1.

Philosophy of measurement

1.1. The term Measurement and Methods of Measurement

Definition and concept of Measurement
“The measurement of a given quantity is an act or the result of quantitative comparison
between the unknown quantity and a quantity of a same kind chosen as a standard or unit”.
 The result of measurement is expressed by a number representing the ratio of the
unknown quantity to the adopted unit of measurement.
 The measurement is the process by which one can convert physical parameters to
meaningful numbers.
Basic Requirements of Measurement
 The standard used for comparison purposes must be accurately defined and should be
commonly accepted.
 The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable.
Measuring Instrument
 It may be defined as a device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or
variable.
Methods of Measurement
 The methods of measurement can be classified as direct methods and indirect methods.
1) Direct Method
 The unknown quantity is determined by direct comparison with a standard of the
given quantity.
 The result is expressed in terms of a chosen unit for the standard and a numerical
multiplier.
 For example, a length can be measured in terms of meter and a numerical constant.
Thus a 5 m length means a length of 5 times of meter.
2) In-direct Method
 The direct comparison methods are simple but it is not always possible, feasible
and practicable to use them.
 The involvement of a person in these methods make them inaccurate and less
sensitive. Hence, direct methods are not preferred and are rarely used.
 In engineering applications, use of measurement systems which are indirect
methods of measurement, is made.
 For example, sometimes measurement of dc power is done by using measurement
of voltage and current and then power is calculated by using product of them.
1.2. Standard
The “Standard”
 A standard (or etalon) is an object, system, or experiment that bears a defined
relationship to a unit of measurement of a physical quantity.
 Standards are the fundamental reference for a system of weights and measures, against
which all other measuring devices are compared.

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1. Philosophy of measurement

 Modern measurements are defined in relationship to internationally standardized

reference objects, which are used under carefully controlled laboratory conditions to
define the units of length, mass, electrical potential, and other physical quantities.
 The standards can be classified in major four types as per following.
The “International Standard”
 International standards are standards developed by international standards
organizations.
 International standards are available for consideration and use worldwide.
 The most prominent organization is the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO).
The “Primary Standard”
 Primary standards are used to calibrate other standards referred to as working
standards.
 Primary standards are defined via other quantities like length, mass and time.
 An example of a primary standard is the international prototype kilogram (IPK) which
is the master kilogram and the primary mass standard for the International System of
Units (SI).
 The IPK is a one kilogram mass of a platinum-iridium alloy maintained by the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) in Sèvres, France.
 Another example is the unit of electrical potential, the volt. Formerly it was defined in
terms of standard cell electrochemical batteries, which limited the stability and precision
of the definition.
The “Secondary Standard”
 Secondary standards are calibrated with reference to a primary standard.
 Secondary reference standards are very close approximations of primary reference
standards.
 For example, major national measuring laboratories such as the US's National Institute
of Standards and Technology (NIST) will hold several "national standard" kilograms,
which are periodically calibrated against the IPK and each other.
The “Secondary Standard”
 A Standard that is used routinely to calibrate or check material measures, measuring
instruments or reference materials.
 A working standard is usually calibrated against a reference standard.
 Working standards are used for the calibration of commercial and industrial
measurement equipment.
 Working standards are expected to deteriorate, and are no longer considered traceable
to a national standard after a time period or use count expires.

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1. Philosophy of measurement

1.3. Generalized Measurement System

Measuring Primary Variable Variable Data

Quantity Sensing Conversion Manipulation Transmission
Element Element Element System

Data Data Storage

Presentation to lay back
System element

Figure 1.1 Block Diagram of Generalized Measurement System

 The measurement system have mainly five elements as described below.

Primary Sensing Element (Detector stage)
 The quantity under measurement makes its first contact with the primary sensing
element of a measurement system. i.e., the measurand- (the unknown quantity which is
to be measured) is first detected by primary sensor which gives the output in a different
analogous form.
 This output is then converted into an electrical signal by a transducer - (which converts
energy from one form to another).
 The first stage of a measurement system is known as a detector.
Variable Conversion Element (Transducer stage)
 The output of the primary sensing element may be electrical signal of any form; it may be
voltage, a frequency or some other electrical parameter.
 For the instrument to perform the desired function, it may be necessary to convert this
output to some other suitable form.
Variable Manipulation Element (Signal conditioning stage)
 The function of this element is to manipulate the signal presented to it preserving the
original nature of the signal.
 It is not necessary that a variable manipulation element should follow the variable
conversion element.
 Some non-linear processes like modulation, detection, sampling, filtering, chopping etc.,
are performed on the signal to bring it to the desired form to be accepted by the next stage
of measurement system.
 This process of conversion is called signal conditioning’.
 The term signal conditioning includes many other functions in addition to Variable
conversion & Variable manipulation. In fact the element that follows the primary sensing
element in any instrument or measurement system is called signal conditioning element’.

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1. Philosophy of measurement

Data Transmission Element

 When the elements of an instrument are actually physically separated, it becomes
necessary to transmit data from one to another. The element that performs this function
is called a data transmission element’.
Data Presentation Element
 The information about the quantity under measurement has to be conveyed to the
personnel handling the instrument or the system for monitoring, control, or analysis
purposes. This function is done by data presentation element.
 In case data is to be monitored, visual display devices are needed. These devices may be
analog or digital indicating instruments like ammeters, voltmeters etc.
 In case data is to be recorded, recorders like magnetic tapes, high speed camera & TV
equipment, CRT, printers may be used.
 For control & analysis purpose microprocessor or computers may be used. The final stage
in a measurement system is known as terminating stage.
1.4. Classification of instrument system
The instrument system mainly classified in following manners.
1) Absolute and Secondary Instruments
2) Direct measuring and Comparison Instruments
3) Active and Passive Instruments
4) Deflection and Null type Instruments
5) Monitoring and Control Instruments
6) Analog and Digital Instruments
1) Absolute and Secondary Instruments
Absolute Instruments
 This type of instrument give the magnitude of the quantity to be measured in terms of
instrument constant and its deflection.
 Such instrument do not require any comparison with any other standard instrument.
 Such instruments are not widely used in practice.
 Example: Tangent Galvanometer ……… which gives value of current in terms of tangent
of the angle of deflection produced, the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic
field, the radius and the number of turns of wire used.
Secondary Instruments
 In this instrument, the measurand can be measured by observing the output indicated by
the instrument.
 These instruments are required to be calibrated by comparison with an absolute
instrument.
 Such instruments are widely used in practice.
 Example: ammeters, voltmeters, wattmeters, glass thermometers, pressure gauges etc.

Prof. B. D. Kanani, EE Department Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments (2130903) 4

1. Philosophy of measurement

Table 1.1 Comparison of Absolute and Secondary Instruments

Instrument Absolute Secondary

Result In terms of physical Result displayed on dial
constant of instruments
Time required Time consuming Quick measurement can be
done
Usage In standard institutions Everywhere
Examples Tangent Galvanometer Voltmeter, Pressure gauge

2) Direct measuring and Comparison Instruments

Direct measuring Instruments
 This type of instrument convert the energy of the unknown quantity directly into energy
that deflects the moving element of the instrument, the value of the unknown quantity
being measured by reading the resulting deflection.
 These instruments are widely used in engineering practice.
 Example: Ammeters, voltmeters, wattmeters.
Comparison Instruments
 This type of instrument measure the unknown quantity by comparing it with a standard
that is often contained in the instrument case such as resistance measuring bridges.
 These instruments are used in cases when a higher accuracy of measurement is needed.
 Example: Wheatstone bridge, Maxwell’s bridge etc.
3) Active and Passive Instruments
 Instruments are either active or passive according to whether the instrument output is
entirely produced by the quantity under measurement or the quantity under
measurement simply modulates the magnitude of some external power source.
 Example: Active ----- Petrol tank level indicator
Passive ---- Pressure gauge
Table 1.2 Comparison of Active and Passive Instruments

Instrument Active Passive

Energy source No external energy source External energy source
required
Resolution Less High
Design Simple Complicated
Examples Analog Voltmeter, Ammeter Flow indicator, LVDT

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1. Philosophy of measurement

4) Deflection type and Null type Instruments

Deflection type Instrument
 In this, the quantity under measurement produces some physical effect which deflects or
produces a mechanical displacement of the moving system of the instrument.
 An opposing effect is built in instrument which tries to oppose the deflection.
 The opposing effect increases until a balance is achieved, at which point the ‘deflection’
is measured and value of measured quantity inferred from this.
 Examples – PMMC meters.
Null type Instrument
 A null type instrument attempts to maintain deflection at zero by suitable application of
an effect opposing that generated by the quantity under measurement.
 Necessary to such an operations are a detector of unbalance and a means of restoring
balance.
 Example – DC Potentiometer.
Table 1.3 Comparison of Active and Passive Instruments

Instrument Deflection type Null type

Accuracy Low High
Sensitivity Less High
Dynamic measurement Suitable Not suitable
Examples PMMC, Moving Iron Potentiometer

5) Analog and Digital Instruments

Analog Instruments
 An analog instrument provides an output which varies continuously as the quantity
under measurement changes. The output can have infinite number of values within the
range that the instrument is designed to measure.
 Example - Deflection type pressure gauge, analog ammeters
Digital Instruments
 A digital instrument has an output which varies in discrete steps and so can only have a
finite number of values.
 Example – Digital Multimeter.

Prof. B. D. Kanani, EE Department Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments (2130903) 6

1. Philosophy of measurement
Table 1.4 Analog and Digital Instruments

Instrument Analog Digital

Loading effect More Negligible
Programming facility Not available Available
Frictional error High Low
Reading Difficult Easy
Size Large Compact
Examples Pressure gauge DMM

6) Monitoring and Control Instruments

Monitoring Instruments
 It is used to monitor a physical quantity.
 Instruments which only provide an audio or visual indication of the magnitude of quantity
under measurement, such as liquid-in-glass thermometer.
 This class normally includes null type instruments and most passive transducers.
Control Instrument
 For an instrument to be suitable for inclusion in an automatic control system, its output
must be in a suitable form for direct input to the controller.
 Usually, this means that an instrument with an electrical output is required, although other
forms of output such as optical or pneumatic signals are used in some systems.
1.5. Functions of Instruments and measuring systems
The instruments and measuring systems have mainly three different functions as per
following.
1) Indicating Instruments
 An instrument that supplies the information in form of deflection of pointer.
 Example: Pressure gauges, speedometers, ammeters, voltmeters
2) Recording Instruments
 This instrument keep a continuous record of variations of the magnitude of an
unknown quantity to be observed over a definite period of time.
 Example: Temperature and Pressure recorders / data loggers
3) Controlling Instruments
 In this, the information is used to control the original measured quantity.
 Example: Thermostat, Float type level control
1.6. Types of measurement errors
Measurement Error
 It is the difference between measured value and true value.

Prof. B. D. Kanani, EE Department Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments (2130903) 7

1. Philosophy of measurement

Error = Measured value – True value

 It is impossible to made measurement with perfect accuracy.
1) Gross Error
 Errors due to human carelessness.
 It can be avoided by two means: a) Great care in reading and recording data, b) More
observations of measurement to avoid same error
 Example – misleading of instrument or using wrong range.
Error

Gross Systematic Random

Error Error Error

Instrumental Environmental Observational

Error Error Error

Figure 1.2 Classification of measurement errors

2) Systematic Errors (Bias)
 Errors from measurement system / instrument or due to wrong use of instrument.
 It occurs when there is a problem in the measurement system that affects all
measurements in the same way.
 These are predictable, is typically proportional to true value.
 It can be generally measured / eliminated if the cause is known.
 Example – Offset error, Zero setting error, a clock that is 5 minutes slow
The systematic errors broadly classified in following three ways:
Instrumental Errors
 Inherent shortcoming of instruments
 Misuse of the instruments
 Loading effects of instruments
Environmental Errors
 Errors are due to conditions external to the measuring device including the
atmospheric conditions such as temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, vibrations,
external magnetic fields etc.
Observational Errors
Errors due to Parallax
Parallax is a displacement or difference in the apparent position of an object viewed
along two different lines of sight.
3) Random Errors
 Random errors are caused by unpredictable variations in the measurement system.

Prof. B. D. Kanani, EE Department Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments (2130903) 8

1. Philosophy of measurement

 Random uncertainty comes from fluctuations in measurements that can be greater or less
than the actual result.
 These often stem from the limitations of the equipment being used or limitations of the
experimenter (e.g. how precisely you can read a scale).
 These errors can never be eliminated completely, but can be reduced by using repeats.
 Random errors are usually observed as small worries of the measurement around the
correct value. i.e. positive and negative errors occur in approximately equal numbers for
a series of measurements made of the same constant quantity.
 Therefore, random errors can be largely be eliminated by calculating the average or mean
of a number of repeated measurements.
 Examples – Weighing a baby that is shacking, reading a measuring device wrong.
1.7. Statistical analysis of errors
 Statistical study is mainly concerned with precision of measurement and so it cannot
remove systematic errors from set of data. So systematic errors should be small as
compared with random errors.
 To make statistical methods and interpretations meaningful, a large number of
measurements is usually required. Some of these methods (four methods) are described
below.
1) Arithmetic Mean
 The most probable value of a measured variable is the arithmetic mean of the number
of readings taken.
 The arithmetic mean is given by the following expression:
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ … … . . + 𝑥𝑛
𝑋̅ =
𝑛
̅
Where 𝑋 is arithmetic mean and 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … . . 𝑥𝑛 are the readings taken and 𝑛 is the
number of readings taken.
2) Deviation from the Mean
 The deviation of a reading is the amount by which it differs from the mean.
 If we have a set of readings 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , …. With mean 𝑋̅, the deviations of the individual
readings are
Deviation of 𝑥1 = d1 = 𝑥1 − 𝑋̅
Deviation of 𝑥2 = d2 = 𝑥2 − 𝑋̅
 Deviation from the mean may have a +ve or –ve value but the algebraic sum of all the
deviations is always zero.
3) Average Deviation
 Average deviation is the sum of the scaler values of the deviations divided by the
number of readings. It may be expressed as
|𝑑1 | + |𝑑2 | + ⋯ + |𝑑𝑛 |
𝐷=
𝑛

Prof. B. D. Kanani, EE Department Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments (2130903) 9

1. Philosophy of measurement

 Average deviation gives an indication of the precision of the instruments used in

carrying out measurements. Low average deviation between readings shows that
instruments used for measurements are highly precise.
4) Standard Deviation
 The standard deviation of an infinite number of data is the square root of the
sum of all the individual deviations squared, divided by the number of
readings.

𝑑1 2 + 𝑑2 2 + 𝑑3 2 +. . +𝑑𝑛 2
𝜎=√
𝑛
 The standard deviation is also known as root mean square deviation. Reduction in
this quantity effectively means improvement in measurement.
 In practice, the possible number of observations is finite. The standard deviation
of a finite number of observations is given as

𝑑1 2 + 𝑑2 2 + 𝑑3 2 +. . +𝑑𝑛 2
𝜎=√
𝑛−1
 Another expression for essentially the same quantity is the variance or mean
square deviation, which is same as the standard deviation except that the square
root is not extracted.
Variance, V = 𝜎 2
1.8. Characteristics of instruments and measurement systems
The characteristics of instruments can be classified in major two ways:
Static characteristics and Dynamic characteristics.
1) Static Characteristics
 These are established by the process of calibration.
 By static calibration, the relationship between the output signal and the quantity under
study is experimentally determined.
Followings are the static characteristics.
 True Value – “Average of an infinite number of measured values, when the average
deviation due to various contributing factors tends to zero”.
 Static Error – “Difference between measured value and true value (𝛿𝐴 = 𝐴𝑚 − 𝐴𝑡 )”.
 Static Correction – “Difference between true value and measured value (𝛿𝐶 = 𝐴𝑡 − 𝐴𝑚
= − 𝛿𝐴)”.
 Scale Range – “The range of instrument from minimum measurable value (Xmin) to
maximum measurable value (Xmax)”.
 Scale Span – “The difference between maximum measurable value (Xmax) and minimum
measurable value (Xmin)”.
 Accuracy – “The closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true value”.
Prof. B. D. Kanani, EE Department Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments (2130903) 10
1. Philosophy of measurement

 Accuracy is specified as Point accuracy, Percentage of true value, Percentage

of full scale deflection
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 −𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
 Percentage of true value: Error = × 100
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 −𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
 Percentage of full scale deflection: Error = 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
× 100
 Precision – “It is the consistency of the instrument output for a given value of input”.
 Bias – “It describes a constant error which exists over the full range of measurement of
an instrument”.
 Repeatability – “It describes the closeness of output readings when the same input is
applied repetitively over a short period of time, with the same measurement conditions,
same instrument and observer, same location and same conditions of use maintained
throughout”.
 Reproducibility – “It is the closeness with which the same value of the input quantity is
measured at different times, and under different conditions of usage of the instrument
and by different instruments”.
 Tolerance – “It is the term which is closely related to accuracy and defines the maximum
error which is to be expected in some value”.
 Deviation – “It is described as the difference between measured value and true value for
a particular input value”. The deviation is given a plus or minus sign.
 Sensitivity – “The ratio of the magnitude of the output and the magnitude of input of
given instrument”.
 Drift – “A change in an instrument's reading over extended periods due to factors such
as time, line voltage, or ambient temperature effects”.
 Resolution or Discrimination – “The Smallest measurable input change. The Smallest
increment in input which can be detected with certainty by an instruments is its
resolution”.
 Threshold – “The Smallest measurable input. The Smallest input which can be detected
with certainty by an instruments is its threshold value”.
 Dead Time – “The time required by a measurement system to begin to respond to a
change in the measurand”.
 Hysteresis - Instrument does not show same result during loading and unloading of
instruments. This effect is known as hysteresis effect : “non-coincidence between loading
and unloading curves is known as hysteresis”
2) Dynamic Characteristics
 As we know that the instruments and measurement systems do not respond to the input
immediately due to the presence of energy storage elements in the system. The system
exhibits a characteristic sluggishness due to the presence of these elements.
 In measurement systems having inputs dynamic in nature, the input varies from instant
to instant, so does the output. The behaviour of the system under such conditions is dealt
by the dynamic response of the system, and its characteristics are given below.
 Dynamic Error – “It is the difference of true value of the quantity changing with time and
the value indicated by the instrument provided static error is zero”.

Prof. B. D. Kanani, EE Department Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments (2130903) 11

1. Philosophy of measurement

 Fidelity – “It is the ability of the system to reproduce the output in the same form as the
input”.
In the definition of fidelity any time lag or phase difference is not included. Ideally a
system should have 100% fidelity and the output appear in the same form as the input
and there is no distortion produced by the system. Fidelity needs are different for
different applications.
 Bandwidth – “It is the range of frequencies for which its dynamic sensitivity is
satisfactorily”.
For measurement systems, the dynamic sensitivity is required to be within 2% of its static
sensitivity.
 Speed of response – “Speed of response of a physical system refers to its ability to
respond to sudden changes of amplitude of input signal”.
It is usually specified as the time taken by the system to come close to steady-state
conditions, for a step-input function.
 Time constant – “It is associated with the behaviour of a first-order-system and is
defined as the time taken by the system to reach 0.632 times its final output signal
amplitude”.
A system having smaller time constant attains its final output amplitude earlier than the
one with larger time constant and therefore, has higher speed of response.
 Measuring Lag – “It is defined as the delay in the response of an instrument to a change
in the measurand”.
 Settling or Response Time – “It is the time required by the instrument or measurement
system to settle down to its final steady-state position after the application of the input”.
A smaller settling time indicates higher speed of response. Settling time is also dependent
on the system parameters and varies with the condition under which the system
operates.
 Dynamic Range – “It is the range of signals which the measuring system is likely to
respond faithfully under dynamic conditions”.
This is generally expressed as the ratio of the amplitudes of the largest signal to the
smallest signal to which the system is subjected and the system can handle satisfactorily.

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Prof. B. D. Kanani, EE Department Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments (2130903) 12