Capacitor

Introduction

In order to store sufficient charge, a device called capacitor is purposely constructed. A capacitor essentially
consists of two conducting surfaces (say metal plates) separated by an insulating material (Air, Mica, Paper
etc.). It has the property to store electrical energy in the form of electrostatic charge. The capacitor can be
connected in a circuit so that this stored energy can be made to flow in a desired circuit to perform a useful
function.

Capacitor

Any two conducting surfaces separated by an insulating material is called a capacitor. Its purpose is to store
electrostatic energy in a small space. The conducting surfaces are called the plates of the capacitor and the
insulating material is called the dielectric. The most commonly used dielectrics are air, mica, waxed paper,
ceramics etc.
The following points may be noted carefully :-

1) The ability of a capacitor to store charge depends upon the area of plates, distance between plates
and the nature of insulating material (or dielectric).
2) A capacitor is generally named after the dielectric used air capacitor, paper capacitor, mica capacitor
etc.
3) The capacitor may be in the form of parallel plates, concentric cylinder or other arrangement.

How Does a Capacitor Store Charge ?

A capacitor stores charge when connected to d.c. supply. The parallel plate capacitor having plates A and B
is connected across a battery of V volts. With the switch S open, the capacitor plates are neutral, there is no
charge on the plates as shown in the figure (i).
When the switch is closed, the electrons from plate A will be attracted by the +ve terminal of the battery and
these electrons start accumulating on plate B. The result is that plate A attains more and more positive
charge and plate B gets more and more negative charge.

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This action is referred to as charging a capacitor because the capacitor plates are becoming charged. This
process of electron flow or charging (detaching electrons from plate A and accumulating on B) continues till
p.d. across capacitor plates becomes equal to battery voltage V. When the capacitor is charged to battery
voltage V, the current flow ceases as shown in Fig (iii). If now the switch is opened as shown in Fig. (iv), the
capacitor plates will retain the charges. Thus the capacitor plates which were neutral to start with now have
charges on them. This shows that a capacitor stores charge.

The following points may be noted about the action of a capacitor :-

1) When a d.c. potential difference is applied across a capacitor, a charging current will flow until the
capacitor is fully charged when the current will cease. This whole charging process takes very short
time. Thus a capacitor once charged prevents the flow of direct current.
2) The current does not flow through the capacitor between the plates. There is only transfer of
electrons from one plate to the other.
3) When a capacitor is charged, the two plates carry equal and opposite charges (say +Q and -Q). This
is expected because one plate loses as many electrons as the other plate gains. Thus charge on a
capacitor means charge on either plate.
4) The energy required to charge the capacitor (transfer of electrons from one plate to the other) is
supplied by the battery.

Note :- The electrons cannot flow from plate B to A as there is insulating material between the plates.
Hence electrons detached from plate A start piling up on plate B.

Capacitance

The ability of a capacitor to store charge is known as its capacitance. It has been found experimentally that
charge Q stored in a capacitor is directly proportional to the p.d. across it
Q∝V
𝑸
=C
𝑽
The constant C is called the capacitance of the capacitor.

Hence, capacitance of a capacitor can be defined as under :-

The ratio of charge on capacitor plates (charge on either plate) to the p.d. across the plates is called
capacitance of the capacitor.

Unit of Capacitance

We know that :-
𝑸
C = ⁄𝑽
The SI unit of charge is coulomb/volt which is also called farad (Symbol F) in honour of Michael Faraday
1 farad = 1 coulomb/volt

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A capacitor is said to have a capacitance of 1 farad if a charge of 1 coulomb accumulates on each plate when
a p.d. of 1 volt is applied across the plates.
The farad is an extremely large unit of capacitance. Practical capacitors have capacitances of the order of
microfarad (𝜇F) and micro-microfarad (𝜇𝜇F) or picofarad (pF).
1 𝝁F = 10-6 ; 1 𝝁𝝁F (or 1 pF) = 10-12 F

Dielectric Constant or Relative Permittivity

The insulating material between the plates of a capacitor is called dielectric. When the capacitor is charged,
the electrostatic field extends across the dielectric. The presence of dielectric increases the concentration of
electric lines of force between the plates and hence the charge on each plate. The degree of concentration of
electric lines of force between the plates depends upon the nature of dielectric.
Hence the ability of a dielectric material to concentrate electric lines of force between the plates of a
capacitor is called dielectric constant or relative permittivity of that material.
Air has been assigned a reference value of dielectric constant (or relative permittivity) as 1. The dielectric
constant of all other insulating materials is greater than air.
For example, Dielectric constant of mica is 6. It means that if mica is used as a dielectric between the plates
of a capacitor, the capacitance of the capacitor becomes 6 times as great as when air is used.
Let, V = Potential difference between capacitor plates
Q = Charge on capacitor when air is dielectric
𝐐⁄
Cair = 𝐕
When mica is used as a dielectric in the same capacitor and the same p.d. is applied, the capacitor will now
hold a charge of 6 Q.
6Q 𝑄
Cmica = = 6 𝑉 = 6 Cair
V
𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑎
𝐶𝑎𝑖𝑟
=6 = Dielectric constant of mica
Hence dielectric constant (or relative permittivity) of a dielectric material is the ratio of capacitance of a
capacitor with that material as a dielectric to the capacitance of the same capacitor with air as dielectric.

The relative permittivity or dielectric constant of some insulating materials is given below.
S.No. Dielectric Dielectric Constant
1 Air 1
2 Ceramic 6 - 20
3 Glass 5 - 100
4 Mica 3-7
5 Paper 4-6

Note :- Normally the electrons of the atoms of the dielectric revolve round their nuclei in their regular
orbits. When the capacitor is charged, the electrostatic field causes deformation of the orbits of the
electrons of the dielectric. This deformation of orbits causes more electrons to be transferred from one
plate to the other. Hence, the presence of dielectric increases the charge on the capacitor plates and
hence the capacitance.

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 Parallel Plate Capacitor with Uniform Medium

Consider a parallel plate capacitor consisting of two plates, each of surface

area A square metres and separated by a uniform dielectric of thickness d
metres and relative permittivity εr.
Let a p.d. of V volts applied between the plates place a charge of + Q and -
Q on the plates. Suppose E and D respectively are the electric intensity and
electric flux density between the plates.
Now,

D = 𝑄⁄𝐴 coulomb/m2
And E = 𝑉⁄𝑑
But D = ε0 εr E
Q
= ε0 εr 𝑉⁄𝑑
𝐴
Q 𝑉
= ε0 εr
𝐴 𝑑
𝑄 ε0 ε𝑟 𝐴
=
𝑉 𝑑
The ratio 𝑄⁄𝑉 is the capacitance C of the capacitor.
ε0 ε𝑟 𝐴
C = ...in a medium
𝑑
ε0 𝐴
C = ... in air
𝑑

It may be seen that capacitance is directly proportional to relative permittivity of the medium (εr) and
surface area (A) of capacitor plate. However, it is inversely proportional to the distance (d) between the
plates.
The following three factors determine the value of capacitance of the capacitor :-
1) The surface area of plates - The larger the area, the greater the capacitance and vice-versa.
2) The spacing between plates - The smaller the spacing, the greater the capacitance and vice-versa.
3) The permittivity of dielectric - The higher the permittivity, the greater the capacitance and vice-
versa.
Multiplate Capacitor

The most convenient way of achieving large capacitance is by

using large plate area. Increasing the plate area may increase
the physical size of the capacitor enormously. In order to
obtain a large area of plate surface without using too bulky a
capacitor, multiplate construction is employed.
In this construction, the capacitor is built up of alternate
sheets of metal foil (plates) and thin sheets of dielectric. The
T1 T2
odd-numbered metal sheets are connected together to form
one terminal T1, and even numbered metal sheets are
connected together to form the second terminal T2.

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A little reflection shows that this arrangement is equivalent to 8 capacitors in parallel. The total capacitance
will, therefore, be 8 times the capacitance of a single capacitor (formed by say plates 1 and 2). If there are n
plates, each of area A, then (n - 1) capacitors will be in parallel.

𝛆𝟎 𝛆𝒓 𝑨
∴ Capacitance of n plate capacitor = (n - 1)
𝒅

where d is the distance between any two adjacent plates and εr is the relative permittivity of the medium. It
may be seen that plate area is increased from A to A (n - 1).

Variable Air Capacitor

It is a multiplate air capacitor whose capacitance can be varied by

changing the plate area. A variable air capacitor commonly used
to "tune in" radio stations in the radio receiver. It consists of a set
of stationary metal plates fixed to the frame and another set of
movable metal plates fixed to the central shaft. The two sets of
plates are electrically insulated from each other. Rotation of the
shaft moves the plates into the spaces between plates, thus changing the common (or effective) plate area
and hence the
capacitance. The capacitance of such a capacitor is given by :-
𝛆𝟎 𝑨
C = (n - 1)
𝒅
When the movable plates are completely rotated in (the two sets of plates completely overlap each other),
the common plate area 'A' is maximum and so is the capacitance of the capacitor. Minimum capacitance is
obtained when the movable plates are completely rotated out of stationary plates. The capacitance of such
variable capacitors is from zero to about 4000 pF.

Cylindrical Capacitor

A cylindrical capacitor consists of two co-axial cylinders separated by an insulating medium. This is an
important practical case since a single core cable is in effect a capacitor of this kind. The conductor
(or core) of the cable is the inner cylinder while the outer cylinder is represented by lead sheath which is at
earth potential. The two co-axial cylinders have insulation between them.
Consider a single core cable with conductor diameter d metres and inner sheath diameter D metres. Let the
charge per meter axial length of the cable be Q coulombs and εr be the relative permittivity of the insulating
material. Consider a cylinder of radius x metres. According to Gauss's theorem, electric flux passing through
this cylinder is Q coulombs.
The surface area of this cylinder is given by :- = 2 πx × 1
= 2 πx m2

∴ Electric flux density at any point P on the considered cylinder is

𝐐
Dx = C/m2
𝟐𝛑𝐱

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Electric intensity at point P is given by :-
Dx
Ex =
ε0 εr
𝐐
= 𝟐𝛑𝐱 𝛆 V/m
𝟎 𝛆𝐫

Leakage Resistance of a Capacitor

The resistance of the dielectric of the capacitor is called its leakage Leakage resistance. The dielectric in an
ideal capacitor is a perfect insulator (It has infinite resistance) and zero current flows through it when a
voltage the is applied across its terminals. The dielectric in a real capacitor has a large but finite resistance
so a very small current flows between the capacitor plates when a voltage is applied.

Voltage Rating of a Capacitor

The maximum d.c. voltage that can be applied to a capacitor without breakdown of its dielectric is called
voltage rating of the capacitor.
If the voltage rating of a capacitor is exceeded, the dielectric may break down and conduct current, causing
permanent damage to the capacitor. Both capacitance and voltage rating must be taken into consideration
before a capacitor is used in a circuit application.

Capacitors in Series

Consider three capacitors having capacitances C1, C2, and C3, farad respectively, connected in series across a
p.d. of V volts. In series connection, charge on each capacitor is the same (+Q on one plate and -Q on the
other) but p.d. across each is different.

Now, V = V1 + V2 + V3
Q Q Q
V = +C +C
C1 2 3
1 1 1
V = Q(C +C +C )
1 2 3
V 1 1 1
=C +C +C
Q 1 2 3

But 𝑄⁄𝑉 is the total capacitance CT, between points A and B so that 𝑉⁄𝑄 = 1⁄𝐶
𝑇

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
∴ = + +
𝐂𝐓 𝐂𝟏 𝐂𝟐 𝐂𝟑

The total capacitance of n equal (each of capacitance C) series-connected capacitors will be CT = 𝐶⁄𝑛 .

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Special Case :- Frequently we come across two capacitors in series. The total capacitance in such a case is
1 1 1
given by :- =C +C
CT 1 2
1 C1 + C2
=
CT C1 C2

𝐂𝟏 𝐂𝟐 𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭
CT = =
𝐂𝟏 + 𝐂𝟐 𝐒𝐮𝐦

Note :- When voltage V is applied, a similar electron movement occurs on each plate. Hence the same
charge is stored by each capacitor. Alternatively, current (charging) in a series circuit is the same. Since
Q = It and both I and t are the same for each capacitor, the charge on each capacitor is the same.

Capacitors in Parallel

Consider three capacitors having capacitances C1, C2, and C3, farad respectively, connected in parallel across
a p.d. of V volts. In parallel connection, p.d. across each capacitor is the same but charge on each is
different.

Q = Q1, + Q2, + Q3
= C1V + C2V + C3V
= V (C1, + C2, + C3)
𝑄
= C1, + C2 + C3
𝑉

But 𝑄⁄𝑉 is the total capacitance CT, of the parallel combination.

∴ CT = C1 + C2 + C3

The equivalent capacitance of parallel-connected capacitors in the same

way we find equivalent resistance of series-connected resistors.

Energy Stored in a Capacitor

Charging a capacitor means transferring electrons from one plate of the capacitor to the other. This involves
consumption of energy because electrons have to be moved against the opposing forces. This energy is
stored in the electrostatic field set up in the dielectric medium. On discharging the capacitor, the field
collapses and the stored energy is released.

Consider a capacitor of C farad being charged from a

d.c. source of V volts. Suppose at any stage
of charging, the charge on the capacitor is q coulombs
and p.d. across the plates is v volts.

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 𝑞
Then, C = ⁄𝑣
At this instant, v joules (by definition of V) of work will be done in transferring 1 C of charge from one plate
to the other. If further small charge dq is transferred, then work done is
dw = v dq
= Cv dv (∴ dqq == Cv
Cdv
)
∴ Total work done in raising the potential of uncharged capacitor to V volts is
𝑉
W = ∫0 𝐶𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑣2
=C 2
1
W = 2 CV2

This work done is stored in the electrostatic field set up in the dielectric,
∴ Energy stored in the capacitor is given by :-
1
E = 2 CV2
1
= 2
QV
𝑸𝟐
E = Joules
𝟐𝑪

The energy stored (E) will be in joules if Q is in coulombs, C in farad and V in volts. Note that an ideal
(pure) capacitor does not dissipate or consume energy; instead, it stores energy. It returns stored energy
when delivering power to the circuit.

Note :- Electrons are being pushed to the negative plate which tends to repel them. Similarly electrons
are removed from the positive plate which tends to attract them. In either case, forces oppose the
transfer of electrons from one plate to the other. This opposition increases as the charge on the plates
increases.

Behavior of Capacitor in a D.C. Circuit

The behavior of a capacitor in a d.c. circuit is summed up below :-

1) When d.c. voltage is applied to an uncharged capacitor, the capacitor is quickly (not
instantaneously) charged to the applied voltage. When the capacitor is fully charged, capacitor
voltage becomes constant and is equal to the applied voltage.
2) A capacitor can have voltage across it even when there is no current flowing.
3) The voltage across a capacitor (Q = CV) is proportional to charge and not the current.
4) There is no current through the dielectric of the capacitor during charging or discharging because
the dielectric is an insulating material. There is merely transfer of electrons from one plate to the
other through the connecting wires.
5) When the capacitor is fully charged, there is no circuit current. Therefore, a fully charged
capacitor appears as an open to d.c.

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 6) An uncharged capacitor is equivalent to a short circuit as far as d.c. voltage is concerned. Therefore,
a capacitor must be charged or discharged by connecting a resistance in series with it to limit the
charging or discharging current.
7) When the circuit containing capacitor is disconnected from the supply, the capacitor remains
charged for a long period. If the capacitor is charged to a high value, it can be dangerous to someone
working on the circuit.
8)
Charging of a Capacitor

Consider an uncharged capacitor of capacitance C connected in

series with a resistor R to a d.c. supply of V volts.
When the switch is closed, the capacitor starts charging up and
charging current flows in the circuit. The charging current is
maximum at the instant of switching and decreases gradually as
the voltage across the capacitor increases. When the capacitor is
charged to applied voltage V, the charging current becomes
zero.

• At switching instant :- At the instant the switch is closed, the voltage across capacitor is zero since
we started with an uncharged capacitor. The entire voltage V is dropped across resistance R and
charging current is maximum (Call it Im).
∴ Initial charging current, Im = V/R
Voltage across capacitor = 0
Charge on capacitor = 0

• At any instant :- After having closed the switch, the charging current starts decreasing and the
voltage across capacitor gradually increases. Let at any time t during charging :
i = Charging current
v = P.D. across C
q = Charge on capacitor = Cv

Note :- When a capacitor is being charged or discharged, the voltage across capacitor as well as circuit
current changes. These changing voltages and current are called transients. The word transients means
temporary or short lived. Once the capacitor is charged or discharged fully, these transients are over.

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