ASSIGNEMENT 2.

Part 1: Conduction Heat Transfer

Conduction: is the transfer of energy due to either random molecular motion (in gases, liquids) or
due to the motion of free electrons(solids). It is governed by Fourier’s law of heat conduction.
ⅆ𝑡
𝑄 = −𝑘𝐴 [ ]
ⅆ𝑥
A. General Differential Equation in Cartesian, Cylindrical, and Spherical Coordinates.

i. Cartesian coordinates:
𝜕 2 𝑡 𝜕 2 𝑡 𝜕 2 𝑡 𝑞𝑔 𝑝. 𝑐 𝜕𝑦 1 𝜕𝑇
2
+ 2+ 2 + = . =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑘 𝑘 𝜕𝜏 𝛼 𝜕𝜏
ii. Cylindrical coordinates:
𝜕 2 𝑡 1 𝜕𝑡 1 𝜕 2 𝑡 𝜕 2 𝑡 𝑞𝑔 𝑝. 𝑐 𝜕𝑡 1 𝜕𝑇
2
+ . + 2. 2 + 2+ = . =
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕∅ 𝜕𝑧 𝑘 𝑘 𝜕𝜏 𝛼 𝜕𝜏
iii. Spherical coordinates:
1 𝜕2𝑡 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑡 1 𝜕 𝜕𝑡 𝑞𝑔 𝑝. 𝑐 𝜕𝑡 1 𝜕𝑇
2
. 2
+ 2 . (sin 𝜃. ) + . (𝑟 2 . ) + = . =
𝑟 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃) 𝜕∅ 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑘 𝑘 𝜕𝜏 𝛼 𝜕𝜏

B. One-Dimensional Steady-State Heat Conduction in Plane and Composite Systems.

The steady heat flow solution obtained from integrating general equation for cartesian,
spherical, cylindrical coordinates or using either Fourier’s law is:
𝛥𝑇
𝑄= , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖. 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = ∑ 𝑅 + ∑ 𝑅 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝛴𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑖 𝑐𝑖

1
𝑖𝑖. 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = ∑ 𝑅 +∑ 𝑅 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙.
𝑖 𝑐𝑖

i. Steady heat conduction through composite walls

𝐿 1
𝑅𝑖 = 𝑘 𝑖𝐴 and 𝑅𝐶𝑖 = ℎ 𝐴
𝑖 𝑖
ii. Steady heat conduction through hallow cylinder
𝑙𝑛(𝑟2 ∕ 𝑟1 ) 1
𝑅1 = 𝑎𝑛ⅆ 𝑅𝑐1 =
2𝜋𝑘𝐿 ℎ1 . 2𝜋𝑟1 𝑙
iii. Steady heat conduction through hallow sphere
1 1 1 1
𝑅1 = [ − ] 𝑎𝑛ⅆ 𝑅𝑐1 =
4𝜋𝑘1 𝐿 𝑟1 𝑟2 ℎ1 . 4𝜋𝑟 2
iv. Determination of mean area for three shapes
i. For flat surface
𝐴𝑎𝑚 = 𝐴
ii. For cylindrical surface
2𝜋𝐻𝛥𝑥
𝐴𝐿𝑚 =
𝑙𝑛(𝑏 ∕ 𝑎)
iii. For spherical surface
𝐴𝑔𝑚 = 4𝜋𝑎𝑏
v. Steady heat conduction-critical radius/thickness of insulation
 The addition of insulation to cylindrical piece or spherical shell increase
conduction resistance of the insulation layer and decrease convection resistance
of the surface.
𝑘⁄
𝑟𝑜𝑐 = { ℎ , for cylinder and sphere.
2𝑘⁄
ℎ

C. Conduction with Internal Heat Generation.

i. Plane wall
Case I. Both the surfaces have the same temperature
𝑞𝑔
𝑡= (2𝐿 − 𝑥)𝑥 + 𝑡𝑤
2𝑘
𝑞𝑔 2
𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐿 + 𝑡𝑤
2𝑘
Case II. Both the surfaces of the wall have different temperatures
𝑞𝑔 𝑡𝑤 − 𝑡𝑤1
𝑡 = [ (𝐿 − 𝑥) + 2 ] 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑤1
2𝑘 𝐿
Case III. Current carrying electrical conductor
𝑝𝐿 2
𝐼 2 𝐽2
𝑅= , 𝑄𝑔 = 𝐼 𝑅, 𝑞𝑔 = ( ) 𝑝 =
𝐴 𝐴 𝑘𝑒
ii. Solid cylinder
𝑞𝑔 𝑞𝑔 2
𝑡 = 𝑡𝑎 + 𝑅+ (𝑅 − 𝑟 2 )
2ℎ 4𝑘
𝑞𝑔 𝑞𝑔 2
𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎 + 𝑅+ 𝑅
2ℎ 4𝐾
D. Extended Surface

i. Heat transfer from extended surfaces(fins)

Case I. Heat dissipation from an infinitely long fin (𝐿 → ∞):

𝑄𝑓𝑖𝑛 = √𝑃ℎ𝐾𝐴𝐶𝑠 (𝑡0 − 𝑡𝑎 )

Case II. Heat dissipation from a fin insulated at the tip:

𝑄𝑓𝑖𝑛 = √𝑃ℎ𝐾𝐴𝐶𝑠 (𝑡0 − 𝑡𝑎 ) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ℎ(𝑚𝐿)

𝑃ℎ
𝑚=√
𝑘𝐴𝑐𝑠

Case III. Heat dissipation from a fin losing heat at the tip:
ℎ
𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ(𝑚𝐿) +
𝑄𝑓𝑖𝑛 = √𝑃ℎ𝐾𝐴𝐶𝑠 (𝑡0 − 𝑡𝑎 ) 𝑘𝑚
ℎ
1+ 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ(𝑚𝐿 )
𝑘𝑚

ii. Efficiency and Effectiveness of fin:

 Efficiency of fin is defined as the ratio of the actual heat transferred by the fin to
the maximum heat transferable by fin.
For a fin which is infinitely long:
1
𝜂=
𝑚𝐿
For a fin which is insulated at the tip:
𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ(𝑚𝐿)
𝜂=
𝑚𝐿
Effectiveness of fin is the ratio of the fin heat transfer rate to the heat transfer
rate that would exist without a fin.
𝑝𝑘
𝜀=√
ℎ𝐴𝑐𝑠

E. Unsteady Heat Conduction - Lumped Analysis, Semi-Infinite, and Infinite Solids.

I. Lumped analysis
Lumped analysis is used in determining the transient response of the body which is
suddenly placed in ambient air.
➢ Characteristic length:
𝐿
o flat plate 𝐿𝐶 = 2
𝑅
o cylinder long 𝐿𝑐 = 2
𝑅
o sphere 𝑙𝑐 = 3
𝐿
o cube 𝐿𝐶 = 6
ℎ𝐿𝐶
➢ Biot number 𝐵𝑖 =
𝑘
𝜎𝜏
➢ Fourier number𝐹𝑜 = 𝐿2
𝑐
If Bi <1 we use the lumped analysis method otherwise we use Heisler charts.
ℎ𝐴
Instantaneous rate of heat flow: 𝑄𝑖 = −ℎ𝐴𝑠 (𝑡𝑖 − 𝑡𝑎 ) 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [𝑃𝑣𝐶𝑠 𝜏] or

𝑄𝑖 = −ℎ𝐴𝑠 (𝑡𝑖 − 𝑡𝑎 )𝑒 −𝐵𝑖 𝑓𝑜

ℎ𝐴
Cumulative heat transfer: 𝑄 ′ = 𝑝𝑣𝐶 (𝑡𝑖 − 𝑡𝑎 ) {𝑒𝑥𝑝 {− 𝑃𝑣𝐶𝑠 𝜏} − 1}

II. Semi-infinite solids

To consider a solid as semi-infinite the solid must be much thicker than the
penetration of heat in that direction.
Case I. constant surface temperature T (0, t) = Ts
𝑥
𝑇(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑇𝑜 + (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑜 ) erfc ( )
2√𝛼𝑡
Case II. Constant heat flux on the surface 𝑞𝑠′′ = 𝑞0′′
2 𝑞0′′
𝑇𝑠= 𝑇0 + √𝛼𝑡
√𝜋 𝑘

𝑇(𝑥,𝑡)−𝑇0 𝑥 ℎ𝑥 ℎ 2 𝛼𝑡 𝑥 ℎ√𝛼𝑡
Case III. convection 𝑇∞ −𝑇0
= 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 (2 )− [exp ( 𝑘 + 𝑘2
)] [erfc (2 𝛼𝑡 + )]
√𝑥𝑡 √ 𝑘
Part 2: Convection Heat Transfer

Convention is the transfer of heat within in a fluid by mixing of one portion of the fluid with another.
It is governed by Newton’s law of cooling.𝑄 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞)

A. Conservation Equations.
𝜕(𝑃𝑢 ) 𝜕(𝑃𝑣) 𝜕𝑝
I. Conservation of Mass 𝜕𝑥
+ 𝜕𝑦
= 𝜕𝜏
II. Newton’s second law: two significant conclusions are arrived at from the Blasius
solution.
5
𝛿𝑥 = boundary layer thickness
√ 𝑥
𝑅𝑒
𝑇𝑆 = 0.332 ⋅ 𝜇𝑢∞ √𝑅𝑒 𝑥 wall shear stress
𝑥
0.664
𝑐𝑓𝑥 = coefficient of friction
√Re 𝑥
𝑐̅𝑓 = [2𝐶𝑓 ]𝑥=𝑙 average coefficient of friction
III. First law of thermodynamics
Used if the property values are used at film temperature(𝑇𝑆 + 𝑇∞ ) ∕ 2
𝛿𝑥
𝛿𝑡ℎ 𝑥 = thermal boundary layer
𝑝𝑟 1⁄3
1 1
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.332 Re 𝑥 (𝑃𝑟 3 ) Nusselt number
2

𝑁𝑢𝑥 𝑘
ℎ𝑥 = ̅̅̅𝐿
,ℎ = 2ℎ𝐿 hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness and average
𝑥
convective heat transfer coefficients

B. Boundary Layer Concept.

Boundary layer is a thin region of fluid near a solid surface where the effects of viscosity are
significant.

I. Velocity boundary layer

𝜎𝑢
𝜏𝑠 = 𝜇 𝜕𝑦 | the wall shear
𝑦=0
𝜏𝑠
𝑐𝑓 = 2 ∕2) the friction coefficient
(𝑝𝑢∞
II. Thermal boundary layer
𝑇s−𝑇(𝑥,𝑦)
𝑇𝑠−𝑇∞
dimensionless temperature profile.

C. Forced Convection:

I. Dimensional analysis applied to forced convection heat transfer

the analysis yield to the following non-dimensional groups:

𝑃𝑣𝐷
i. Re= 𝜇
, Reynold’s number
𝜇 𝑃
ii. Pr= 𝑘𝑐 , Prandtl number
ℎ
iii. St=𝑝𝑣𝐶𝑝, Nusselt number
II. External forced convection
It is represented by the power-law relation of the form:𝑁𝑢 = 𝐶𝑅𝑒𝐿𝑚 𝑝𝑟 𝑛
i. Parallel flow over flat plates
1.328
Laminar:𝐶𝑓 = 1 , Re 𝐿 < 5 × 105
𝑅𝑒𝐿2
 ⁄
𝑁𝑢 = 0 ⋅ 664𝑅𝑒𝑙0.5 𝑃𝑟1 3 , 𝑝𝑟 > 0.60

0.074
Turbulent: 𝐶𝑓 = 1 ,5 ∗ 105 ≤ Re 𝐿 ≤ 107
𝑅𝑒𝐿5
1∕3
𝑁𝑢 = 0.037𝑅𝑒𝑙0.8 𝑃𝑟 , 0.6 ≤, 𝑝𝑟 ≤ 60

𝜀 −2⋅5
Rough surface, turbulent:𝐶𝑓 = (1.89 − 1 ⋅ 62 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝐿)
ii. Flat plate with unheated starting length
Laminar:
1
0.332 𝑅𝑒 𝑥 0⋅5 𝑃𝑟 3
• Constant temperature:𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 1
3 3
[1−(𝜉∕𝑥) ]
4

3
2 [1 − (𝜉 ∕ 𝑥)4 ]
ℎ= ℎ𝑥 = 𝐿
1−𝜉∕𝐿

1
• Uniform temperature:𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.453 𝑅𝑒 𝑥 0.5 (𝑝𝑟 )
3

Turbulent:
1
0.0296 𝑅𝑒 𝑥 0⋅8 𝑃𝑟 3
• Constant temperature: 𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 1
9 9
[1−(𝜉∕𝑥) ]
10

9
5 [1 − (𝜉 ∕ 𝑥)10 ]
ℎ= ℎ𝑥 = 𝐿
4(1 − 𝜉 ⁄𝐿)

1
• Uniform temperature: 𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 0.0308 𝑅𝑒 𝑥 0.8 (𝑝𝑟 3)

iii. Flow across cylinders and spheres

The characteristic length for circular cylinder or sphere is the external
diameter D.
𝑣𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = Reynold number
𝛾
𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑅𝑒 ≤ 2 ∗ 105 ,𝜃 ≈ 800 flow separation angle
𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑅𝑒 ≥ 2 ∗ 105 , 𝜃 ≈ 800 flow separation angle

𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛ⅆ𝑒𝑟:

𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
iv. Flow across tube banks:
 Diagonal pitch:𝑆𝐵 = √𝑆 2 𝐿 + (𝑠𝑇 ∕ 2)2
𝑉 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐷
𝑅𝑒 𝐷 =
𝑣
ℎ𝐷 𝑚 0.7 < 𝑃𝑟 < 500
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 𝑘 = 𝑐𝑅𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑟 𝑛 (𝑃𝑟 ∕ 𝑃𝑟5 )0.25 {
0 < 𝑅𝑒 𝐷 < 2 × 106
𝛥𝑇𝑒−𝛥𝑇𝑖
𝛥𝑇ln = ln(𝛥𝑇𝑒∕𝛥𝑇 )
𝑖

𝑠𝑇
▪ In case of in-line tubes:𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑠 𝑣
𝑇−𝐷
𝑇 𝑠
▪ In case of staggered tubes: 𝑆𝐷 < (𝑆𝑇 + 𝐷) ∕ 2: 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2(𝑆𝐷−𝐷) 𝑣

III. Internal forced convection

i. Entrance effects
Hydrodynamic Entrance region is the region from the tube inlet to the
point at which the boundary layer merges at the centerline.

Hydraulic length:
1
𝐿ℎ,𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑈 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 1.359(𝑅𝑒)4
Type equation here.

Nusselt number:
ii. Laminar flow in tubes
4𝐴𝑐
Hydraulic diameter: 𝐷ℎ =
𝑝
Velocity profile:𝑉(𝑟) = 2𝑣 𝑟2 = 2𝑣𝑚
𝑚(1− 2 ),𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑅
32𝜇 𝐿𝑣𝑚
Pressure drops along the tube:𝛥𝑝 = 𝐷2
𝑓
Fanning friction factor:𝐶𝑓 = ⁄4
64
Friction factor:𝑓 = 𝑅𝑒

iii. Turbulent flow in tubes:

Turbulent flow is used because of the highest heat transfer coefficients

▪ Smooth tubes:

▪ Liquid metals:

▪ Rough surfaces:

D. Free Convectionor natural convection flow.

 I. Dimensional analysis applied to natural or free convection
The analysis yield to the following non-dimensional groups:
ℎ𝐿
v. Nu= 𝑘
𝜇𝑐𝑃
vi. Pr= 𝑘
(𝛽𝑔 𝛥𝑡 )𝐿3
vii. Gr= 𝑣2

The relationship between them will be Nu=𝐶(𝑃𝑟)𝑛 (𝐺𝑟 )𝑚

II. Equation of motion and Grashof number

𝐺
𝑅𝑖 = 𝑅𝑒𝑟𝐿
2 𝐿, Richardson Number.

Where Ral is the Rayleigh number,

III. Natural convection from finned surfaces and printed circuit board (PCB):

IV. Natural convection cooling of Vertical PCB (qs=constant):

V. Natural convection inside Enclosures:

• Effective thermal conductivity

• Horizontal Rectangular Enclosure

• Inclined rectangular Enclosure

• Vertical Rectangular Enclosure

 VI. Combined natural and forced convection

• Assisting flow: natural convection assists forced convection and enhances

heat transfer.
• Opposing flow: natural convection resists forced convection and decreases
heat transfer
• Transverse flow: enhances fluid mixing and thus enhances heat transfer.

Part 3: Phase Change Heat Transfer and Heat Exchangers

I. Phase change heat transfer

We learned 3 phase changes:
1. Boiling which occurs at the solid liquid interface
2. Evaporation occurs at the liquid-vapor interface
3. Condensation occurs when a vapor strikes a surface that is at a temperature below its
corresponding saturation temperature.
II. Boiling heat transfer
Boiling is the transition from liquid to vapor it is classified into pool boiling (in the
absence of the bulk fluid flow) and flow boiling (in the presence of bulk fluid flow).
A. Pool boiling:
i. Pool boiling regimes and curves:

❖ Natural convection boiling: occurs when the liquid is slightly

superheated, forming bubbles at the heating surface.
❖ Nucleate boiling: the bubbles form at an increasing rate at an
increasing number of nucleation sites.

✓ Isolated bubbles:
✓ Numerous vapor columns:100 𝐶 ≤ 𝛥𝑇𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 ≤ 300 𝐶
❖ Transition boiling: when the 𝛥𝑇𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 is increased and the heat
flux decreases.
❖ Film boiling: stable vapor film covers the heater surface,
reducing heat transfer.
ii. Burnout phenomenon and peak heat flux
Burnout occurs when heating element’s temperature exceeds its melting
point due to excessive heat flux, leading to its failure.
iii. Heat transfer correlations in pool boiling:
✓ Nucleate boiling:
 , the maximum or
critical heat flux

, minimum heat flux

, the heat flux

for film boiling on a horizontal cylinder or sphere of diameter D.

At high surface temperatures, heat transfer by radiation becomes

significant and needs to be considered.

Nucleate boiling is enhanced by increasing nucleation sites on the

heating surface. Techniques like surface roughness, finned surfaces and
mechanical agitation can increase heat transfer and critical heat flux,
though permanent surface modifications and finned surfaces are more
practical.

B. Flow boiling: flow boiling regimes depend on the relative amounts of liquids and
vapor in a tube.
Different regimes require different heat transfer relations:
• Liquid single-phase flow: forced convection (assuming no subcooled boiling)
• Bubbly flow, slug flow, annual flow, mist flow: specific relations for each
regime
• Vapor single-phase flow: superheated vapor, condensation heat transfer
III. Condensation heat transfer
Condensation occurs when vapor cools below its saturation temperature. It can form
either a continuous liquid film (film condensation) or discrete droplets (dropwise
condensation).
the transition between regimes is Reynold’s number defined as:

Nusselt theory of laminar film condensation: it is used to derive the expression for heat transfer
coefficient for condensation.

A. Condensation on vertical surfaces:

B. Heat transfer correlations for film condensation (vertical plates)
i. Laminar flow on vertical plates
 ii. Wavy laminar flow on vertical plates

iii. Turbulent flow on vertical plates

4. Condensation on a horizontal tube:

5. Condensation inside horizontal tube

C. Factors affecting heat transfer:

i. Vapor velocity: downward vapor flow enhances heat transfer by thinning the
liquid film, while upward flow has the opposite effect
ii. Non condensable gases in vapor impede heat transfer by hindering vapor
molecule access to the cold surface.
D. Heat transfer correlations for dropwise condensation (vertical plate):
Dropwise condensation offers significantly higher heat transfer coefficients than film
condensation due to the absence of a resistive liquid film.

dropwise condensation of steam on

copper surfaces.

Heat exchangers

A heat exchanger is a component that allows the transfer of heat from one fluid to another fluid. We
have 3 directions of fluid flow parallel flow (direction of flow of both fluids is the same), counter flow
(direction are opposite to each other), cross flow (fluid on the outside flows in a perpendicular
direction to the pipe axis).

I. Determination of heat transfer rate

II. Overall heat transfer coefficient

, overall heat transfer coefficient based on

outside area
 , overall heat transfer coefficient based on
inside area

III. Log-mean temperature difference

• Parallel flow (when the fluid temperatures are known).

• Counter flow

Correction factor for lmtd

, change in t
Difficulities with LMTD: it is difficult to use if we want to predict the performance
of a heat exchanger. So we assume the values tho, tco find Q from a heat balance
and then find q from𝐴𝛥𝑇𝐿𝑚 using the value of Q, find new vaues of Tco,Tho till
the first and second values of T were equal. We simplify it using effectiveness-
NTDU methos.

IV. Effectiveness-NTU method

• Thermal capacity ratio

• Thermal effectiveness

• Maximum possible heat transfer

• Number of transfer units (NTU)

I. Effectiveness-NTU method for parallel heat exchanger

II. Effectiveness-NTU method for counter-flow heat exchanger

III. Limitation cases

Case i. when𝑐 ≈ 0 …………..condensors and evaporators

Caseii. When c=1……………………typical regenerators

1. Parallel flow:

2. Counter flow: