(location in booklet) Extra notes

Formula
Context: The situation that this formula is describing.

x = A variable (units the variable is measured in) in the formula.

y = A variable (units the variable is measured in) in the formula.

z = A variable (units the variable is measured in) in the formula.

k = A constant in the formula.

 Table of Contents
Kinematics Circular Motion

Heat Gravity

Gases Nuclear Reactions

Waves & Springs Other Energy Stuff

Electricity & Magnetism Astrophysics

Kinematics
(page 5 of booklet)
(page 5 1.3)

AH = Acosθ
Context: A vector (such as a velocity or force) is acting on an
object in a direction diagonal to some reference line.

AH = Component (amount) of the vector that is directed parallel to the line. Remember that
cosθ is for the side adjacent to the angle (the ‘A’ in “CAH”).

A = Magnitude of the diagonal vector.

θ = Angle between the vector and the line.

(page 5 1.3)

AV = Asinθ
Context: A vector (such as a velocity or force) is acting on an
object in a direction diagonal to some reference line.

AV = Component (amount) of the vector that is directed perpendicular to the line. Remember
that sinθ is for the side opposite of the angle (the ‘O’ in “SOH”).

A = Magnitude of the diagonal vector.

θ = Angle between the vector and the line.

(not in booklet)

A = AHcosθ + AVsinθ
Context: A vector (such as a velocity or force) is acting on an
object in a direction diagonal to some reference line.

AH = Component (amount) of the vector that is directed parallel to the line.

AV = Component (amount) of the vector that is directed perpendicular to the line.

A = Magnitude of the vector.

θ = Angle between the vector and the line.

(page 5 2.1)

v = u + at
Context: An object is moving in a frictionless environment
(“Physicsland”)

v = Final velocity (ms-1) of the object.

u = Initial velocity (ms-1) of the object.

a = Acceleration (ms-2) of the object. Usually -g if the movement is vertical and 0 if the
movement is horizontal.

t = Time (s) since the start of the timeframe we’re considering.

(page 5 2.1)
1 2
s = ut + –at
2
Context: An object is moving in a frictionless environment
(“Physicsland”)

s = Displacement (m) of the object.

u = Initial velocity (ms-1) of the object.

a = Acceleration (ms-2) of the object. Usually -g if the movement is vertical and 0 if the
movement is horizontal.

t = Time (s) since the start of the timeframe we’re considering.

(page 5 2.1)

v2 = u2 + 2as
Context: An object is moving in a frictionless environment
(“Physicsland”)

v = Final velocity (ms-1) of the object.

u = Initial velocity (ms-1) of the object.

a = Acceleration (ms-2) of the object. Usually -g if the movement is vertical and 0 if the
movement is horizontal.

s = Displacement (m) of the object.

(page 5 2.1)
(v + u)t
s = —— 2
Context: An object is moving in a frictionless environment
(“Physicsland”)

s = Displacement (m) of the object.

v = Final velocity (ms-1) of the object.

u = Initial velocity (ms-1) of the object.

t = Time (s) since the start of the timeframe we’re considering.

(page 5 2.2)

F = ma
Context: Forces are acting on an object.

F = One particular force (N) acting on the object.

m = Mass (kg) of the object.

a = Acceleration (ms-2) that the object would experience if this force were the only one acting
on it.
(not in booklet) (Σ = “net” = “sum of all of them”)

ΣF = ma
Context: Forces are acting on an object.

ΣF = Net force (N) acting on the object. Also called “resultant force” or “total force.”

m = Mass (kg) of the object.

a = Acceleration (ms-2) that the object actually experiences.

(not in booklet)

F = μs R
Context: An object is stationary on a surface when a force
attempts to move it. (You probably don’t need this one.)

F = Minimum force (N) required to make the object start moving (amount of force required
to overcome the force of static friction). If the force acting on the object is any weaker than
this number, the force of static friction will match its strength and cancel it out.

μs = Coefficient of static friction (different for every surface, but constant for any particular surface).

R = Normal force (N), which is equal to the object’s weight if the surface is flat and equal to
cosθ times the object’s weight if the surface is angled.
(page 5 2.2)

Ff = μ d R
Context: An object is moving on a surface, and friction is opposing
its motion.

Ff = Force (N) of friction.

μd = Coefficient of dynamic friction (different for every surface, but constant for any particular surface).

R = Normal force (N), which is equal to the object’s weight if the surface is flat and equal to
cosθ times the object’s weight if the surface is angled.
(page 5 2.3)

W = Fscosθ
Context: A force moves an object through a distance.

W = Work (J) done by the force on the object.

F = Force (N) moving the object.

s = Distance (m) the object has travelled.

θ = Angle between the direction of the force and the direction of the object’s motion. If the
object is moving in the same direction as the force, cosθ = 1 so this variable is moot.
(not in booklet) “Work-Energy Theorem”

ΣW =
Context: One or more forcesΔE
movekan object through a distance.

ΣW = Net work (J) done on the object.

ΔEk = Change in kinetic energy (J) of the object, or the amount of kinetic energy that the
object gained or lost.
(not in booklet)

W = mgΔh
Context: A force lifts an object vertically upward.

W = Work (J) done by the force on the object.

m = Mass (kg) of the object.

g = Magnitude of acceleration (ms-2) of gravity (9.81 on Earth)

Δh = Vertical distance (m) that the object travelled.

(page 5 2.3)

Ek = –mv2 1
2
Context: An object exists.

Ek = Kinetic energy (J) of the object.

m = Mass (kg) of the object.

v = Velocity (ms-1) of the object.

(page 5 2.3)
Ep = mgh
Context: An object is above ground level.

Ep = Potential energy (J) of the object.

m = Mass (kg) of the object.

g = Magnitude of acceleration (ms-2) of gravity (9.81 on Earth)

h = Distance (m) between the bottom of the object and the surface of the body whose gravity
is pulling it.
(not in booklet)
ΔE
P= ––
Δt
Context: Something is gaining, losing, transferring, or emitting
energy.

P = Power (W).

ΔE = Amount of energy (J) that something is gaining, losing, transferring, or emitting.

Δt = Amount of time (s) that this energy change takes to occur.

(page 5 2.4)

p = mv
Context: An object exists.

p = Momentum (Ns) of the object.

m = Mass (m) of the object.

v = Velocity (ms-1) of the object.

(not in booklet) “Conservation of Momentum”

∑p1 = ∑p2
***Remember that momentum is a vector, meaning
that if two objects are moving in opposite directions,
one of them will have a negative momentum.

Context: A collision, launch, or explosion has occurred in a

closed system.

∑p1 = Sum of the momentums (Ns) of every object (or group of touching objects) in the
closed system before the event.

∑p2 = Sum of the momentums (Ns) of every object (or group of touching objects) in the
closed system after the event.
(page 5 2.4)
Δp
F= ––
Δt
Context: A force is acting on an object.

F = Force (N) acting on the object.

Δp = Change in momentum (Ns) that the object experiences. Also called “impulse.”

Δt = Amount of time (s) that this momentum change takes to occur.

(page 5 2.4)
p2
Ek = ––
2m
Context: An object exists.

Ek = Kinetic energy (J) of the object.

p = Momentum (Ns) of the object.

m = Mass (kg) of the object.

 ***Impulse is always positive (assuming you
(page 5 2.4) made the earliest velocity the positive one). If you

Δp = FΔt
get a negative answer, you forgot the negative
sign on the object’s velocity when it switches
direction.

Context: A force acts on an object for a certain amount of time.

Δp = Change in momentum (Ns) that the object experiences. Also called “impulse.”

F = Force (N) that acts on the object. If the force changes, this is the average amount of force.

Δt = Amount of time (s) that the force acts on the object for.
 No negative numbers should
(not in booklet) appear in this equation.

g(m2 - m1) = a(m1 + m2)

The directions of all
accelerations are irrelevant.

Context: Two objects are connected by a string on a frictionless pulley.

One object is rising, and the other is falling.

g = Magnitude of the acceleration (ms-2) of gravity (9.81 on Earth).

m1 = Mass (kg) of the lighter object (the one that is rising).

m2 = Mass (kg) of the heavier object (the one that is falling).

a = Magnitude of the acceleration (ms-2) with which the heavier object is falling and the lighter
object is rising (their accelerations have the same magnitude).
 Heat
(page 6 of booklet)
(page 6 3.1)

Q = mcΔT
Context: Thermal energy enters or leaves a material.

Q = Thermal energy (J) that the material gains (positive Q) or loses (negative Q).

m = Mass (kg) of the material.

c = Specific heat capacity (Jkg-1K-1) of the material, or the amount of thermal energy required to increase
the temperature of 1kg of it by 1K (constant for a particular material in a particular state of matter).

ΔT = Change in temperature (K) of the material.

(page 6 3.1)

Q = mL
Context: Thermal energy enters a solid that is at its melting point
or leaves a liquid that is at its freezing point.

Q = Thermal energy (J) that the solid must gain (positive Q) in order to fully melt / that the
liquid must lose (negative Q) in order to fully freeze.

m = Mass (kg) of the material.

L = Latent heat of fusion (Jkg-1) of the material, or the amount of thermal energy required to
melt or freeze 1kg of it (constant for a particular material).
(page 6 3.1)

Q = mL
Context: Thermal energy enters a liquid that is at its boiling point
or leaves a gas that is at its condensation point.

Q = Thermal energy (J) that the liquid must gain (positive Q) in order to fully evaporate / that
the gas must lose (negative Q) in order to fully condense.

m = Mass (kg) of the material.

L = Latent heat of vaporization (Jkg-1) of the material, or the amount of thermal energy
required to vaporize or condense 1kg of it (constant for a particular material).
 Gases
(page 6 of booklet)
(page 6 3.2)
F
p= ––
A
Context: Gas is trapped inside a sealed container.

p = Pressure (Pa) of the gas.

F = Force (F) that the gas exerts on a particular area of the walls of its container.

A = Area (m2) that the gas pushes against.

(page 6 3.2)
N
n= ––
NA
Context: A material exists.

n = Quantity (mol) of the material.

N = Number of molecules in the material (or number of atoms if it is monoatomic).

NA = 6.02 x 1023 mol-1 (things per mole)

(page 6 3.2)

pV = nRT
Context: An ideal gas is trapped inside a sealed container.

p = Pressure (Pa) of the gas. *An ideal gas is a theoretical type of gas for which
the following four things are true:
1. The gas’ molecules are perfect spheres.
2. The gas’ molecules are perfectly elastic
V = Volume (m3) that the gas occupies. (they don’t lose kinetic energy when they
collide with things)
3. The gas’ potential energy is constant
n = Quantity (mol) of gas. (there are no intermolecular forces.
4. The volume that the gas occupies is much
smaller than its container.
T = Temperature (K) of the gas. High pressure and low temperature make gases
behave less like an ideal gas. Therefore, this
equation is less accurate at high pressure and
low temperature.
R = 8.31 JK-1mol-1
(page 6 3.2)

Ek = –kBT 3
2
Context: A gas exists.

Ek = Average kinetic energy (J) of a single molecule of the gas (to find the kinetic energy of
the gas as a whole, multiply by the number of molecules in the gas).

T = Temperature (K) of the gas.

kB = 1.38 x 10-23 JK-1

Waves & Springs
(page 6 of booklet)
(page 6 4.1)

T = –1f
Context: A wave or spring is oscillating.

T = Period (s) of the oscillation (how many seconds it takes to return to the same point, going
in the same direction).

f = Frequency (s-1) of the oscillation (how many complete oscillations it makes in one second).
(not in booklet)

v = fλ
Context: A wave exists.

v = Velocity (ms-1) of the wave.

f = Frequency (s-1) of the wave.

λ = Wavelength (m) of the wave.

(not in booklet)
P
I = 4𝜋x
–– 2

Context: An object is emitting light or sound in all directions. The collection of points in space
where the waves have spread out the same amount forms the surface of an imaginary sphere.

I = Intensity (Wm-2) of every wave at the same distance away from the source (how much
power they carry after being spread out a certain amount).

P = Power (W) that the source itself is emitting.

x = Distance (m) between the source and the waves we’re considering.
(page 6 4.3)

I ∝ x-2
Context: An object is emitting light or sound in all directions. The collection of points in space
where the waves have spread out the same amount forms the surface of an imaginary sphere.

I = Intensity (Wm-2) of every wave at the same distance away from the source (how much
power they carry after being spread out a certain amount).

x = Distance (m) between the source and the waves we’re considering.
(page 6 4.3)

I ∝ A2
Context: Light or sound travelling in the same direction is being
spread out over an area.

I = Intensity (Wm-2) of the waves.

A = Amplitude (m) of the waves. For a transverse wave (such as light), this is the distance
between the center of the wave and the farthest outward it reaches in any direction
perpendicular to the direction it is travelling. For a longitudinal wave (such as sound), this is
the distance between the particles of the medium in the most compressed area of the wave
(how much the wave is able to compress its medium).
(Not in booklet)
1
I = –I 2 0
Context: Light that is unpolarized is passing through a filter
for the first time. The orientation of the filter does not matter.

I = Intensity (Wm-2) of the light after it passes through the filter.

I0 = Intensity (Wm-2) of the light right before it passes through the filter.
(page 6 4.3)

I = I0cos2θ
Context: Light that has already passed through a polarizing
filter now passes through a second polarizing filter.

I = Intensity (Wm-2) of the light after it passes through the second filter.

I0 = Intensity (Wm-2) of the light right before it passes through the second filter.

θ = The angle that the second filter is rotated relative to the first filter. If the two filters are
oriented the same way (or the same way plus any number of 180° turns), the intensity is not
changed at all because cos2(n𝜋) = 1. If the second filter is rotated 90° relative to the first filter
(or 90° plus any number of 180° turns), no light escapes the second filter at all because
cos2(n𝜋/2) = 0.
(page 6 4.4)
n1 sinθ2 v2
—
n2 = –––
sinθ1 = —
v1
Context: Light or sound crosses the boundary
between two mediums.

n = Refractive index (unitless) of a particular medium. A denser

medium will have a higher refractive index, and the refractive
index of a perfect vacuum is 1. θ1

θ = Angle between the direction the wave is traveling and the

θ2
normal (an imaginary line perpendicular to the boundary
between the mediums).

v = Velocity (ms-1) of the wave.

(page 6 4.4)
λD
s=—d
Context: Light or sound passes through two separate slits in a wall,
causing it to diffract. After passing through the wall with the slits,
it eventually hits a screen.

s = Fringe separation (m) of the waves on the screen, or the amount that diffraction has
caused the waves to spread out by the time they hit the screen.

λ = Wavelength (m) of the waves.

D = Distance (m) between the wall with the slits and the screen.

d = Distance (m) between the two slits on the wall.

(not in booklet)
4L
λ= ——––
(nn+ na - 1)
Context: A standing wave exists.

λ = Wavelength (m) of the standing wave.

L = Length (m) of the medium or container of the standing wave (such as a string or pipe).

nn = Number of nodes (stationary points) in the standing wave.

na = Number of antinodes (max amplitude points) in the standing wave.

(not in booklet)

F = -kx
Context: A spring is stretched or compressed.

F = Force (N) required to stretch or compress the spring.

k = Spring constant (Nm-1) of the spring, or the force required to stretch or compress it by
one meter. This is different for every spring but constant for any particular spring.

x = Distance (m) that the spring is being stretched or compressed.

(page 5 2.3)
1
Ep = –kx2 2
Context: A spring has been stretched or compressed and has not
yet returned to its equilibrium length.

Ep = Elastic potential energy (J) stored in the spring.

k = Spring constant (Nm-1) of the spring, or the force required to stretch or compress it by
one meter. This is different for every spring but constant for any particular spring.

x = Difference in length (m) between the spring’s equilibrium length its current length.
Electricity & Magnetism
(page 7 of booklet)
(page 7 5.1)
Δq
I= —
Δt
Context: Current is flowing through a wire.

I = Current (A) flowing through the wire.

Δq = Amount of charge (C) that passes through a particular point in the wire. To convert this
to the number of electrons, divide by the charge of a single electron (1.6 x 10-19 C)

Δt = Amount of time (s) that the amount of charge took to pass through the point in the wire.
(page 7 5.1) “Coulomb’s Law”
q1q
F= k–––
r22
Context: Two charges exist.

F = Force that each charge is exerting on the other (repulsive if positive, attractive if negative).

q1 = Electric charge (C) of the first charge.

q2 = Electric charge (C) of the second charge.

r = Distance (m) between the charges.

k = 8.99 x 109 Nm2C-2

(page 7 5.1)
W
V= —
q
Context: A charge is moved by an electric current.

V = Difference in voltage (V) between where the charge ended and where it started.

W = Work (J) done by the current.

q = Electric charge (C) of the charge.

(page 7 5.1)
F
E= —
q
Context: A charge exists in an electric field.

E = Electric field strength (NC-1) of the electric field the charge is in.

F = Force (N) exerted on the charge by the source of the electric field.

q = Electric charge (C) of the charge that is being influenced by the electric field, not the
charge of the source of the field.
(page 7 5.1)

I = nAvq
Context: Current is flowing through a wire.

I = Current (A) flowing through through the wire.

n = Number of electrons in one cubic meter of the wire. Also called “number of free charge
carriers per unit volume.”

A = Cross-sectional area (m2) of the wire, or how thick or thin it is.

v = Drift velocity (ms-1) of the electrons (or “free charge carriers”) in the wire.

q = Charge of an electron (1.6 x 10-19 C)

(page 7 5.3)

ε = I(R + r)
Context: Electricity is flowing through an electric circuit that is
powered by a battery with notable internal resistance.

ε = Electromotive force (V) of the battery, or what the voltage of the circuit would be if the battery
had no internal resistance.

I = Current (A) flowing through every wire in the circuit that electricity must flow through (every
wire except the ones in parallel).

R = Total resistance (Ω) of all the resistors (as in physical objects attached to the circuit) in the
circuit.

r = Internal resistance (Ω) of the battery cell, which acts like an additional resistor with a voltage
drop of the difference between ε and the V in “V=IR”.
(not in booklet)

V = IR
Context: Electricity is flowing through an electric circuit.

V = Voltage (V) of the circuit as a whole, or the difference in potential between the start of
the circuit and the end of the circuit (does not include the interior of the battery).

I = Current (A) flowing through every wire that electricity must flow through (every wire
except the ones in parallel).

R = Sum of the resistances (Ω) of 1. Every resistor that electricity must pass through to get to
the end of the circuit and 2. The resistances of every group of “branches” that lie between the
same two intersections.
(not in booklet)

V = IR
Context: Electricity is flowing through a particular “branch” or
“path” in a circuit that lies between two intersections.

V = Voltage (V) of the branch, or the difference in potential between the start of the branch
and the end of the branch. Equal to the voltage of the original wire that the branch stems from.

I = Total current (A) flowing through this branch (the amount of current that enters it from
one intersection and exits it at the other intersection). Not equal to the current of the
original wire that the branch stems from.

R = Sum of the resistances (Ω) of 1. Every resistor that electricity must pass through to get to the
end of the branch and 2. The resistances of every group of “branches” that lie between the same
two intersections (these must be additional intersections inside of the branch, not the intersections
that define the edges of the branch).
(not in booklet)

V = IR
Electricity is flowing through a particular resistor.

V = Voltage drop (V) of the resistor, or the difference in potential between the point
immediately before the resistor and the point immediately after the resistor. Can be thought of
as the amount of voltage that the resistor “takes” when current passes through it.

I = Current (A) flowing through the resistor (current in the wire that the resistor lies on).

R = Resistance (Ω) of the resistor.

(page 7 5.2)
V2
P = VI = I2R = —
R
Context: A circuit is consuming power from a battery or external
energy source.

P = Power consumed (W) by the circuit (the amount of energy that leaves the power source and
enters the wires of the circuit every second). By the end of the circuit, all of this energy will have
been converted from electrical energy to some other form of energy.

V = Voltage (V) of the circuit (difference in the voltages of the first and last wires of the circuit).

I = Current (A) of the circuit (current in the first and last wires of the circuit).

R = Total resistance (Ω) of the circuit (Combined resistance of all the physical resistors attached to
the circuit).
(page 7 5.2)
V2
P = VI = I2R = —
R
Context: A circuit is consuming power from a battery or external energy source
and the rest of the circuit is only resistors (as opposed to motors, lights, etc. that can
convert energy to anything other than heat).

P = Total power dissipated as heat (W) throughout the circuit.

V = Voltage (V) of the circuit (difference in the voltages of the first and last wires of the circuit).

I = Current (A) of the circuit (current in the first and last wires of the circuit).

R = Total resistance (Ω) of the circuit (Combined resistance of all the physical resistors attached to
the circuit).
(page 7 5.2)
V2
P = VI = I2R = —
R
Context: A particular resistor is part of an electric circuit.

P = Power dissipated as heat (W) by this particular resistor.

V = Difference in voltage (V) between the wire immediately before the resistor and the wire
immediately after the resistor. Also called the “voltage drop” of the resistor.

I = Current (A) passing through the resistor (the current of the wire the resistor lies on).

R = Resistance (Ω) of the resistor.

(page 7 5.2) Resistors “in series”

R = R1 + R2 + …
Context: Multiple resistors lie on the same wire in an electric circuit.

R = Total resistance (Ω) of the wire as a whole.

Rn = Resistance (Ω) of a particular resistor on the wire.

(page 7 5.2) Resistors “in parallel”

R = ( –R1 1 + –R1 2 + …)-1

Context: A wire in an electric circuit has split into multiple
“branches” that all lie between the same two intersections.

R = Total resistance (Ω) of the group of branches as a whole, essentially acting as one giant
resistor with this much resistance.

Rn = Total resistance (Ω) of a particular branch.

(page 7 5.2)

𝜌= RA
—L
Context: Electricity is flowing through a wire.

𝜌 = Resistivity (Ωm), meaning how difficult it is for electricity to flow through the wire itself.

R = Total resistance of the resistors (as in physical objects attached to the circuit) of the circuit
that the wire is part of.

A = Cross-sectional area (m2) of the wire, meaning how thick it is.

L = Length (m) of the wire.

(page 7 5.4)

F = qvBsinθ
Context: A charged particle is moving in a
magnetic field.

F = Force (N) exerted on the charge by the magnetic field.

q = Electric charge (C) of the charged particle.

v = Velocity (ms-1) of the charged particle.

B = Magnetic field strength (T) of the magnetic field. Also called “magnetic flux density.”

θ = (90° unless specified otherwise) Angle between the direction that the charged particle is
moving and the direction of the magnetic field. Magnetic fields are always directed from the North
Pole (negative) to the South Pole (positive).
(page 7 5.4)

F = BILsinθ
Context: Current is flowing through a
wire that is in a magnetic field.

F = Force (N) being exerted on the wire by the magnetic field.

B = Magnetic field strength (T) of the magnetic field. Also called “magnetic flux density.”

I = Current (A) flowing through the wire.

L = Length (m) of the wire.

θ = (90° unless specified otherwise) Angle between the direction that the current is flowing and the
direction of the magnetic field. Magnetic fields are always directed from the North Pole (negative)
to the South Pole (positive).
Circular Motion
(page 7 of booklet)
(page 7 6.1)

v = ωr
Context: An object is moving in a circle.

v = Velocity (ms-1) of the object.

ω = Angular velocity (rads-1) of the object (2𝜋 rads-1 would be one full circle every second).

r = Radius (m) of the imaginary circle that the object’s path is tracing.
(page 7 6.1)
v2 4𝜋2r
a= —
r = —–
T2
Context: An object is moving in a circle.

a = Acceleration (ms-2) that the object is experiencing (this type of acceleration does not
change the object’s speed–only the object’s direction).

v = Velocity (ms-1) of the object.

r = Radius (m) of the imaginary circle that the object’s path is tracing.

T = Period (s) of the object’s movement (how many seconds it takes to trace a full circle).
(page 7 6.1)
mv2
ΣF = ––
r = mω2r
Context: An object is moving in a circle.

ΣF = Net force (N) acting on the object (always directed toward the center of the circle). Also
called “centripetal force.”

m = Mass (kg) of the object.

v = Velocity (ms-1) of the object.

r = Radius (m) of the imaginary circle that the object’s path is tracing.

ω = Angular velocity (rads-1) of the object (2𝜋 rads-1 would be one full circle every second).
 Gravity
(page 7 of booklet)
(page 7 6.2)
Mm
F = G–––
r2
Context: Two objects exist.

F = Force (N) that each object is exerting on the other (attractive).

M = Mass (kg) of the more massive object.

m = Mass (kg) of the less massive object.

r = Distance (m) between the centers of the two objects.

G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2

(page 7 6.2)
F
g= —
m
Context: Two objects exist.

g = Acceleration (ms-2) that the less massive object will experience toward the more massive
object if no other forces are acting on the less massive object.

F = Force (N) that each object is exerting on the other (attractive).

m = Mass (kg) of the less massive object.

(page 7 6.2)
M
g = G—
r2
Context: Two objects exist.

g = Acceleration (ms-2) that the less massive object will experience toward the more massive
object if no other forces are acting on the less massive object.

M = Mass (kg) of the more massive object.

r = Distance (m) between the centers of the two objects.

G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2

(not in booklet) “Kepler’s Law”
4𝜋2r3
T2 = —–
GM
Context: Two objects exist, and the less massive one is orbiting
the more massive one.

T = Orbital period (s) of the less massive object (how many seconds it takes to fully orbit the
more massive object once).

r = Distance (m) between the centers of the two objects.

M = Mass (kg) of the more massive object.

G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2

Nuclear Reactions
(page 7 of booklet)
(page 8 7.1)

E = hf
Context: A photon exists.

E = Energy (J) of the photon.

f = Frequency (s-1) of the photon as light.

h = 6.63 x 10-34 Js
(page 8 7.1)

E = hf
Context: An electron “falls” from a higher energy level to a lower
energy level, emitting a photon of light.

E = Difference in energy (J) between the two energy levels / Energy of the emitted photon.

f = Frequency (s-1) of the emitted photon as light.

h = 6.63 x 10-34 Js
(page 8 7.1)
hc
λ= ––
E
Context: An electron “falls” from a higher energy level to a lower
energy level, emitting a photon of light.

λ = Wavelength (m) of the emitted photon as light.

E = Difference in energy (J) between the two energy levels / Energy of the emitted photon.

h = 6.63 x 10-34 Js

c = 3 x 108 ms-1
(page 8 7.2) 1 MeV = 1.6 x 10-13 J
1u = 1.661 x 10-27 kg
E = mc2
Context: An atomic nucleus exists.

E = Binding energy (J) of the nucleus, or how much energy would be required to remove one
of its nucleons (a proton or neutron).

m = Mass (kg) of the nucleus.

c = 3 x 108 ms-1
 Elements lighter than iron produce energy
(page 8 7.2) through fusion and absorb energy through
fission.

ΔE = Δmc2
Elements heavier than iron produce energy
through fission and absorb energy through
fusion.

Context: An atomic nucleus breaks via nuclear fission or an atomic

nucleus is formed via nuclear fusion.

ΔE = Energy (J) released (if negative) or absorbed (if positive) by the reaction. Energy
absorption is rarer than energy release because absorption must be able to take energy from
something else.

Δm = Mass defect (kg) of the reaction, or the difference in mass between the product(s) of
the reaction and the reactant(s) of the reaction.

c = 3 x 108 ms-1
(not in booklet) *If a measured activity level is given,
Δt remember to subtract the
1 ––
A = A (–) 0 2
T background activity of the
environment in order to find the
activity of the sample itself.

Context: A sample of radioactive material is emitting radiation.

A = Current activity (Bq) of the sample, or the number of nuclei that decay in one second.

A0 = Initial activity (Bq) of the sample.

Δt = Time (s) that has passed since measuring the initial activity of the sample.

T = Half life (s) of the sample, or the number of seconds it takes for half of it to decay.
Other Energy Stuff
(page 7 of booklet)
(page 8 8.1)

P = –A𝜌v
1 3
2
Context: A wind turbine produces power.

P = Power (W) produced by the wind turbine.

A = Area (m2) of the imaginary circle that the wind turbine’s blades sweep.

𝜌 = Current air density (kgm-3).

v = Current wind speed (ms-1).

(page 8 8.2)

P = eσAT4
Context: A black body is radiating heat.

P = Thermal power (W) emitted by the surface of the black body.

e = Emissivity (unitless) of the black body, or its ability to emit infrared radiation.

A = Surface area (m2) of the black body.

T = Surface temperature (K) of the black body. Also called “absolute temperature.”

σ = 5.67 x 10-8 Wm-2K-4

(page 8 8.2)
2.9x10-3
λmax = ——
T
Context: A black body is emitting radiation.

λmax = Wavelength (m) of radiation that is most prominently emitted by the black body.
Also called “black-body radiation” and is usually infrared.

T = Surface temperature (K) of the black body. Also called “absolute temperature.”
(page 8 8.2)
Ps
albedo = —
Pi
Context: Light is striking the surface of an object.

albedo = Proportion (unitless) of light that is reflected by the surface.

Ps = Power (W) being reflected (or “scattered”) by the surface.

Pi = Power (W) originally striking (or “incident on”) the surface.

Astrophysics
(page 14 of booklet)
(page 14 D.1)
1
d= —
p
1 AU

Context: A star is observed once in winter and once in

summer, when the Earth is on opposite sides of the Sun. The
star looks like it has changed location because of parallax.

d = Distance (pc) between the Sun and the observed star. A parsec is 3.26 light years, or
3.26 x 9.46 x 1015 m.

p = Parallax angle (arcseconds), or half of the difference in viewing angle between our
observation of the star in winter and our observation of the star in summer. An arcsecond is
1/3600 of a degree.
(page 14 D.1)

L = σAT4
Context: A star is emitting energy.

L = Luminosity (W) of the star, or the total amount of energy that leaves it in one second.

A = Surface area (m2) of the star. Remember that the surface area of a sphere is 4𝜋r2.

T = Surface temperature (K) of the star. Also called “absolute temperature.”

σ = 5.67 x 10-8 Wm-2K-4

(page 14 D.1)
L
b= —–
4𝜋d2
Context: Energy emitted by a star is reaching us on Earth.

b = Brightness (Wm-2) of the star, or the amount of energy emitted by it that hits one square
meter of Earth in one second. Also called “apparent brightness.”

L = Luminosity (W) of the star, or the amount of energy that it emits in the first place every
second.

d = Distance (m) between the star and Earth.

(page 14 D.2)

λmaxT = 2.9x10-3
Context: A star is emitting light.

λmax = Wavelength (m) that is most prominent in the star’s light. For our sun, this is 500nm,
or a yellow color.

T = Surface temperature (K) of the star. Also called “absolute temperature.”

(page 14 D.2)

L ∝ M3.5
Context: A star is emitting energy.

L = Luminosity (W) of the star, or the total amount of energy that leaves it in one second.

M = Mass (kg) of the star.

(page 14 D.3)
Δλ v
z= —
λ0 = –c
Context: Light produced by a celestial object reaches us on Earth.

z = Redshift, or the amount that the light produced by the object looks more “red” to us.

Δλ = Difference in wavelength (m) between the light emitted by the object and the light we received on
Earth. We can determine this by measuring the wavelength of a replica of the original source here on
Earth, where no redshift occurs.

λ0 = Wavelength (m) of the light emitted by the object.

v = Velocity (ms-1) at which the object is moving away from Earth due to the expansion of all the
empty space in the universe.

c = 3 x 108 ms-1
(page 14 D.3)
R
z= —
R0 -1
Context: Light produced by a celestial object reaches us on Earth.

z = Redshift, or the amount that light from distant celestial objects is turned more red by the
expansion of all the empty space in the universe.

R
—R = Current size of the universe, relative to what the size of the universe was when the
0

celestial object emitted the light. Also called the “cosmic scale factor” and is always
more than 1 because the universe is expanding.
(page 14 D.3)

v = H0d
Context: A celestial object is moving away from Earth.

v = Velocity (ms-1) at which the celestial object is moving away from Earth due to the
expansion of all the empty space in the universe.

H0 = Hubble constant.

d = Distance between the celestial object and Earth.

(page 14 D.3)
1
T≈—
H0
Context: The universe.

T = Age (s) of the universe.

H0 = Hubble constant.