11-01-2025

ME3115D-Forming Technology
(S6PE)

Lectures_05-08
Elastic Behaviour of Materials

Tensile Properties

1
 11-01-2025

Tensile Properties

(1) Beginning of test, no load;

(2) Uniform elongation
and reduction of
cross-sectional area;
(3) Continued elongation,
maximum load reached;
(4) Necking begins, load
begins to decrease; and
(5) Fracture. If pieces are
put back together as in,
(6) Final length can be
measured.
3

Tensile
Properties

2
 11-01-2025

Engineering Stress–Strain

• The stress–strain relationship in has two

regions, indicating two distinct forms of
behavior:
• Elastic and (2) Plastic.
• In the elastic region, the relationship
between stress and strain is linear, and
• The material exhibits elastic behavior by
returning to its original length when the
load (stress) is released.

Yield Point / Yield strength / Elastic Limit

• The yield point Y can be identified by

the change in slope at the end of the
linear region.
• As it is difficult to see the start of
yielding in a plot of test data, Y is taken
as the point where the stress–strain
curve intersects a line that is parallel to
the straight portion of the curve but
offset by a strain of 0.2%.

3
 11-01-2025

Tensile Strength (TS)

• The applied load F reaches a maximum
value, and the engineering stress
calculated at this point is called the
tensile strength or ultimate tensile
strength of the material.
• It is denoted as TS where TS=Fmax/Ao.
• TS and Y are important strength
properties in design calculations.
• The stress calculated immediately before
failure is known as the fracture stress.

Engineering Stress–Strain

𝐹
Engineering stress 𝜎 = 𝐴

∆𝐿
Engineering strain 𝜀 = 𝐿

4
 11-01-2025

True Stress–Strain
• True strain provides a more realistic assessment of the
‘‘instantaneous’’ elongation per unit length of the material.
• The value of true strain in a tensile test can be estimated by
dividing the total elongation into small increments, calculating
the engineering strain for each increment on the basis of its
starting length, and then adding up the strain values.
• In the limit, true strain is defined as

L = Instantaneous length at any moment during elongation.

9

True Stress–Strain

• For true stress-strain diagram, the actual cross-sectional area and

specimen length at the instant the load is measured.

𝐹
True stress 𝜎 = 𝐴
𝐿
True strain 𝜖 = 𝑙𝑛 𝐿

𝑑𝐿
𝜀 =
𝐿

10

5
 11-01-2025

Engineering Vs True Stress–Strain

Exercise-1

Draw Engineering and True Stress–Strain curve in the same axis for a
ductile material (e.g. steel) and indicate
1) Elastic region
2) Plastic region
3) Yield point
4) Strain hardening
5) Necking
6) True Fracture stress
7) Ultimate tensile strength

11

Engineering Vs True Stress–Strain

12

6
 11-01-2025

Engineering Vs True Stress–Strain

13

Engineering Vs True Stress–Strain

Assuming volume consistency,
𝐹 ∆𝐿
𝐴 𝐿 =AL 𝜎= 𝜀 =
𝐴 𝐿

𝐹 𝐹 𝐿 𝐿 + ∆𝐿
True stress 𝜎 = = =𝜎 =𝜎 1+𝜀
𝐴 𝐴 𝐿 𝐿

𝐿 𝐿 + ∆𝐿
True strain 𝜀 = 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛 1 + 𝜀
𝐿 𝐿

𝝈𝑻 = 𝝈 𝟏 + 𝜺
𝜺𝑻 = 𝒍𝒏 𝟏 + 𝜺
14

7
 11-01-2025

Problem-1

15

Stress–Strain diagram Mild steel

16

8
 11-01-2025

Stress–Strain diagram Medium carbon steel

Linear relationship between stress and strain within the elastic region 17

Stress–Strain diagram: Common Metals

18

9
 11-01-2025

True Stress–Strain

At necking,
ε=n

  K n

True stress–strain curve plotted on log–log scale

K : strength coefficient, MPa

n : strain hardening exponent
19

Ductility

• Ductility - the extent of plastic deformation that the material undergoes prior
to fracture.

• There are two common measures of ductility.

20

10
 11-01-2025

Categories of stress – strain relationship

(a) perfectly elastic, (b) elastic & perfectly plastic, (c) elastic and strain hardening

21

Strain Hardening

Strain hardening

Relation between true stress and true strain in the plastic region can be
expressed as is given by flow curve
K : strength coefficient, MPa
  K n n : strain hardening exponent
22

11
 11-01-2025

Strength coefficient K & Strain hardening exponent

n

Typical values of strength coefficient K and strain hardening

exponent n for selected metals.

23

Flow Stress in Metal Forming

• The flow curve describes the stress–strain relationship in the region in
which metal forming takes place.
• It indicates the flow stress of the metal—the strength property that
determines forces & power required to accomplish a forming operation.
• Flow stress is defined as the instantaneous value of stress required to
continue deforming the material— to keep the metal ‘‘flowing.’’

Yf  K n
Yf = flow stress, that is, the yield strength as a function of strain
• Factors strain rate & temperature, affect the flow stress of materials.
24

12
 11-01-2025

Average Flow Stress

The average flow stress (also called the
Mean flow stress) is the average value of
stress over the stress-strain curve from the
beginning of strain to the final (maximum)
value that occurs during deformation.

True stress σ
Average flow stress,

Yf

K
 m n
n 1 True strain ε
m

 m =Maximum Strain 25

Problem-1
The strength coefficient is 550 MPa and strain hardening exponent is
0.22 for a certain metal. During a forming operation, the final true
strain that the metal experiences is 0.85. Determine the flow stress
at this strain and the average flow stress.

Yf  K n 𝐾 = 550 𝑀𝑃𝑎

Yf
 n
K m
𝑛 = 0.22
True stress σ

n 1 𝜀 = 0.85

 m =Maximum Strain

m
True strain ε
26

13
 11-01-2025

Problem-2
A metal has a flow curve with parameters: strength coefficient is 850
MPa and strain-hardening exponent is 0.30. A tensile specimen of
the metal with gage length of 100 mm is stretched to a length of 157
mm. Determine the flow stress at the new length and the average
flow stress encountered.
𝐿
Yf  K n 𝐾 = 850 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝜖 = 𝑙𝑛
𝐿
Yf

K
 m n 𝑛 = 0.30
𝐿 = 157
n 1
𝐿 = 100

27

Problem-3
The strength coefficient is 241 MPa and strain hardening exponent
is 0.40 for a metal used in a forming operation in which the work
piece is reduced in cross-sectional area by stretching. If the average
flow stress on the part is 138 MPa, determine the amount of
reduction in cross-sectional area experienced by the part.

Yf K
 m n 𝐾 = 241 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝜖 = 𝑙𝑛
𝐿
𝐿
n 1 𝑛 = 0.4
𝐴 𝐿 =AL
𝑌 = 138 𝑀𝑃𝑎

28

14
 11-01-2025

Effect of temperature on K & n

• For any metal, the values of K and n depend on temperature

• Strength and strain hardening decrease with increase in temperature
29

Effect of temperature on K & n

• Ductility is increased at
higher temperatures,
allowing greater degree
of plastic deformation
• Effect of temperature is
to lower the forces and
power requirement for
forming

30

15
 11-01-2025

Effect of temperature on forming

31

Hot working
Advantages Disadvantages
• No strain hardening • Heat energy is needed
• Lesser forces are required for • Poor surface finish of material due to
deformation scaling of surface
• Greater ductility of material is available, • Poor accuracy and dimensional control
and hence more deformation possible. of parts
• Favorable grain size is obtained leading • Poor reproducibility and
to better mechanical properties of interchangeability of parts
material • Handling and maintaining of hot metal
• Equipment of lesser power is needed is difficult and troublesome
• No residual stresses in the material. • Lower life of tooling and equipment.
32

16
 11-01-2025

Cold working
Advantages Disadvantages
• No heating is required • Higher forces are required for
• Better surface finish is obtained deformation.
• Better dimensional control is achieved; • Heavier and more powerful equipment
therefore no secondary machining is is required.
generally needed. • Less ductility is available.
• Products possess better reproducibility • Metal surfaces must be clean and scale-
and interchangeablity. free.
• Better strength, fatigue, and wear • Strain hardening occurs ( may require
properties of material. intermediate annealing ).
• Directional properties can be imparted. • Undesirable residual stresses may be
• Contamination problems are negligible. produced
33

Warm working
Advantages over hot forming
• Lesser amount of heat energy
Advantages over cold forming requirement
• Better precision of components
• Lesser loads on tooling and
equipment • Lesser scaling on parts
• Greater metal ductility • Lesser decarburization of parts
• Fewer number of annealing operation • Better dimensional control
( because of less strain hardening ) • Better surface finish
• Lesser thermal shock on tooling
• Lesser thermal fatigue to tooling, and
so greater life of tooling.

34

17
 11-01-2025

Isothermal forming

• When the hot workpiece comes in contact with cold forming tool,
certain regions in workpiece cools down and regains strength.
• This results in irregular flow patterns in the metal during
deformation, leading to high residual stresses & possible surface
cracking.
• An isothermal forming operation is performed in such a way as to
eliminate surface cooling and thermal gradients in the workpart.
• This is accomplished by preheating the forming tools. This weakens
the tools and reduces tool life, but it avoids the problems caused by
thermal gradient on the workpiece.

35

Effect of temperature on forming

• Work hardening - caused by increase in dislocation density.

• At elevated temperatures - dynamic recovery or dynamic recrystallization
take place, annihilate dislocations, causing softening
• Hot working - dynamic equilibrium between the hardening processes
(dislocation generation) and the softening processes (dislocation
annihilation).
• Dynamic recovery and dynamic recrystallization require significant atomic
motion via diffusion. diffusion processes - high temperature - dependent
on the rate or time during which strain is applied.
• To account for time dependency, strain rate is defined

36

18
 11-01-2025

Strain rate Sensitivity

At hot working temperatures, flow stress depends on strain rate.
v
Strain rate,   v is speed of deformation
h h is instantaneous height of the work piece

The effect of strain rate on strength properties is known as strain rate sensitivity.

As strain rate is increased, resistance to deformation increases.

The dependence of flow stress on strain rate is given by :

C : Strain rate strength constant
fY  C  m
m : Strain rate sensitivity exponent
𝜀̇ : True strain rate

37

Strain rate Sensitivity

Y f  C  m

Strain-rate sensitivity
exponent, m is obtained
from log–log plots, provided
that the vertical and
horizontal scales are the
same

(a) Effect of strain rate on flow stress at an elevated work temperature.

(b) Same relationship plotted on log–log coordinates.
38

19
 11-01-2025

Strain rate Sensitivity of forming

• Increasing the strain rate

increases the strength of the
material (strain-rate
hardening).
• m increases with increasing
temperature.
• The slope is relatively flat (m is
very low) at room temperature.

The effect of strain rate on the

ultimate tensile strength for aluminum. 39

Strain rate Sensitivity of forming

40

20
 11-01-2025

Strain rate Sensitivity

Explosive
Forming

Superplastic
Forming

41

Strain rate Sensitivity of forming

Y f  K n (1) Y f  C m (2)

A more complete expression for flow stress as a function of both strain and strain rate
would be

Y f  A  n m (3)

A : strength coefficient combining effects of K and C

A, m and n are temperature dependent

42

21
 11-01-2025

Problem-4
A hot working operation is carried out at various speeds. The
strength constant is 210 MPa and the strain-rate sensitivity
exponent = 0.15. Determine the flow stress if the strain rate is (a)
0.01/s (b) 1.0/s, (c) 100/s. Plot the flow stress Vs Strain rate.

Y f  C  m 𝐶 = 210 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑚 = 0.15
𝜀̇ = 0.01 𝜀̇ = 1.0 𝜀̇ = 100

43

Yielding Criteria for ductile materials

22
 11-01-2025

Three-Dimensional State of Stress

• The normal maximum stress acting on a principal plane is called the
principal stress.
• A principal plane is a plane on which no shear stress act; i.e., the shear
stress is zero and only normal stress act.
• The direction perpendicular to the principal plane is called the principal
direction along which the principal stress acts.
• The three principal directions are often designated by the orthogonal
axes ‘1’, ‘2’ and ‘3’.
• In three-dimensional state of stress, all of the three principal stresses
acting at a point are generally unequal. This is called a triaxial state of
stress.
• The state of stress is known as cylindrical, if two of the three principal
stresses are equal, and is said to be hydrostatic, or spherical, if all
three principal stresses are equal.
45

Principal Stress & Principal strain

Respective principal true elastic stresses acting along

the three mutually perpendicular principal axes 1, 2 and
3.

Principal true elastic strain along the three orthogonal

principal strain axes 1, 2 and 3 are, respectively,

46

23
 11-01-2025

Principal Stress & Principal strain

Find
47

Elastic stress–strain relations

48

24
 11-01-2025

Elastic stress–strain relations

49

Elastic stress–strain relations

50

25
 11-01-2025

Elastic stress–strain relations

51

Plane Stress
• Two-dimensional state of
stress is called plane stress
condition, in which the
stress is zero in one of the
primary directions.
• Occurs when one of the
dimensions of the object is
much smaller in comparison
with the other two
dimensions.
• For example, if a thin plate
is loaded in the plane of the
plate, there is no stress
normal to a free surface.

52

26
 11-01-2025

Plane Stress
If we assume

53

Plane Stress

54

27
 11-01-2025

Principal stresses for a biaxial state of

plane stress

55

Plane Strain
• If the strain is zero in one of the primary directions, the situation
is called plane strain condition.
• It is found typically when one of the dimensions of the object is
much larger than the other two dimensions as in a long rod or if
the object is physically restrained to deform in one direction.

56

28
 11-01-2025

Plane Strain

57

Plane Strain

58

29
 11-01-2025

Yielding Criteria for Ductile Metals

• For a material subjected to any possible combination of stresses, it is
important to predict the conditions at which plastic flow of the material
begins.
• In uniaxial loading, as in a uniaxial tension test, the onset of
macroscopic plastic deformation occurs at the yield stress, also
known as flow stress.
• The yielding criteria are basically empirical relationships, which
correlate the initiation of plastic yielding under a situation of combined
stresses with some particular combination of principal stresses.
• To predict the onset of yielding in ductile metals, two yielding criteria
based on a number of experimental observations are generally
accepted (1) Tresca Criterion (2) Von Mises Theory
59

Maximum Shear Stress or Tresca

Yielding Criterion or Theory
• The above yielding criterion, suggested by Tresca (1864),
states that yielding will occur in any state of stress when the
maximum shear stress reaches a critical value equal to the
maximum shear stress in a uniaxial tension test.
• Thus, yielding occurs when

Where the maximum shear stress in a uniaxial tension test.

60

30
 11-01-2025

Maximum Shear Stress or Tresca

Yielding Criterion or Theory

Since in uniaxial tension,

The maximum shear stress or Tresca yielding criterion is expressed

mathematically by the above equation 61

Prove that the ratio of yield stress in pure shear, to the

yield stress in uniaxial tension, according to maximum
shear stress yielding criterion is 1/2

62

31
 11-01-2025

Maximum Shear Stress or Tresca Yielding

Criterion
For a state of pure shear the principal stresses are:

Maximum shear stress for a state of pure shear is:

The ratio of yield stress in pure shear, k; to the yield stress in uniaxial tension,
according to maximum shear stress yielding criterion is 1/2
63

Von Mises’ or Distortion Energy Yielding

Criterion
• Von Mises (1913) proposed that yielding would occur when the
following relation is satisfied

• where the constant k can be identified as follows by considering

the state of stress in pure shear that is produced in biaxial
torsion.
• k represents the yield stress in pure shear (biaxial torsion) or
the shearing yield stress.

64

32
 11-01-2025

Von Mises’ or Distortion Energy Yielding Criterion

• If is the algebraically largest principal normal stress and
is the algebraically smallest principal normal stress, the
principal stresses in pure shear are:

Because

Therefore,

Therefore k represents the yield stress in pure shear 65

Von Mises’ or Distortion Energy Yield

Criterion
• The constant k can be evaluated and related to the yielding in
the uniaxial tension test as follows. At yielding, the principal
stresses in uniaxial tension are:

Therefore it is evident that according to the Von Mises’ yielding criterion the
yield stress in pure shear or biaxial torsion, k; will be less than the yield
stress or flow stress in uniaxial tension,

33
 11-01-2025

Von Mises’ or Distortion Energy Yielding Criterion

Plastic yielding under a situation of combined stresses will begin when the yield
stress in uniaxial tension, is exceeded by the differences of principal
stresses given by the right-hand side
67

Summary: Yield Criteria

Von Mises

Tresca

-Yield stress or flow stress in uniaxial tension,

68

34
 11-01-2025

Problem-5

Von Mises

Tresca

69

Advantages of Von Mises’ yielding

criterion
• Since the criterion involves squared terms, the result is
independent of the sign of individual stresses.
• In order to use this criterion, it is not necessary to know which
are the largest and the smallest principal stresses.

70

35
 11-01-2025

Advantages of Tresca’ yielding criterion

• The advantage of the maximum shear stress yielding criterion is
its mathematical simplicity compared to the Von Mises’ yielding
criterion.
• Its difficulty is that one needs to know in advance which are the
largest and the smallest principal stresses.

71

Yield Locus for the Tresca & Von Mises

yield criterion in plane stress

72

36
 11-01-2025

Problem-6

The maximum load point has zero slope

Therefore, at necking (at maximum load P), =0 We get =n


73

Problem-7

74

37
 11-01-2025

Problem-8

75

Problem-9

76

38