‘A’ Level Computing Notes: Systems Analysis And Design

SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

This is a process of identifying problems of an existing system by analysing it and

finding the best solution to such a problem.

System users or the manager would have realized that the Information system is
no longer reflective of or satisfying the existing business aims and objectives. This
problem could be triggered by many factors, some of which are:
i. System users: they may be dissatisfied with the current system since they are
the ones who operate it. They will the sent requests to have a new system or
some modification to the existing one.
ii. Top management: they may issue directives in order to meet new
organisational objectives. It can also be due to change in management (new
manager), new requirements, etc.
iii. The need for improved operating efficiency: Errors in the existing systems
may be intolerable, especially to customers.
iv. Changes in technology: new hardware and software may force organisations
to change their ways of operation.
v. Change of government policies: new government laws and policies can force
organisations to change their systems
vi. The user could have changed his/her mind
Vii. The business might have expanded or due to other reasons

The systems analyst now needs to examine whether the said problem is real by
carrying out an in-depth study, after getting permission to conduct a feasibility
study.

The systems analyst

This is a person who identifies problems of the existing system and recommends
the best solution to such a problem. The duties of a systems analyst are:
 Identifies the problems of the current system.
 Liaises with system users and determine their requirements.
 Finds out facts important to the design of the new system.
 Determines the human and computer procedures that will make up the
system.
 Participates in the process of system implementation.

By performing such duties the systems analyst acts as:

i. A consultant: can be called or hired to identify problems in a system
ii. A supporting expert: draws together professional expertise concerning
computer hardware and software and their uses in business.
iii. An agent of change: bring new ideas into the organisation

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Qualities of a systems analyst

 Must have good oral and written communication skills for all managerial
levels of an organisation.
 Must be able to work as a team.
 Must be well educated, with at least a degree.
 Must be well experienced in computers and at top managerial levels.
 Must have good managerial skills.
 Must be a problem solver and see problems as challenges.
 Must be self-motivated.
 Must be well disciplined.
 Must be able to work under pressure and meet deadlines.

SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE (SDLC)

- It refers to stages that are chronologically completed to develop a new or
modified computer system.
- It refers to the stages through which a system develops from ‘birth’ to ‘death’,
that is, from the moment the system is incepted until it is modified or replaced
with a new one.
- Can be shown using the Waterfall Model or the Stepping Stone Model, which
encompasses the following stages, in their order;
 Feasibility Study
 Data Collection
 Analysis of the problem
 System Design
 System Development and Testing
 System Implementation
 System Maintenance

1. Feasibility Study:
-This is a preliminary investigation conducted to determine if there is need for a
new system or modification of the existing one.
-The Analyst examines whether a new system is feasible or not.
He assesses the magnitude of this problem and decides the scope of the project.
He examines the problem of the current system and what will be required of the
new system.
-It involves evaluation of systems requests from users to determine if it is feasible
to construct a new one. Feasibility can be measured by its:

 Economic feasibility: determining whether the benefits of the new system

will out-weigh the estimated cost involved in developing, purchasing,
installing and maintenance of the new system. The cost benefits analysis is
important. Benefits can be tangible and quantifiable, e.g. profits in terms of
monetary values, fewer processing errors, increased production, increased
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response time, etc. Other benefits are intangible, e.g. improved customer
goodwill, employee morale, job satisfaction, better service to the
community, etc.
 Technical feasibility: determines if the organisation can obtain software,
equipment, technology and personnel to develop, install and operate the
system effectively.
 Schedule feasibility: a measure of how long the system will take to
develop, considering the desired time frame.
 Social feasibility: Will the system be acceptable by the local people,
considering their values and norms in their society? This also looks at
impacts like loss of jobs,
 Legal feasibility: determines whether the new system will not violet the
legal requirements of the state, for instance, laws outlined in the Data
Protection Act.
 Operational feasibility: determines whether the current work practices
and procedures are adequate to support the system, e.g. effects on social
lives of those affected by the system

Thus the analyst must consider the following questions when producing a
feasibility study:
- Is the solution technically possible?
- Is the solution economically possible to produce?
- Is the solution economic to run?
- Will the solution be socially acceptable?
- Is skilled workforce available? If not, are training requirements feasible
- How will the system affect employees
- Will profits increase?
- How long will it take to produce the system?
- etc
After carrying out the feasibility study, a feasibility study report must be
produced and it contains the following information:
 A brief description of the business.
 Advantages and problems of the existing system.
 Objectives of the new system.
 Evaluation of the alternative solutions.
 Development timetable.
 Management summary
 Terms of reference. Contents page.
 Proposed solution, its advantages and disadvantages

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 ‘A’ Level Computing Notes: Systems Analysis And Design
2. DATA COLLECTION
The systems analyst collects data about the system. The fact finding methods that
can be used include: interviews, record inspection, questionnaire, observations,
etc.

i. Interview:
This refers to the face-to-face communication between two or more people in
order to obtain information. Interviews can also be done over the phone but the
most common ones are face to face. Interviews are done when you want to collect
information from a very small population sample.
Advantages of Interviews
 Effective when gathering information about a system
 The researcher can ask for clarification on some points that may not be
clear.
 Encourages good rapport between the researcher and the respondent.
 Non-verbal gestures like facial expressions can help the researcher to
determine if the respondent is telling the truth.
 Information can be collected even from the illiterate since the respondent’s
language could be used.
 First-hand information is collected.
 The researcher can probe to get more information.

Disadvantages of Interviews
 It is expensive since the researcher has to travel to the interview venue.
 Difficult to remain anonymous
 It is time consuming as more time is spent travelling and carrying out the
interview.
 Good interview techniques are required as failure may lead to
disappointments.
 Biased information can be given since the respondent may not tell the truth.

ii. Record inspection:

A fact finding method which involves scrutinising system documents in order to
solicit information. Record inspection has the following Advantages:
 Accurate information is collected from system records.
 Shows how data is collected within the system
 Shows the exact data that is collected
 Shows information that must be produced by the system
 First-hand information is obtained.
 Gives a good idea of the ways things are actually done rather than how they
are supposed to be done.

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Disadvantages of record inspection
 It is time consuming to go through all system records.
 Manual files can be tiresome to go through and some of the data may be
illegible.
 Confidential files are not given to the researcher
 Documentation may difficult for an outsider to understand
 Some records may not be relevant

iii. Questionnaire:
A document with carefully crafted questions to be answered by the respondent by
filling on the spaces provided. Questionnaires are used when collecting
information from a widely spaced population sample and when collecting
information from many people. A questionnaire contains open-ended and closed
questions. Open-ended questions are gap filling questions which require the
respondent to express his or her own view. Closed questions are guided
questions where the respondent just chooses Yes or No, True or False, or by just
putting a tick on given options. Questionnaires can be distributed personally or
by post.

Advantages of questionnaires
 Effective when collecting a lot of data
 Questions are very simple to answer.
 It saves time as questionnaires can be distributes and then collected later.
 Respondents can fill questionnaires at their own pace.
 Give guarantees confidential of information, thereby encouraging
respondents to give accurate information.
 They are cheap to use as travel expense can be low

Disadvantages of questionnaires
 Questions must be well thought out and precise.
 Some questions are left blank.
 Some questionnaires may not be returned. Biased information can be
collected.
 Respondents usually do not fill the correct information.
 It is difficult to analyse information collect using questionnaires.
 They are expensive to use if the postal system is used.
 Abusive information can be filled by respondents.

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iv. Observations:
It is a fact finding method that involves viewing the actual system in operation by
the researcher. The researcher can even take part in operating the system. It is
used when the researcher wants to see for himself how the system operates.
Advantages of observations
 First-hand information is collected.
 May identify problems that the users did not see
 Accurate information can be obtained.
 More reliable information is obtained.
 Only areas of interest can be observed.
 The researcher can take part in operating the system thereby getting
insight on how the system operates.

Disadvantages of observations
 People work differently if they feel that they are being observed, therefore
inaccurate information can be collected.
 The researcher may not understand some of the activities being observed.
 It is time consuming to collect the required information.
 The researcher may interrupt some of the activities being done.
 More expensive than other methods

3. The analysis stage:

This is the in-depth study of the system to determine how data flows within the
system. It basically involves the following activities:
(a) Information Collection (Using interviews, questionnaires, ..)
(b) Analysis of information collected (using DFDs, flowcharts, . .)
-produces clear view of the system
(c) Requirements specification
 List of user requirements
 Hardware and software requirements
(d) Consideration of alternative solutions
 Match alternative solutions with requirement specification
 Justify one solution against others
- flowcharts,
- data flow diagrams
 concentrates on documenting how data flows in a system,
- structure diagrams
- data dictionary
 it is a table that stores data about data (metadata), ie. Stores details of
data used, including the following
 Name of data item (fields or variables)
 Data type
 Length
 Validation criteria
 Amount of storage required for each item
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 ‘A’ Level Computing Notes: Systems Analysis And Design
 Who owns the data
 Who accesses the data
 Programs which uses the data
 etc
The analysis stage determines whether computerisation will take place or not.
The analysis stage also specifies the hardware and software requirements and
whether they will use in-house software or outsource the program. The analysis
stage looks at the following aspects:
 Understanding the current system
 Produce data flow diagrams
 Identify the user requirements
 Interpret the user requirements
 Agree on the objectives with the user
 Collect data from the current system

Dataflow Diagrams
These are diagrams that show how data moves between external sources,
through processes and data stores of a particular system. Dataflow diagrams use
the following symbols:

(1) Context (zero) Level DFD

The top level DFD which shows one (single) process (which is usually
the name of the system) and the entities involved.
It is generalised, with only entities being linked to the system

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(2) First Level DFD
The context level DFD is split into detailed processes, entities and data
stores and present it as one diagram.

(3) Second Level DFD

The First level DFD is split into more detailed processes, entities and
data stores and present it as different diagrams; each first level process
has its own separate diagram. Data items between entities and data
stores are more detailed (fields are specified in detail, not generalised).

4. Design Stage:

This stage is concerned with the development of the new computer based
solution as specified by the analysis stage. The hardware and software
requirements are identified and purchased, ready for the construction stage.

Functional diagrams are translated into hierarchical diagrams by the analyst so as

to identify what programs are needed and how they relate to one another. The
analyst decides on the program structure, program interface and the hierarchy in
which programs will be arranged.

The Analyst ensures quality designs, incorporates security measures, designs

easy to use input forms, output reports interfaces.

The Database designer fulfills the file requirements. The output is a design
specification.

Tools used are DFD, Data Dictionary, Data models, prototypes, system flowcharts:
The personnel involved are users, Analysts, Database Designer.
Design stage involves:
Input Design: includes designing of data entry forms, input methods (e.g. by
filling forms, use of barcodes, etc) and the user interface.
Output Design: Includes design of reports, data output formats, screen displays
and other printed documents like receipts, etc
File design: Involves designing tables/files, records and validation rules. It also
involves determining how data is to be stored and accessed, the media to be used
for storage and the mode of file organisation. Fields in each files can be designed,
their length and data type, e.g.
File Name: Student File
Storage Location: Hard Disk
Mode of Access: Direct/Random

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File Structure:

It also involves specifying how data is to be sorted and updated.

Program Design: Involves design of systems flowcharts, structure diagrams,
dataflow diagrams, algorithms, user interface design, pseudocodes, prototyping,
EAR diagramming, etc.
Selection of appropriate hardware: Specify the input hardware, output
hardware, processing hardware and speed, storage media, RAM size, etc.
Selection of appropriate software: specifying the type of operating system,
programming language or database package and other application packages to be
used.
 Design of test plan and strategy,
 Design of the user manual,
 Design of the technical documentation.

In summary, the design stage involves:

 design the data capture forms/input forms
 design the screen layouts
 design output forms and reports
 produce systems flowcharts and/or pseudocode
 select/design any validation rules that need to be used
 design a testing strategy/plan
 file structures/tables need to be designed/agreed
 select/design the hardware requirements for the new system
 select/design the software requirements
 produce any algorithms or program flowcharts
 select the most appropriate data verification method(s)
 interface design(Command-line, GUI, form-based, menu-driven, etc-Pupils
to research on these)
o When designing interface, the analyst should consider the following;
 Who will be using the system?
 What knowledge do they have?
 How much on-line help is required
 What is the information that needs to be shown?
 How much information is needed?
 What is the best way of showing the information needed
 What colours should / should not be used?
 What other form of output is sensible
 What technology is available

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 Costs of designing as well as maintainability
PROTOTYPING
Involves building a working but limited model of a new system that will be tested,
evaluated and improved if necessary before building the actual system. It involves
construction of a simple version of a program which is used as part of the design
to demonstrate how the system will work.
It is a mock-up of parts of the system for early evaluation
Reasons for prototyping:
- Gives an idea of the system before development
- enables clear identification of requirements
- allows revision and adjustments before full system is developed

The prototype will have a working interface but may not actually process data
Special software will be used to design input screens and to run the system.
The prototype can then be discarded and the real system designed using other or
the same software (throw away prototype).
Prototyping can be used at any stage of the SDLC. The prototype can be further
refined until the user is satisfied with it and then it is implemented as it is
(Evolutionary prototype).
Benefits of prototypes:
 cheaper to setup than alternative methods that could be used to predict
what will happen in a system
 faster to design a system model
 Gives user the chance to experience the look and feel of the input process
and make suggestions where necessary.
 System is more likely to have fewer or no errors
 More acceptable to users of the system since they are also involved in the
design

Disadvantages of prototyping
 prototypes can be very expensive to design
 takes too long to finish system design, especially if the prototype is thrown
away

SYSTEM DOCUMENTATION
Documentation refers to the careful and disciplined recording of information on
the development, operation and maintenance of a system. Documentation is in
two main types: user documentation and technical documentation

(a) User Documentation: It is a manual that guides system users on how to load,
operate, navigate and exit a program (system). User documentation contains the
following:
 System/program name.
 Storage location.
 System password.
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 Instruction on how to install the program.
 Instruction on how to operate the system: e.g.
o How to quit the program
o how to load/run the software
o how to save files
o how to do print outs
o how to sort data
o how to do a search
o how to add, delete or amend records
o print layouts (output)
o screen layouts (input)
o the purpose of the system/program/software package
o error handling/meaning of errors
o troubleshooting guide/help lines/FAQs
o how to log in/log out

(b) Technical Documentation: This is a manual for programmers which aid

them in modifying the system and in correcting program errors. The following are
found in technical documentation:
 Algorithms of the program,
 Program testing procedures and test data,
 Sample of expected system results,
 Program structure showing modules and their relationships,
 System flowcharts,
 Programming language used,
 Program code,
 program listings,
 File structures.
 Validation rules
 Output formats
 Bugs in the system
 Hardware requirements
 Software requirements

Evaluating Volume Of Data

This involves establishing the amount and type of data involved in a system. This
takes the following into consideration:
- Number of forms and reports involved in the systems
- Amount of data and the data types
- How often the data is processed
- Type of processing (online or batch)
NB: VOLUMETRICS: Refers to the amount of data to be processed and the
characteristics of the users. This may include:
- The number of input documents or online requests
- The number of users and mode of processing (online/batch)
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5. Development and Testing

The computer environment is prepared, the programs to be written are done and
they are tested, user documentation and training manuals are developed.

Computer environment being prepared: electrical wires, network cables are

installed, furniture, air conditioning are in place. The computers are installed and
tested.

Programs are written per the program and design specifications. The programs
are tested using walk through and group reviews. The Analyst supervises the
writing of training manuals and user documentations. User documentation
includes user manuals, user quick reference guides, on-screen help etc.
It also involves the construction and assembling of the technical components that
are needed for the new system to operate. This includes preparation of the
computer room environment, coding of the computer program using a specific
programming language, testing of the coded program, user training (users are
trained on how to enter data, search records, edit fields, produce reports, etc).

Testing strategies
First step involves testing of the programs and various modules individually, e.g.
- Top-Down testing: program is tested with limited functionality. Most
functions are replaced with stubs that contain code. Functions are gradually
added to the program until the complete program is tested.
- Bottom – up testing:
Each function is tested individually and then combined to test the complete
program.
- Black-box testing:
 Program is regarded as a black box and is tested according to its
specification.
 No account is taken of the way the program is written
 Different values are entered for variables to determine whether the
program can cope with them. This includes standard
(typical/normal), extreme (borderline) and abnormal data values.
 testing will include:
 Use of extreme, standard and abnormal data
 Inputting error free data into the system to see if error free
outputs can be produced.
 Inputting data that contains errors into the system to see if the
validation procedures will identify the errors.
 Inputting large quantities of data into the system to test
whether or not the system can cope with it.
 Testing all the regular and occasional processing procedures.

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 Inputting data that contains extreme ranges of information to
check that the validation procedures can cope with it.
- White-box testing:
 Each path through the program is tested to ensure that all lines of
code work perfectly.
 Involves testing the program to determine whether all possible paths
through the program produce desired results
 Mostly appropriate if the program has different routes through it, i.e.
uses selection control structure and loops
 Involves testing of logical paths through the code
 Involves testing of the structure and logic of the program (if it has
logical errors)
 Involves desk checking (dry running)
- Alpha testing:
 The first testing done within the developers company (at owners’
laboratory).
 Testing is done by members of the software company
 Some errors may still be in existence after alpha testing as the testers
are programmers not users.
 The software version will be unfinished
 Testers have knowledge of the software and of programming
- Beta testing: System testing done after alpha testing; in which the program
version is released to a number of privileged customers in exchange of their
constructive comments. Mostly similar to the finally released version.

Once a program is tested, it is installed and the analyst can now test it. A very
large program must be tested using the following types of tests:
1. Unit testing: the process of testing each program unit (sub-routine/module in
a suite) singly to determine if it produces expected results.
2. Integration Testing: testing to see if modules can combine with each other
and work as expected. The whole program is tested to determine if its module
integrate perfectly
3. System testing: the testing of the whole program after joining the modules to
determine if it runs perfectly.
4. User acceptance testing: determining if users of the new system are
prepared to use it. Usually the final step. It enables identification of some bugs
related to usability. User gain the confidence that the program being ushered
meets their requirements

Ergonomics: the design and functionality of the computer environment and

includes furniture setup, ventilation, security, space, noise, etc. some of the
ergonomic concerns include:
Incorrect positioning of the computer facing the window can lead to eyestrain
from screen glare. Incorrect sitting positioning can lead to backache. Constant

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typing with inadequate breaks can lead to RSI. Printer noise can lead to stress.
Badly designed software can cause stress. Trailing electricity cables are a safety
hazard.

6. System Implementation/ Conversion (Installation/Changeover)

This also involves putting the new computer system into operation, that is,
changing from the old system to the new one. It involves file conversion, which is
the changing of old data files into the current format. Different changeover
methods can be used, and these include:

a. Parallel Run: This involves using of both the old and new system concurrently
until the new system proves to be efficient. It involves operating the new and old
systems simultaneously until management is confident that the new system will
perform satisfactorily. Other workers will be using the old system while others
use the old system but doing the same type of job.
Advantages of parallel run
 Results for both systems are compared for accuracy and consistency.
 If the new system develops problems, it will be easier to revert to the old
one.
 There is enough time given to determine if the new system produces
expected results.
 Employees have enough time to familiarise with the new system.

Disadvantages of Parallel run

 Running two systems at the same time is very expensive.
 Running two systems simultaneously is demanding to employees.
 It may be difficult to reach a decision when comparing the two systems.
 There is duplication of tasks which in turn stresses employees

ii. Abrupt (Direct) changeover: Involves stopping using the old system on a
certain day and the new system takes over on the next morning. This is suitable
for control systems like in chemical plants and for traffic lights.
Advantages of Direct Changeover
 Reduces cost as of running two systems at the same time.
 Faster and more efficient to implement.
 There is minimum duplication of tasks.
 Enough resources can be allocated to make sure that the new system
operates successfully.

Disadvantages of Direct Changeover

 It will be difficult to revert to the old system if the new system fails.

iii. Phased / Partial conversion: This is whereby the old system is gradually
removed while the new system is gradually moved in at the same time. This can
be done by computerising only one department in an organisation this month,
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then the next department in two months’ time, and so on until the whole system
is computerised.

Advantages of phased conversion

 Avoids the risk of system failure.
 Saves costs since the new system is applied in phases.
 It could be easier to revert to the old system if the new system fails since
only one department will be affected.

Disadvantages of phased conversion

 It could be very expensive since the organisation will be running two
systems but in different departments.

iv. Pilot conversion: This is whereby a program is tested in one organisation (or
department), and is applied to the whole organisation if it passes the pilot stage.
It serves as a model for other departments. A pilot program can then be applied in
phases, directly or using the parallel run method.

7. Maintenance/review/evaluation Stage:
This stage is concerned with making upgrades and repairs to an already existing
system. Certain sections of the system will be modified with time.
Maintenance can be

(1) Perfective (3) preventive

(2) Corrective (4) adaptive

Explain the above terms.

NB
Criteria used to evaluate a computer based solution includes the following:
- Were the objectives met? (Successes of the system are compared with set
objectives)
- Does it carry out all the required tasks?
- Easiness to use (user friendly)
- Maintainability
- Compatibility with existing systems and hardware
- Offering better performance than the previous one
- Cost effectiveness, etc.

PROJECT EVALUATION AND REVIEW TECHNIQUE (PERT)

-A technique of controlling software project by breaking it into a number of
separate activities and stating the order and timeframe for performing each
activity.

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-The order of performing each activity is very important, e.g. coding comes first
before testing
-A number of PERT packages can be used
-PERT software packages should show the following information and features:
 Different paths of the project using lines of different value according to
length of task
 Arrows showing the order of completion
 Longest journey along the arrows must show the shortest time of completion
 Resources must be allocates at correct times
 Deadlines (bottlenecks) can easily be predicted
 Must have a modelling tool
 Should be able to produce DFDs, ER diagrams
 Should have a library of standard shapes
 Data dictionary must be automatically generated
 Tables can be generated automatically

The activities are all interconnected into a PERT network as given below:

Critical path:
All activities that are critical and are used to determine how long it will take to
complete the project; they must not delayed if the project is to finish in time.

Critical Path Analysis:

Analysis of a set of project activities so that delays and conflicts are resolved to
reduce project development time to a minimum. It is used to control the
sequences of tasks within the project.

Critical Path Method (CPM).

A mathematical algorithm for scheduling and displaying a set of project activities.
It includes the following:
- List of all activities required to complete the project
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- Time (duration) for each activity will take
- Dependencies between activities (other activities done before others)
CPM calculates the earliest STARTING and latest FINISHING time for each activity.
-It reveals critical activities
-Float time (less critical) – length of time an activity can be delayed or overrun
without the whole project being affected , e.g. setting up a printer can be done at
the same time as installing the computer but will not take as long.

GANTT CHART
Software for producing Gantt Charts should have some of the following features:
 Should be able to show individual components of tasks
 Should show the earliest starting time
 Should indicate latest ending times
 Should be able to show relationships between components
 Should show the shortest time to finish
 Every aspect should be diagrammatic
 It should be simple to follow
 Should contain review milestones
 Should show percentage of chart finished
 Should automatically generate reports on costs

SYSTEM SECURITY
It is important to keep data secure so that it may not be damaged or get lost. The
risks and their solutions are as follows:

Risk Solution
Hardware -Frequent back-up of data, at least one copy to be kept at
failure different locations on daily basis
-Log files to be kept for all transactions
Fire Keep backup file at fireproof safe or storage at an
alternative location
Theft Physical security measures like locking rooms, use
security cameras, guards, electric fence, screen gates, etc
Disgruntled Employee checks (ID cards to check workers, careful
employees vetting during employment, instant removal of access
right to sacked workers, separation of tasks for workers,
educating workers to be aware of security breaches)
Hackers Usernames & Passwords, firewalls
Viruses Latest and updated Antiviruses (, firewalls
Floods Building rooms at higher grounds, waterproof safes for
backups

If a hard disc fails, files can be recovered by using the last backup, which is copied
on to another hard disc. The log file should be used to update the master file.
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During the recovering process, the master file will not be available but the system
could be maintained at a lower level of services. Any transaction could be logged
and used to update the master file when the system is up and running.

Employee resistance: When a new system is introduced, some employees may

resist the change and this could be catastrophic if not handled appropriately.
Some fear losing their jobs, of being demoted or being transferred and change of
their job description. Resistance can be in the following forms:
 Through strikes and demonstrations.
 Giving false information during system investigation.
 Entering wrong and inappropriate data so that wrong results are produces,
etc.

User training:
Once a new system is put in place, existing employees are trained on how to
operate the new system, otherwise new employees are recruited. User training
can be in the following forms:
i. On the job training: Users are trained at their organisation by hired trainers.
This has the following advantages:
 Learners practice with actual equipment and the environment of the job.
 Learners can engage in productive practices while on training.
 This is cheaper for the organisation.
 Enough practice is gained on how to operate the system.

Disadvantages of on the job training

 Distractions occur in a noisy office.
 Instructional methods are often poor.
 The need to keep up output may lead to hasty teaching

ii. Classroom training: Users are send to other colleges and institutions which
offer courses on the subject matter. This could be expensive to organisations
since employees take study leave while being paid at the same time. Employees
can also be trained on aspects that they will not apply when they finish the
course. The gap between what is learnt and what is needed at the job may be too
wide.

Considerations when training users:

1. All staff need training that is relevant to their work using the computers.
However, others may find it difficult to learn the new system and may
resist.
2. Age problem of trainees-older workers takes long to conceptualise concepts
3. Reluctance of employees to learn (use new system)
4. Computer based system means training on the computer
5. Regular updates means new training each time an upgrade is made
6. The type of training should be chosen carefully as it is important
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7. Course type with trainer
o It may restrict learning times
o Can be intimidating to other employees
o Difficult to satisfy all trainees’ demands
o Gives human contact

CONSIDERATIONS FOR CHOOSING A SOFTWARE SOLUTION

1. Usability: A system should be user friendly, cut time and have fewer stages in
performing a task. Users do not need to consult user manuals all the time the
use a system.
2. Performance: the system must work in the way intended for and must be
reliable (giving few or no errors). It must also be faster in performance, i.e. in
processing, displaying records, searching records, etc.
3. Suitability: The system should be the real solution to the problem, not that
it’s the cheapest, the available one, etc. It must also be able to integrate with
the existing software in the organisation.
4. Maintainability: The system must be easy to upgrade, add new functionality
and to make modifications where necessary.

NB

Drawbacks of the SDLC.

- User dissatisfaction. SDLC assumes that the user already knows all their
requirements thus the analysts expect the users to tell them their
requirements and once documented the requirements should remain
unchanged, thus they develop the system with these requirements only to
find that when the system is implemented, it does not provide for their
need or their changed requirements, hence they become dissatisfied with
the system.
- Failure to meet the needs of the management in that the systems
developed with the approach are mainly operational processing systems
such as payroll, invoicing which deals with low level operational tasks, thus
ignoring the information needs of the tactical and top management, that
they require to make decisions e.g. which products to stop selling etc.
- Unambitious system design, in that the systems developed by this
approach often tend to computerize the manual operational tasks like
invoicing, thus they tend to come up with systems design that is similar to
the existing manual process.
- Application backlog, this approach has many phases with sub phases, It
may take many weeks to complete a phase, thus the overall development
time of a single project may be months and if there are other system
waiting to be developed using this process, it may cause a backlog.

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- Maintenance workload since the firm may have many systems to develop,
the development is often quick and ‘dirty’ so as to make the delivery date,
thus brings about systems which take a huge effort to maintain.
- Problems with documentation, this approach provides for
documentation of the implementation process which is very ideal, but the
notation of the documentation is towards the computer person in that the
documentation is highly technical and not easy to understand by the user.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. (a) (i) Describe a command-line computer intrerface [2]

(ii) State an application for which a command-line interface would be

suitable. Justify your choice [2]

(b) (i) Describe a form-based Computer Interface [2]

(ii) State an application for which a form-based interface would be suitable.

Justify your choice [2]

2. The offices of a government department deals with local taxes in a city. It is

decided to develop new software for dealing with the calculation of tax bulls.
A systems analyst is employed to develop the software.

(a) Explain why care must be taken in defining the problem to be solved [2]
(b) State the methods that the systems analyst can use to find out more
information about the problem, giving an advantage of each. [4]
(c) Explain the importance of evaluating the system against the original
specifications. [2]

3. Explain what is meant by:

(a) Alpha testing, black-box testing, white-box testing, beta testing [8]
(b) Adaptive maintenance, Corrective maintenance, Perfective
maintenance and preventive maintenance [8]

4. The analyst needs to collect information about the current system. State
one advantage and one disadvantage of each of the following methods of
information collection.

(a) Questionnaires
(b) Interviews
(c) Document Collection
(d) Observation [8]

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5. (a) The analyst has to decide whether to use off-the-shelf or custom –
written software. Explain what is meant by:

(i) Off-the-shelf-software
(ii) Custom written software [2]

(c) List three advantages and one advantage of using off-the-shelf software
rather than custom-written software [4]

6. (a) What is meant by

i. User documentation
ii. Technical documentation [2]

(b) State two items of documentation which would be included in each of

the following:

i. User documentation

ii. Technical documentation [4]

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