Gist for Resistive network

analysis
Class 12
• Acceleration of charge carriers in constant electric field in a conductor
• Drift velocity, its experimental value and disagreement with constant
force theory
• Relaxation time and concept of free path
• Calculation of drift velocity based on relaxation time approximation
• Current density in terms of number density, charge and velocity of
charge carriers
• Relation between current density and electric field
• Electrical conductivity
Consider a charge carrier with charge q and mass m placed in a conductor in which an electric field � is maintained
�
along its length � = , � is the potential difference between two points at a distance � in the conductor.
�

   qE
The force acting on the charge carrier: F  qE The acceleration: a 
m

Consider the charge carrier to have charge and mass of an electron and find its acceleration with an electric field of
1 volt/m. 11 2
a  10 m / s
If such a charge carrier starting from rest is subjected to this acceleration, how much speed would it acquire along
the direction of electric field in 1 second? Should the electric current remain constant at a value decided by
� (��� ����)
�=
� (����������)
Experimentally it is found that these charge carriers move along the direction of electric field with almost a constant
speed of:
vd  104 m / s This is called

How to explain this discrepancy?

After every collision the velocity of an electron increases in the direction of the electric field �. If the initial velocity is ���
��
in the x direction, the velocity before the next collision is �� = ��0 + �
�
But many such collisions are taking place, and after each collision the velocity ��0 is decided by the collision, not the
field �, while the final velocity i.e. the velocity just before the next collision is decided by the applied field �.
So we have to take the average over � number (say) of collisions.
��
�� = ��0 + �
�
��
And obtain �� = � ( ��0 = 0 as ��0 can be both in +ve and –ve directions because it is a result of collision, not
�
electric field)
But as observed in experiments, as a result of so many collisions the electron finally attains a constant velocity �� , called
��
the drift velocity, we can write �� = � (� is called the relaxation time, defined as the time taken by an electron to
�
attain the drift velocity, or the average time between two successive collisions of an electron with other electrons or
ions)
��
Also, �� = �� where � = (called the mobility of electron in the material)
�
 ��
� = �� − ��
��
�� ��
� = �� −
�� �
���
0 = �� −
�
��
�� = �
�
  
J  nq vd where n is the number density of charge carriers, q is the charge of each carrier
 
The current (scalar) is given by: I   J .d s
If the current density is constant, then the current is obtained by simply multiplying the current density with the
cross sectional area.
Substituting for vd ��
� = �� �
�
��2 � ��2 �
�= s is called the electrical conductivity
�= � �
�
� = ��
  
J  sE
This is Ohm's law in vector form

nq 2 s is the electrical conductivity and is dependent on n, the number density, q, the charge
s
2m on each carrier, m, the mass of each carrier and , the relaxation time
 Electric Current
Rate of flow of charge through any cross-section of a conductor is called Electric
current .

I =

Current carriers or charge carriers for different material

Metals - Free electrons

Liquids Positive and negative ions both
(Electrolytic ) -

Semiconductor- Electrons and Holes (positive charges)

GAS at low temperature Electrons and positive ions

and high voltage
Drift Velocity of free electron
E

eE Fopposing =kv
v
Acceleration of free electron a=

a=0 , when v = μE
v= = constant

v = Drift velocity μ = mobility of electron

Circuit symbol of a resistance and Equation of Ohm’s law
R
VA > VB
VA I VB

By Ohm’s law

VA - VB = IR

I=
 A1
l1

l2
When length increases resistance increases, Rαl

A2

When Area increases resistance decreases, R α 1/A

Rα

R=

ρ = Resistivity of the material

Effect of Temperature on Resistivity
V1 > V2 For conductors,
V1 V2
As temperature decreases

At temperature T1
Rate of collision between
free electrons decreases

V1 V2
Opposing force on free
At temperature T2 electron decreases

T2 < T1
Drift velocity of free
V1 V2 electron increases

At temperature T3
Resistivity decreases
T3 < T2

At very low temperature (nearly 0 K) conductor

behaves as a Superconductor(ρ=0)
Resistivity of conductor decreases with temperature according to the relation

ρT = ρ0 (1+ αΔT) α = Temperature coefficient of resistance

T0 = Reference temperature(generally 00C)

Ignoring Thermal expansion of the conductor about its resistance we can write

RT = R0 (1+ αΔT)
Electromotive Force(EMF)
•The work done in transporting unit positive charge throughout the
circuit including the cell is called Electromotive force(EMF) of the cell
It is also equal to the non-electrical energy expended by the cell for
transportation of charge throughout the circuit.

•The devices supply energy from non electrical forms to Electrical

forms
A Battery – Transforms Chemical energy to Electrical Energy
A Generator– Transforms mechanical energy to Electrical Energy
A Nuclear Reactor– Transforms Nuclear energy to Electrical Energy

EMF – This is equal to the open circuit potential difference across

the device terminals.
Internal resistance of a battery

Battery – Transforms chemical energy to Electrical energy.

I
A + B -

r - Resistance offered by the

Chemicals
electrolyte used in the battery

Internal resistance of an ideal battery is zero

Potential Difference across battery terminals in a circuit
Case – I: When no current flows through the battery
VA – VB = E
VA VB
E r

Case – II: When a current I is supplied by the battery

VB - Ir+ E = VA
VB
VA E
r VA - Vb = E- Ir

Case – III: When a current I is supplied into the battery

VA - E - Ir = VB
r VB
VA E VA - Vb = E + Ir
Grouping of Resistances:

1. Series combination
2. Parallel combination

A Group of B
A
Requivalent B
Resistances

E
E

Req= I=
Series Combination of resistances:

R1 R2 R3

E = V1 +V2 + V3 Req = = R1 +R2 +R3

E = IR1 +IR2 + IR3
Parallel Combination of resistances:
R1

R2
I1 =
R3

I2 =

E I3 =

I = I1 + I2 +I3

1/Req = = 1/R1 +1/R2 +1/R3

• Circuit and network
• Kirchoff's laws
• Application to simple circuits
• The Wheatstone bridge and its balancing
• Meter bridge and its working
• Potentiometer and its use for measuring EMF and internal resistance
of cells
Kirchhoff’s law- junction, branch and loop
Kirchhoff’s rules are used to calculate
current through different elements or
E1 r1
branches or find potential difference
across any element in a complex
electrical circuit.
A B
•A and B are JUNCTIONS R
•BRANCH continuous path of circuit
from one junction to next junction.
E2 r2
•In one branch value of current do
not change.

•LOOP-Continuous path starting

and ending at the same point.
 Kirchhoff’s Current law (KCL) or, (Junction Rule)
At any junction the algebraic sum of all the currents is zero
i1
i=0
i3

i2

Current approaching junction = Current leaving junction

KCL is based on “Conservation of charges”

In steady state there is no accumulation of charge at any point in the circuit
Analysis of a Electrical circuit by KCL
3Ω
Using KCL for junction with I2
potential x 4Ω
x

I2+I3+(-I1) = 0 I1 I3 6Ω

20 0
20V
(x-0)/3 +(x-0)/6+(x-20)/4 = 0

I1= 20/9 A
X=20/3 V
I2= 10/9 A

I3= 10/3 A
Kirchhoff’s Voltage law (KVL) or, Loop Rule

In any loop of an electrical circuit R1

the sum of potential difference

across different element is zero

V=0 E1 I1 E2

+E1 - I1R1 + E2 – I1R2 =0 R2

I1 = (E1+E2 ) / (R1 +R2 )

Analysis of a Electrical circuit by KVL

For loop ABCDA A 2Ω D 3Ω

F
-20-2I1-4(I1-I2)-10-3I1=0
9I1-4I2=-30
I1 4Ω
For loop EFDCE 10V I2
20V 5V
-5-5I2+10-4(I2-I1)-3I2=0 E
B C
3Ω 5Ω
12I2-4I1=5

I1 = -3.69 A
I2 = -0.815 A
 Wheatstone Bridge P X Q

We write KCL equations of X and Y

V
0

G
(X-0)/Q + (X-Y)/G + (X-V)/P = 0
(Y-0)/S + (Y-X)/G + (Y-V)/R = 0
Y
R s
If X=Y on solving equations, we get

P/Q = R/S
Balance condition for the galvanometer to give zero or null deflection.
Meter Bridge
A device to measure resistance work
on principle of Wheat stone bridge.

= = Rcm represents resistance per cm of the wire

R=S