ETHICS AND WHERE IT IS DERIVED IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS

What is Ethics? • Ethics is a set of rules that allows us to say right

• Ethics or moral philosophy can be provisionally from wrong, good from the bad.
described as the empirical study of moral decisions. • Ethics can provide true,specific guidance to our
• It is a discipline concerned with what is morally lives.
good and evil, right and wrong. • Ethical principles such as fairness,trustworthiness,
• Any scheme or philosophy of universal ideas or responsibility
beliefs. • Ethics is all about decisions
• Derived from the Greek word"ethos" which may
mean tradition, habit, character, or attitude. Dr.Ann Tenbrunsel(2011)&Brazerman(Authorand
Professor of ethics)
Philosophy side it involves critical thinking:
a. It explores, -identify the blind spots as the differences between
b. describes fundamental beliefs, who you want to be and who you are.Hence,most of
c. describes standards, us want to do the right thing, but internal and
d. describes ideals, external factors are in the way.
e. describes traditions,
f. considered as higher level of human discipline Ethicists - Put less emphasis on studying
philosophic principles and, instead, emphasize
Two Division of Ethics the importance of establishing good habits of
1. Normative Ethics - concerns human behavior character - needs of doing the right thing in the
in general, is to address our questions about the right place and time in the right way.
essence of human behavior.
Two fields of Normative Ethics: Moralists - Following one’s interests is not
a. Moral Philosophy - deals with moral ideas wrong.
such as what human beings “must do or - Nevertheless, an ethical individual must beable
how human beings should be.” This also - at least occasionally - to place the needs of
deals with our moral obligation, the others ahead of self-interest, because of our
meaning of the act, or the purpose of the duty to civil society.
act.
VIEWS ON THE IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS
b. Applied Ethics (Practical Ethics) - A
1. Can determine the difference between right
philosophy that discusses strong and basic
from wrong, good from bad;
moral issues linked to abortion.
2. Can eliminate actions that do not conform to
what is right;
2. Meta-ethics - A discipline that relies on
3. Will be very careful to the actions and
meaning. It is a science that is seeking to
decisions to make;
address non-moral questions about morality.
4. People will not be disturb of the internal and
external factors of doing the right thing;
- Refer to questions about the nature of moral
5. Establish good habits of a character of a
statements.
person;
6. Come up with rational decisions in facing an
- the purpose and significance of moral facts,
ethical dilemma;
and concerns about the interpretation and
7. Makes a person responsible in the family,
justification of moral statements.
school, and society;
8. Becomes sensitive to the needs of others
more than himself or herself;
9. Reminds a person to fully need conscience in HOW MORAL STANDARDS ARE
decision making and a person can acknowledge
FORMED
the actions made
‣ Are shaped by the beliefs of an individual
‣ Values are the basis of the capacity of an
THE DIFFERENCE OF MORAL
individual to distinguish between right and wrong
AND NON-MORAL STANDARDS
AND CHARACTERISTICS OF ‣ Morals build on this to form concrete,context-
MORAL STANDARDS driven rules that regulate the action of an individual
‣Moral Standards compel us to behave accordingly, ‣ They are formed from the experience of a
although we have no right to insist on others onnon- person’s life and are subject to opinion
moral values.
‣ Refer to the guidelines we have on the types FACTORS ON HOW MORAL STANDARDS ARE
of acts that we find to morally permissible and INFLUENCED
morally unacceptable 1. The moral values or principles that we
‣Normally promote the common good, that is, the conform with, in rearing.
welfare and well-being or human beings, animals, 2. The character and manners that imbibed with
and the environment. us by means of birth right
‣ Area blending of norms and values 3. The religious values that our forefathers taught us
4. The values we learned from school
CHARACTERISTICS OF MORAL 5. The moral conduct, ways and habits of
STANDARDS (VELASQUEZ, 2012) those people around us
1. Entail serious harm or benefit 6. The direct and implied cultural norms
2. Are not determined by authority figures 7. Our life experiences
3. Should bead opted over other values, 8. Our critical thinking in these experiences
including self-interest.
4. Are focus on objective considerations. MORAL DILEMMA
‣ a situation in which a decision-maker must give
5. Are perceived and universal.
preference to one moral principle over another
6. Are correlated with different feelings and
‣ occur when, confronted with a challenging
vocabulary. situation
‣ Self-inflicted dilemma is a moral dilemma
Non-moral Standards - Apply the laws that may arise as a result of a prior personal mistake
which are not related to social or legal
considerations. These criteria are not Kurie & Albin(2007)
inherently related to morality, or by theirvery ‣ A Moral Dilemma is a situation in which people
definition , lack of ethical sense assume that they should morally do one thing and
a. Etiquette -a decorum, property means that they should morally do another thing.
reverence for the formal criteria governing
conduct in a civilized society. Figar & Dordevic(2016)
b. Statute - a written law passed by a ‣A Moral Dilemma is a situation whereby a person
legislative body. has to make a decision. Among competing
c. The professional code of ethics - aset alternatives, which is the right (ethical) alternative
of guidelines intended to help practitioners and which is the best.
differentiate between right and wrong to
guide their decision-making.

LEVELS OF DILEMMAS
1. Organization Ethical or Moral Dilemma-refers to a 3. Individuals are independent from being limited by
situation that causes an organization to respond the options of others to the extent that they may
negatively or positively to an ethical issue. It effects: coexist with each other’s freedom under universal
a. Staff, shareholders, and society rule.
b. Corporate ethicsand customers 4. Equality is the most among the various freedoms
c. Leaders ethical actions is preserving financial and freedom is the only inherent power
reporting integrity The three concepts of freedom
a. The freedom of a human being as a member of
2. Individual Moral Dilemma-it pertains to situation a state,
where individuals confront with a number of factors b. The dignity of each person as a subject,
such as peer pressure, personal financial position,an c. the freedom of any member of the
economic and social status which may influence all commonwealth as a resident.
individual ethical standards. 5. Individuals have an autonomous right to be
- Due to peer pressure, an individual engages in a happy in their own way, and the intervention of
certain scenario in which may change their behavior another’s freedom means forcing others to be
and attitude. happy.

3. Structural Moral Dilemma - selecting a proper KANT’S PHILOSOPHY ON MORALITY

system of responsibilities and relationships, which is • Kant based his ethical philosophy on the idea that
continuing universal challenge. reason should be used to decide how people will
Four concepts in the structural moral dilemmas behave
1. Differentiation vs Integration • He did not attempt to recommend concrete action
2. Gap vs Overlap but advised that reason should be used to decide
3. Lack of clarity vs Lack of creativity how to behave.
4. Excessive Autonomy vs Excessive Interdependence
5 Philosophy on Morality:
KANT’S PHILOSOPHY ON FREEDOM 1. GoodWill and Duty
Immanuel kant - “Regarded as the greatest • Good will is a common moral concept that openly
philosopher of the modern period.” wishes to use certain virtues for moral purposes.
• A Good will which acts out of obligation can be
Freedom - The right to control one’s actions based described as a will which overcomes barriers to the
on reason, not desire. All of this can be simplified to preservation of moral law.
the definition of autonomy. • Actions committed concerning obligation have
‣ Autonomy- derives from the Greek term- moral meaning, special respect is granted to acts
(Self-legislator) performed out of duty.
‣Principle - is not to live by the animalistic rules
forced on them from birth, but rather to live by the
laws that you enforce on yourself
‣ Freedom-(independence from being limited
by the option of another) to the degree that it can
coexist with the freedom of each other following 2. Perfect and Imperfect Duties
universal law. The perfect duty is always true
a. Perfect Duty to oneself: Duty not to
commit suicide
b. Perfect Duty to others: Duty not to make alying
Emphasis on Kant’s Philosophy of Freedom promise to others
1. Individuals have the right to choose one’s Perfect Duties- duties that we are all obliged to meet
conduct based on reason, not desire. every time
2. Individuals have to abide by the rules that they e.g.do notnkill innocent people
follow. e.g.keep all of your promises
 4. Humanity as an end in itself
Imperfect duty requires flexibility • The second interpretation of Kant's Categorical
a. Imperfect duty to oneself:Duty to develop one’s Imperative is to view life as an end in itself: "Act in
talent such a way that you treat humanity,whether in your
b. Imperfect duty to others: Duty of own person or in the person of another, always at
Benificence (Kindness) the same time as an end and never simply as a
means."
Imperfect Duties-duties that we should sometimes • Rational beings should never be viewed simply as a
fulfill, but are not required to do all the time. means to ends; they must also be viewed as ends
e.g.be charitable themselves, demanding equal regard for their own
e.g.cultivate yourself logical motives.

2. Categorical Imperative TAXATION IN THE PHILIPPINES - regulated primarily

• Categorical imperative- command unconditionally. by the Constitution of the Philippines and the three
Irrespective of our wishes or desires, a categorical Republic Acts.
imperative binds us as everyone has a responsibility (1) Constitution: Article VI, Section 28 of the
not to lie. Constitution provides that “the rules for taxation
• Hypothetical Imperative - one that we must fulfill shall be uniform and equal” and that “a democratic
if we are to satisfy our desires or command system of taxation shall be established by the
conditionally on your having a relevant desire. congress.”
(2) National law National Internal Revenue Code -
Categorical VSH ypothetical enacted as Republic Act No. 8424 or the Tax Reform
• The Categorical Imperative is to act for the sake of Act of 1997 and subsequent laws amending it; most
duty only. recently, the Law of the Republic No. 10963 or the
Law on Tax Reform for Acceleration and Inclusion
• Where as the hypothetical imperative is acting in was amended
order to receive some kind of reward (3) Local Laws: the major sources of revenue for
• Kant argues that the categorical imperative is the local government units (LGUs) are taxes imposed
only good way to act. under the Republic Act No. 7160 or the Local
• For example one should help an old lady across the Government Code of 1991 and those imposed on
road simply because it is a good thing to do, not revenues levied under state law
because it will make you feel good. (4) Taxes levied at national level are collected by the
• Even if a good act makes you feel good,this is not a Office of Internal Revenue (BIR), whereas those
reward, it is a bonus according to kant. levied at local level (i.e. provincial, city, municipal,
and barangay) are collected by the Office of Internal
3. Universalizability Revenue (BIR)
• When anyone acts, it's a maxim, or a principle.For 1987 Philippine Constitution - “the rules of taxation
Kant, an act is only permissible if one can have the shall be uniform and equal”
principle that allows an action to be the universal
law by which everybody acts. LawDictionary.com (2015) - “Uniformity in taxation
Maxim- the principle that you follow when you means equity in the burden of taxation, which can
choose to act the way you do. not occur without uniformity in the mode of
For Example: If you decided to cheat on your ethics assessment as well as in the rate of taxation. It must
exam, your Maxim might be; “I will cheat on my also be applied to all property subject to taxation so
exams so that I will be able to graduate this year.” that all property can be taxed alike and equally.”
Note:
• The Maxim is no trational(reasonable) ‣ An individual should pay an income tax based
• The Maxim may also be unethical because it on his or her salary’ received with a certain
causes an inconsistency percentage and the property can be taxed according
to assessed value and rates of the property
 CULTURALRELATIVISM
‣An individual as well can be taxed based on his or • Cultural relativism means that we do not judge a
her capacity to pay taxes. society by our own criteria of what is right or wrong,
odd or natural.
‣The government cannot force an individual to pay • Cultural relativism is the desire to consider a
culture on its own terms and not to make
taxes without a job or no house owned. Though it is conclusions based on the norms of one's own
mandatory under the law. It is only applicable who community.
has income and properties respectively. • Cultural relativism is any opinion on ethics is
subject to the perspective of each person within
their particular culture.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FILIPINO CULTURE
1. The Filipino people are very resilient Summary:
2. Filipinos take pride in their families 1. In cultural relativism, no one can judge a society
3. Filipinos are very religious by their standards in the principle of
right or wrong, eccentric or natural.
4. Filipinos are very respectful
5. Filipinos help one another. 2. People must understand other societies’cultures.
6. Filipinos value traditions and culture.
3. In cultural relativism, the aim is to strengthen our
7. Filipinos have the longest Christmas celebration.
knowledge and interpretation of the
8. Filipinos love art and architecture. practices and cultural traditions that are not part of
9. The Filipinos are hospitable people. our culture and that not
uncommon to other cultures.
WEAKNESSES OF FILIPINO CULTURE
4. Cultural relativism is a moral theory that claims
1. Extreme Personalism the idea of no objective universal
2. Extreme Family Centeredness moral rules that would apply to every culture and it
3. Lack of Discipline varies depending on the culture of
the society.
4. Passivity and Lack of Initiative
5. Colonial Mentality Islam, fori nstance, to marry five times are allowed as
6. Kanya-kanya Syndrome long as the man is capable to support them.
7. Lack of Self Analysis and Reflection
Christianity, it is punishable by the law if any manor
woman are married twice as it is bigamous (Article
349 of the Revised Penal Code)

Second marriage will be void from the very

beginning if the first marriage is valid (Article 35 of
the Family Code)

“The moral standards of every society differ from the

other and for that reason, any culture should be
respected by anyone.”

PRONS OR ADVANTAGES OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM

1. It creates learning opportunities that could make
humanity stronger.
2. It eliminates the concept of separate, but equal
3. It creates a system of niche expertise
4. It encourages respect
CONS OR DISADVANTAGES OF CULTURAL independence; curiosity; choosing your own goals
RELATIVISM 6. Universalism: broadmindedness; wisdom; social
1. There will be actions taken that would be defined justice; equality; a world at peace; a world of beauty;
by some as “violent”, “unsafe”, or “wrong.” unity with nature; protecting the environment; inner
2. It is based on a concept that people are perfect. harmony.
3. It creates a personal bias. 7. Benevolence: helpfulness; honesty; forgiveness;
4. It eliminates the idea that reform or change can loyalty; responsibility; friendship.
be a good thing 8. Tradition: accepting one’s portionin life;humility;
devoutness; respect for tradition; moderation.
THE BENEFIT OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM 9. Conformity: self-discipline; obedience.
• Make the relationships of the people of the 10. Security: cleanliness; family security; national
societies strong and unified. security; stability of social order; reciprocation of
• Do the actions that will not be offended to them
• Respect and acknowledge every society’s beliefs, favours; health; sense of belonging.
traditions, and customs to live peacefully and happy.
HISTORY OF THE UN CHARTER OF UNIVERSAL
UNIVERSALVALUE VALUES
“value” - something that a person or a group Secretary- General Kofi Annan
believes has a value that merits being sought, Global Ethics-“Do we still have universal values?”.
promoted, or privileged. “The values of peace, freedom, social progress, equal
rights and human dignity, enshrined in the charter of
This can bea: the United Nations in the Universal Declaration of
a. Thing (money, food, art) Human Rights, are no less valid today than when, over
b. State of Mind(peace, protection, certainty) half a century ago, those documents were drafted by
c. Behavior(protecting innocent people, telling the representatives of many different nations and
truth, being creative) cultures.”

• Universal Values can be understood in two ways. “All states reaffirmed certain fundamental values as
First, it could be that something has universal values being essentials to international relations in the
because everyone finds it important. twenty-first century”: freedom, equality, solidarity,
Second, it could have universal value when all people tolerance, respect for nature and shared
have reason to believe it has value. responsibility.”

• Universal Value is a concept that it is not obvious The 1987 Philippine Constitution Article 2 Section 11
to define because a principle is connected with provides, “The state recognizes the dignity of every
human person and guaranteed respect for human
morality or ethics.
rights.” This implies that any person in whatever
capacity, economic and social status, rich or poor,
• Universal Values need to be socially expressed. educated or uneducated deserves to be respected by
• Shalom H. Schwartz described ‘values’ as anyone.
‘conceptions of what is important that affect the way
people choose action and evaluate events.

SCHWATZ’S TEN TYPES OF UNIVERSAL VALUE:

1. Power: authority; leadership; dominance, social
power, wealth.
2. Achievement: success; capability; ambition;
influence; intelligence; self-respect.
3. Hedonism: pleasure; enjoying life
4. Stimulation: daring activities; varied life; exciting
life
5. Self-direction: creativity; freedom;
HUMAN DIGNITY c. “Kahihiyan” maybe observed in Filipino families.
‣ Dignity - The state or quality of being worthy of They try to avoid doing things that may dishonor
honor or respect. “A man of dignity and unbending their family’s name and reputation
principle”
‣ Dignity - earned and cannot be taken away from ‣ Amor Propio’ is derived from the concept
anyone. It must be preserved so that the respect of face.
other is maintained.
‣ Commonly translated as self-respect or self-
FILIPINO MORAL CHARACTERS: STRENGTHS AND esteem, it has been characterized as the high degree
WEAKNESSES of sensitivity that makes a person intolerant to
• Filipino cultural morality especially that which criticism and causes him to have an easily wounded
concerns social ethics, centers on ideally having a pride.
“smooth interpersonal relationship (SIR)” with
others.
• ”Smooth Interpersonal Relationship” ‣“Amor Propio” comes from the person’s tendency
(Philippine Culture) - principally supported by and to protect his or her dignity and honor
anchored on the following Filipino values and
Filipino traits and values.
FilipinoTraits
FilipinoValues ‣ Trait - a distinguishing feature or character of a
‣ Values are those aspects in life that include person or a group of people
customs, traditions, etc., which the people regard as
necessary and important in their dealings with one ‣ Hospitality - One of the common traits among
another Filipino, or keeping the strangers feel warm and
‣The Filipino Value System or Filipino values refers welcome.
to the set of values that a majority of the Filipino ‣Filipinos are known by other nations through this
have historically held important in their lives. trait because they really make an effort to welcome
their guests.

FilipinoValues: ‣ Family - the unit of society and consists, at least

‣Pakikisama - or sense of togetherness. It refers to very recent times, of the parent, grandparents, and
doing somebody a good deed, such as helping a the children.
relative or neighbor build a house without asking for
compensation, or helping someone looking for a job. ‣ FIlipinos are also known for having close family
Helping other people even in small little ways may ties.
show “pakikisama.” (school & office)
‣As much as possible, they want to live in a house
‣ Utang na loob - dept or gratitude is very together with their grandparents, parents, children,
important to Filipinos. It is recognizing and returning and grandchildren.
the favor to that person in the same measure who Respect for the elders - is also observed to the
help them in times of need. Filipinos. They obey elderly and consider their
Filipinos may have “utang na loob” if other people suggestions in major life decisions.
help them during sickness, medication, sending their
children to school, finding a job, or they were saved ‣ Pakikipagkapwa-tao-these values are
in a life threatening situation. important to maintain harmony in Filipino
‣ Hiya or Kahihiyan - sense of shame is another relationships in social institutions such as family,
Filipino values school, and community.
a. “HIya”maybe observed to Filipinos in accepting
‣ Filipino’s ability to empathize with others, in
the food that are offered to them
helpfulness and generosity in times of need
b. They also feel “hiya” in approaching higher
(pakikiramay), in the patience of bayanihan or
authorities like school principal,
mutual assistance and in the famous Filipino
teachers/professors, deans, and executives.
hospitality.
 that a moral behavior is one that is in the middle of
‣ “Pakikipagkapwa-tao” also promotes in two extremes.
camaraderie and a feeling of closeness to one
another MORAL CHARACTER AS DISPOSITIONS
Dispositions - are particular kinds of properties or
MORAL CHARACTER AND ITS DEVELOPMENT characteristics that objects can posses
Moral Character - refers to the existence or lack of
virtues such as integrity, courage, fortitude, honesty, Examples of dispositions:
and loyalty. To say that a certain person has a good a. The solubility of a sugar- cube in water,
moral character means that he/she is a good person b. The fragility of porcelain,
and a good citizen with a sound moral compass. c. The elasticity of a rubberband,
d. The magnetism of Iodestones
Development of moral character can be explained by
the following approaches: Moral character traits are those dispositions of
a. virtues, character for which it is appropriate to hold agents
b. disposition, morally responsible.
c. circular relations of acts a. Virtue (morality) - a trait deserving of a positive
d. Character, and theoretical perspectives. reactive attitude, such as praise or gratitude,
b. Vice (immorality) - a trait deserving of a negative
MORAL CHARACTER AND VIRTUES reactive attitude, such as resentment or blame.
“CHARACTER” - comes from the ancient greek term
charakter, which initially referred to the mark THE CIRCULAR RELATION OF ACTS AND CHARACTER
impressed upon a coin. 1. Repetition of Action and its Effect on the Person
• Actions can be repetitive or automatic in (atleast)
In contemporary usage - “character” refers to a set three different ways: by habit, by education, and by
of qualities or characteristics that can be used to habitus.
differentiate between persons. a. By Habit -When an action is constantly
repeated, over time.
In philosophy - “character” is typically used to refer b. By Education-Actions become skills through
to the particularly moral dimension of a person. repetition and experience.
c. By Habitus - Willingness to respond charitably
Virtue Ethics - represents the concept that to anyone in need as the situation arises.
individual’s actions are based upon inner moral
virtue. 2. The Type of Action
Virtue’s two distinct of human excellences ‣ Because human beings are body/soul unities,
1. Excellences of thoughts actions of the body are actions of the self.
2. Excellences of character ‣ Acts of a human-(act us humans)
‣ Humanacts-(act us humanis)
Virtue-is a character trait that is socially valued. ‣ Human acts - rational acts and are more closely
associated with character than are acts of human
beings.
Aristotle considered goodness of character as a
Example:
product of the practice of virtuous behavior.
Human Acts- Laughing at funny things is a
‣ Virtues are tendencies to act, to feel,and
judge, tendencies which are developed from moral act
natural capacity through proper training and Acts of human being- Laughing because one
exercise. is being tickled.
‣ Virtue depend on “clear judgement, self-
control, symmetry of desire, and artistry of 3. Intention and Responsibility
means” • Two important aspects of the revelatory nature of
action are responsibility and intention. Humanbeings
“Doctrine of the Mean” - is a principle that suggests
own their actions and the consequences of them. Level 2: Conventional Level
• Responsibility and intention are rooted in the will, ‣ Conformity to social rules remains important
which is the source of the self-possession and self- to the individual. However, the emphasis shifts
governance of human beings. from self-interest to relationships with other people
‣ One can be prevented from doing something and social systems.
by external forces, but carrying through with an Stage 3: GoodBoy/Nice Girl orientation
action has an element of the voluntary, of ‣ Behavior is determined by social
willing to do it and therefore cannot be forced. approval. The individual wants to maintain or win
‣ Another way the will can be hindered is by
the affection and approval of others by being a
lack of knowledge
“good person.”
Stage 4: Law and order orientation
SIX STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
‣Social rules and laws determine behavior.
Level 1: Pre conventional level
The individual believes that rules and laws maintain
‣Morality is externally controlled. Rules imposed by
social order that is worth preserving.
authority figures are conformed to in order to avoid
punishment or receive rewards.
Level 3: Post conventional or Principled level
Stage1: Punishment/Obedience orientation
‣ The individual moves beyond the perspective
‣Behavior is determined by consequences.
of his or her own society. Morality is defined in
The individual will obey in order to avoid
terms of abstract principles and values that apply to
punishment.
all situations and societies.
Stage2: Instrumental purpose orientation
Stage 5: Social contract orientation
‣ Behavior is determined again by
‣ Individual rights determine behavior. The
consequences. The individual focuses on receiving
individual view laws and rules as flexible tools for
rewards or satisfying personal needs.
improving human purposes.
Stage 6: Universal ethical principle orientation
‣ The highest stage of functioning. At this
stage, the appropriate action is determined byone’s
self-chosen ethical principles of conscience.