labeled.
The label or note book should indicate the locality where the sample
was taken, the kind of soil, the number of places sampled, and other
information necessary to proper description and identification.
82. Caldwell[63] directs that having taken the sample to the
laboratory, the stones and larger pebbles should be separated from
the finer parts by the hand, or by sifting with a very coarse sieve, and
examined with reference to their mineralogical character, weight and
size, making note, in this last respect, of the number that are as large
as the fist or larger, the number as large as an egg, a walnut, hazel-
nut, and pea, or give the percentage of each by weight.
Pulverize the air-dried soil in a mortar with a wooden pestle, and
separate the fine earth by a sieve with meshes three millimeters
wide; this sieve should have a tightly fitting cover of sheepskin
stretched over a loop, and it should be covered in the same manner
underneath, so that no dust can escape during the process of sifting.
Wash the pebbles and vegetable fibers remaining on the sieve with
water, dry and weigh the residue; the water with which this gravel
was washed should be evaporated to dryness at a temperature not
exceeding 50° towards the close of the evaporation, and the residue
mixed with what passed through the dry sieve.
The sifted fine earth is reserved for all the processes hereinafter
described, and is kept in well-stoppered bottles, marked air-dried
fine earth. The sieve mentioned above is too coarse for the more
modern methods of analysis.
83. Wolff[64] directs that the air-dried earth (in summer dried in
thin layers at room temperature, in winter in ovens at 30° to 50°) be
freed from all stones, the latter washed, dried, and weighed. The soil
is next passed through a three millimeter mesh sieve, the residual
pebbles and fiber washed, dried and weighed. The fine earth passing
the sieve is used for all subsequent examinations. It is air-dried at
moderate temperatures and preserved in stoppered glass vessels.
 84. The French[65] commission calls especial attention to the
method of subsampling, and prescribes that the sample of earth
which has been taken in the manner indicated, and of which the
weight should be greater as the material is less homogeneous should
not be analyzed as a whole. It should be divided into two parts. The
first includes the finer particles constituting the earth, properly so-
called, with the elements which alone enter into play in vegetable
nutrition and on which it is necessary to carry out the analysis. The
second embraces the coarser particles to which only a superficial
examination should be given and which may have a certain
importance from a physical point of view but which cannot take any
part from a chemical point of view, in the nutrition of plants. It is,
however, useful to examine its mineralogical constitution and to look
for the useful elements such as lime, potash, etc., which it may be
able to furnish to the earth, and in proportion as it is decomposed,
finer particles which may be useful in plant nutrition.
How are we to distinguish between the fine and coarse elements?
All grades of fineness are observed in the soil, from the particles of
hydrated silica so small that with the largest magnifying power of the
microscope it is scarcely possible to distinguish them, up to grains of
sand which are of palpable size and visible to the naked eye, and
extending to pebbles of varying sizes. All intermediate stages are
found between these and if it should be asked what is the precise
limit at which it is necessary to stop in distinguishing the fine from
the coarse elements of the soil, the answer is that this can only be
determined by a common understanding among analysts. In general,
it may be said, that the mark of distinction should be the separation
which can be secured with a sieve having ten meshes per centimeter.
85. Loose Soils.—Having agreed upon a sieve of the above size,
the process of separation in loose soils is as follows: The earth is
exposed to the air and when the touch shows that it is sufficiently dry
the conglomerated particles should be simply divided without
breaking the rocky material which exists in a state of undivided
fragments. There are some special precautions to be taken. Rubbing
in a mortar must be forbidden since it reduces the earth to particles
which are unnatural in size, by securing the breaking up of the
fragments consisting of the débris of rocks. When it is possible the
earth should be rubbed simply in the hand and after having
separated that which passes the sieve, the large particles which have
not passed should be again rubbed with the hand, until all the
particles which can be loosened by this simple treatment have passed
the sieve. The separation should be as complete as possible in order
that a sample of the particles passing the sieve should represent as
nearly as possible, a correct sample of the fine particles of the soil.
In regard to the pebbles, they should be washed with water upon
the sieve in order to carry through the last of the particles of earth
adhering to them. They are then dried and their weight taken. The
fine part of the earth is also weighed. On an aliquot part, say 100
grams, the moisture is determined and then by simple calculation
the whole sample of the air-dry soil can be calculated to the dry state.
The sample is then placed in a glass flask.
The pebbles are examined with a view of determining their
mineralogical constitution; as for instance, on being touched with a
little hydrochloric acid it can be determined whether or not they are
carbonate of lime. The nature of the rock from which they have been
derived is often to be determined by a simple inspection.
86. Compact Soils.—If the soils are not sufficiently loose to be
treated as before described, it is necessary to have recourse to other
means of division, which should not, however, be sufficiently
energetic to reduce the rocky elements to fine particles. For this
purpose the earth may be broken by means of a wooden mallet,
striking it lightly and separating the fine elements from time to time
by sifting. A wooden roller may also be used with a little pressure, for
breaking up the particles or a roller made out of a large glass bottle.
These methods will permit of a sufficiently fine division of the soil
without breaking up any of the pebbles. Sometimes, however, a soil
can not be broken up by such treatment. It is then necessary to have
recourse to the following process: The soil is thoroughly moistened
and afterwards rubbed up with water. The paste which is thus
formed, is poured upon the sieve and washed with a stream of water
until all the fine particles are removed. The wash water and the fine
particles are left standing until the silt is thoroughly deposited when
the supernatant water is poured off and the deposited moist earth is
transferred into a large dish and dried on a sand or water-bath. In
this way a firm paste is formed which can be worked up with the
hand until rendered homogeneous and afterwards an aliquot portion
be taken to determine moisture.
87. Method of Peligot.—The method recommended by
Peligot[66] for the preparatory treatment of the sample is essentially
that already described. The sample is at first dried in the air and then
in an oven at 120°. When dry and friable 100 grams are placed in a
mortar and rubbed with a wooden pestle. It is then passed through a
sieve of ten meshes per centimeter. The largest particles which
remain in the sieve should have about the dimensions of a pin’s head.
The stones are separated by hand. They should be shaken with water
in order to detach any pulverulent particles adhering thereto. The
turbid water resulting from this treatment is added to that which is
used in separating the sand from the impalpable part of the soil.
88. Wahnschaffe prescribes[67] in the further preparation of the
sample for analysis that the coarse pieces up to the size of a walnut
be separated in the field where the sample is taken and their relative
weight and mineralogical character determined. The soil sample is
then to be placed in linen or strong paper bags and carefully labelled.
In order to avoid any danger of loss of label the description or
number of the sample should be put on the cloth or paper directly.
The sample when brought to the laboratory should be spread out
to dry, in a room free of dust. In the winter the room should be
heated to the usual temperature. The air drying should continue until
there is no sensible loss of weight. The samples then are to be placed
in dry, glass-stoppered glass bottles where they are kept until ready
for examination. This method of keeping the samples avoids contact
with ammonia or acid fumes with which a laboratory is often
contaminated.
89. The Swedish chemists[68] direct that samples which are to be
used for chemical examination in the manner described below, are
most conveniently brought to such a condition of looseness and
humidity that the soil feels moist when pressed between the fingers
without, however, sticking to the skin. To prepare the sample in this
manner, spread it in a large porcelain dish or on a glass plate in a
place where it is not reached by the laboratory atmosphere; stir it
frequently till it assumes the mentioned humidity (if the sample
when sent is too dry, moisten it with distilled water till its condition
is as indicated); then pulverize carefully between the fingers and
finally sift through a sieve with five millimeter holes. In this way free
the sample from stones, undecayed roots and similar parts of plants,
pieces of wood, and other matter strange to the soil, which remain on
the sieve; mix the sample carefully and put it into a glass bottle
provided with a stopper well ground in; keep it in a cool place.
Samples prepared in this way will usually contain 20–30 per cent
moisture; boggy soils 60–80 per cent and peat soils 50 per cent.
90. Petermann[69] follows the method below in preparing
samples of soil for analysis.
The soil is gently broken up by a soft pestle and all débris if of
organic nature, cut fine with scissors. About 2500 grams of this soil
are passed through a one millimeter mesh sieve. The organic débris
is removed by forceps, washed free of adhering earth dried at 120°
and weighed. The nature of the organic débris should be noted as
carefully as possible.
The pebbles and mineral débris not passing the sieve are worked
in a large quantity of water by decantation. They are also dried at
120° and weighed. This débris is examined mineralogically and thus
some idea of the origin of the soil obtained.
91. The various methods for the preliminary treatment as
practiced by the best authorities have been somewhat fully set forth
in the foregoing résumé. The common object of all these procedures
is to get the soil into a proper shape for further physical and chemical
examination and to determine the comparative weights of foreign
bodies contained therein.
The essential conditions to be observed are the proper sifting of
the material and avoidance of mechanical communition of the solid
particles too large to pass the meshes of the sieve. If possible the
material should be passed through a sieve of one millimeter mesh. In
cases where this is impracticable a larger mesh may be used, but as
small as will secure the necessary separation. Before final chemical
analysis a half millimeter mesh sieve should be employed if the soil
be of a nature which will permit its use. Over-heating of the sample
should be avoided. Rapid drying is advisable when the samples are to
be examined for nitrates.
The method recommended by the French commissions seems well
adapted to the general treatment of samples, but the analyst must be
guided by circumstances in any particular soil.
 AUTHORITIES CITED IN PART SECOND.
39. Bulletin 38, pp. 61–2.
40. Ms. communication to author.
41. Bulletin No. 10.
42. Landwirtschaftliche Versuchs-Stationen, Band 38, Ss. 309 et seq.
43. Annales de la Science Agronomique, Tome 1, Part 2, p. 240.
44. Agricultural Chemical Analysis, p. 166.
45. Zeitschrift für analytische Chemie, Band 3, S. 87.
46. Anleitung zur Wissenschaftlichen Bodenuntersuchung, S. 17.
47. Traité de Chimie Analytique, p. 149.
48. Bulletin 35, p. 108.
49. Op. cit.
50. Bulletin 10, p. 33.
51. Analyse des Matières Agricoles, p. 131.
52. Bulletin 38, p. 200.
53. This in some instances would include a part of the subsoil.
54. All soils do not become friable on drying.
55. Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, (2), Vol. 25, p. 12.
56. Annales de la Science Agronomique, Tome 1, Part Second, pp. 240 et seq.
The personnel of the commission is as follows: MM. Risler, Grandeau, Joulie,
Schloesing, and Müntz.
57. Vid. 7.
58. Anleitung zur Wissenschaftlichen Bodenuntersuchung, S. 17.
59. Untersuchung Landwirtschaftlich und Gewerblich Wichtiger Stoffe, S. 5.
60. Seventh Annual Report of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station,
p. 161.
61. Deutsche Landwirtschaftliche Presse, Band 19, No. 35, Ss. 383–4.
62. Journal American Chemical Society, Vol. 16, p. 36.
63. Agricultural Chemical Analysis, p. 168.
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