CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

P. P. M. DAPARE

1
 Definition of Cell
• A cell is the smallest unit that is
capable of performing life functions.

• A cell is the smallest unit of living

matter.

• Don’t confuse this with: atom,

element, proton, etc.
2
 Cell Structure
• Relies on 4 critical properties
– Matter
– Energy
– Organization
– Information

3
 Cell Structure-Matter
• Matter found in living matter is composed
of elements, molecules and
macromolecules
• Life (cells) depend on organic molecules
• Cells are composed of the same
macromolecules—carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, nucleic acids.
• These compounds are composed of 6 main
elements. C H O N P S
4
 Cell Structure-Energy
• Needed to carryout life processes
– Build molecules and
macromolecules(synthesis)
– Break down macromolecules and molecules
– To carryout cell functions
– To overcome disorder , to maintain
organization
• Energy molecule the cell uses is ATP,
adenosine triphosphate

5
 Cell Structure-Organisation
• Cells are not a haphazard bag of
components

• Molecules and macromolecules that make

up cells have specific sites where they
are found.

6
 Cell Structure-Information
• Cell organization requires instructions
• Genetic materials that carries the
instructions
• Genome- the entire complement of its
genetic material
• Every living cell has a copy of its genome
• Genome contains the genes that carry the
information to create cells with particular
structures and functions.
7
 First to View Cells
• In 1665, Robert
Hooke used a
microscope to
examine a thin
slice of cork
(dead plant cell
walls)
• What he saw
looked like small
boxes 8
 First to View Cells
• Hooke is
responsible for
naming cells
• Hooke called them
“CELLS” because
they looked like
the small rooms
that monks lived in
called Cells
9
 CELL THEORY
• All living things are
made of cells
• Cells are the smallest
structural and functional
units of organisms (basic
unit of life)
• Cells come from the
reproduction of existing
cells (cell division)
10
 CELL DIVERSITY
• Not all cells are alike.

• Even cells within the same organism

show enormous diversity in size,
shape, and internal organization.

• The body contains around 1013 to 1014

cells of around 300 different cell
types.
11
 Cell Types
• Cells, the basic units of organisms, can
only be observed under microscope
• Three Basic types of cells include:

Animal Cell Plant Cell Bacterial Cell

12
 Number of Cells
Although ALL living things are made of
cells, organisms may be:
• Unicellular – composed of one cell
• Multicellular- composed of many cells
that may organize into tissues, etc.

13
 Multicellular Organisms
• Cells in multicellular organisms often
specialize (take on different shapes &
functions)

14
 Cell Specialization
• Cells in a multi-
cellular organism
become specialized
by turning different
genes on and off
• This is known as
DIFFERENTIATION

15
 Specialized Animal Cells
Muscle cells Red blood cells

Cheek cells

16
 Specialized Plant cells
Guard Cells

Pollen Xylem cells

17
 CELL SIZE
• A few types of cells are large enough to be
seen by the unaided eye. The human egg
(ovum) is the largest cell in the body, and
can (just) be seen without the aid of a
microscope.
• Most cells are small for two main reasons:
✓ The cell’s nucleus can only control a certain
volume of active cytoplasm.
✓ Cells are limited in size by their surface area
to volume ratio.

18
 CELL SIZE
• A group of small cells has a relatively
larger surface area than a single large
cell of the same volume.
• This is important because the nutrients,
oxygen, and other materials a cell requires
must enter through it surface.
• As a cell grows larger at some point its
surface area becomes too small to allow
these materials to enter the cell quickly
enough to meet the cell's need
19
 Which Cell Type is Larger?

Plant cell > _____________

_________ Animal cell > ___________
bacteria

20
 INTERNAL ORGANISATION
• Cells contain a variety of internal structures
called organelles.
• An organelle performs a specific function in
that cell.
• Just as the organs of a multicellular organism
carry out the organism's life functions; the
organelles of a cell maintain the life of the
cell.
• There are many different cells; however,
there are certain features common to all cells.
21
 INTERNAL ORGANISATION
• The entire cell is surrounded by a thin
cell membrane. All membranes have the
same thickness and basic structure.

• Organelles often have their own

membranes too – once again, these
membranes have a similar structure.

• The nucleus, mitochondria and

chloroplasts all have double membranes
more correctly called envelopes. 22
 INTERNAL ORGANISATION
• Because membranes are a fluid mosaics, the
molecules making them up, phospholipids and
proteins - move independently.
• The proteins appear to ‘float’ in the phospholipids
bilayer and thus membranes can thus be used to
transport molecules within the cell e.g.
endoplasmic reticulum.
• Proteins in the membrane can be used to
transport substances across the membrane – e.g.
facilitated diffusion or by active transport.
• The proteins on the outside of cell membranes
identify a cell as unique. 23
 Two Types of Cells
• Prokaryotic
– Bacteria
• Eukaryotic
– Plant
– animals

24
Two Types of Cells

25
Prokaryotes – The first Cells
• Cells that lack a nucleus or
membrane-bound organelles
• Includes bacteria
• Simplest type of cell
• Single, circular chromosome

26
 Prokaryotes
• Nucleoid region
(center) contains
the DNA
• Surrounded by cell
membrane & cell
wall (peptidoglycan)
• Contain ribosomes
(no membrane) in
their cytoplasm to
make proteins
27
 Prokaryotes
• Flagella
• present in some
prokaryotic cells
• used for locomotion
• rotary motion
propels the cell

28
 Eukaryotes
• Cells that HAVE a
nucleus and membrane-
bound organelles
• Includes protists, fungi,
plants, and animals
• More complex type of
cells
• possess a cytoskeleton
for support and to
maintain cellular
structure
29
 Eukaryotic Cell
Contain 3 basic cell
structures:
• Nucleus
• Cell Membrane
• Cytoplasm with
organelles

30
 Two Main Types of
Eukaryotic Cells

Plant Cell Animal Cell

31
 Animal Cell Organelles

Ribosome (attached)
Nucleolus Ribosome (free)
Nucleus
Cell Membrane
Nuclear envelope
Mitochondrion

Rough Smooth
endoplasmic endoplasmic
reticulum reticulum

Centrioles
Golgi apparatus

32
Plant Cell Organelles

33
 Cell or Plasma Membrane
• Composed of double layer of phospholipids and
proteins
• Surrounds outside of ALL cells
• It is “selectively permeable” and controls
what enters or leaves the cell
• Living layer
Outside
of cell
Carbohydrate
Proteins chains
Cell
membrane

Inside
of cell Protein
Lipid bilayer 34
(cytoplasm) channel
 Phospholipids
• Heads contain glycerol &
phosphate and are hydrophilic
(attract water)
• Tails are made of fatty acids
and are hydrophobic (repel
water)
• Make up a bilayer where tails
point inward toward each other
• Can move laterally to allow
small molecules (O2, CO2, &
H2O to enter)
35
 Cell or Plasma Membrane
• Membrane Proteins
• Cell membranes usually contain proteins embedded
within the phospholipid bilayer
• These may be classified as Peripheral or Integral
• These may be hormone receptors, enzymes or cell
recognition proteins (or antigens)
• Others are associated with membrane transport
• exposed to the cell's external environment often have
carbohydrates attached
Outside
of cell
Carbohydrate
Proteins chains
Cell
membrane

Inside
of cell Protein Lipid bilayer 36
(cytoplasm) channel
 Cell or Plasma Membrane
• Fluid Mosaic Model
✓ This states that the phospholipid bilayer behaves like a
fluid more than it behaves like a solid.
✓ Enables lateral movement of proteins within the overall
bilayer
✓ Important in cell growth, formation of intercellular
junctions, secretion, endocytosis, cell division.

Outside
of cell
Carbohydrate
Proteins chains
Cell
membrane

Inside
of cell Protein
Lipid bilayer 37
(cytoplasm) channel
 Cell Membrane in Plants
Cell membrane
• Lies immediately
against the cell
wall in plant cells
• Pushes out
against the cell
wall to maintain
cell shape

38
 Cell Wall Cell wall

• Nonliving layer
• Found in plants,
fungi, & bacteria
• Made of cellulose in
plants
• Made of
peptidoglycan in
bacteria
• Made of chitin in
Fungi 39
 Cell Wall
• Found outside of the cell
membrane
• Two types: Primary (growing
plants) and Secondary (fully
grown plants)
• Supports and protects cell
• It also helps in cell-to-cell
interaction and provides
• Serves as a barrier to
undesirable macromolecules

40
 Cytoplasm of a Cell
• Cytosol is the jelly-like mixture in which
the other organelles are suspended, so
cytosol + organelles = cytoplasm.
• Provides a medium for chemical reactions
to take place

41
 Cytoplasm of a Cell

cytoplasm

42
 More on Cytoplasm
cytoplasm

• Contains organelles
to carry out
specific jobs
• Found in ALL cells

43
 Cytoskeleton
• An elaborate network of
filamentous proteinaceous
structures present in the
cytoplasm
• Helps cell maintain cell shape
• Also help move organelles around
• Made of proteins
• Microfilaments are threadlike &
made of ACTIN
• Microtubules are tubelike & made
of TUBULIN 44
 Cytoskeleton

MICROTUBULES

MICROFILAMENTS

45
 Organelles
• Very small (Microscopic)
• Perform various functions for a
cell
• Found in the cytoplasm
• May or may not be membrane-
bound

46
 The Control Organelle - Nucleus
• Controls the normal
activities of the cell
• Contains a jellylike
substance called
nucleoplasm
• Stores the DNA in
chromosomes
• Bounded by a
nuclear envelope
(membrane) with pores
• Usually the largest
organelle 47
 Nuclear Envelope
• Double membrane surrounding
nucleus
• Also called nuclear membrane
• Contains nuclear pores for
materials to enter & leave
nucleus and are more in protein
synthesizing cells
• The outer membrane is
connected to the rough ER

Nuclear
pores

48
 Inside the Nucleus -
The genetic material (DNA) is found

DNA is spread out DNA is condensed &

And appears as wrapped around proteins
CHROMATIN forming
in non-dividing cells as CHROMOSOMES
in dividing cells
49
 Nucleolus
• Inside nucleus
• Cell may have 1 to 3 nucleoli
• Disappears when cell divides
• Makes ribosomes that make
proteins
• Larger and more numerous
nucleoli are present in cells
actively carrying out protein
synthesis

50
Centrosomes & Centrioles
• Centrosome is an organelle usually
containing two cylindrical structures
called centrioles
• Usually found near the nucleus
• The two centrioles in a centrosome lie
perpendicular to each other.
• Centrioles are found only in animal cells
• Made of bundle of microtubules
• Appear during cell division forming
mitotic spindle
• It has its own DNA and RNA and
therefore it is self duplicating
• Help to pull chromosome pairs apart to
opposite ends of the cell 51
 Endoplasmic Reticulum - ER
• Network of hollow membrane tubules
• Connects to nuclear envelope & cell
membrane
• Functions in Synthesis of cell products &
Transport
• Liver cells and secretory cells have a lot of
ER

Two kinds of ER ---ROUGH & SMOOTH 52

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough
ER)
• Has ribosomes on
its surface
• Makes membrane
proteins and
proteins for
EXPORT out of cell
• It is an extension
of the outer
nuclear membrane
53
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
(Rough ER)
• Proteins are made
by ribosomes on ER
surface
• They are then
threaded into the
interior of the
Rough ER to be
modified and
transported
54
 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Smooth ER lacks
ribosomes on its
surface
• Is attached to the
ends of rough ER
• Makes cell products
that are USED
INSIDE the cell

55
Functions of the Smooth ER
• Makes membrane
lipids (steroids)
• Regulates calcium
(muscle cells)
• Destroys toxic
substances
(Liver)

56
 Endomembrane System

Includes nuclear membrane connected to ER connected

to cell membrane (transport)
57
 Ribosomes
• They are not membrane bound
• Made of PROTEINS and rRNA
• The are the most common organelles in
most cells
• “Protein factories” for cell
• Join amino acids to make proteins
• Process called protein synthesis

→
58
Ribosomes
Can be attached to
Rough ER

OR

Be free
(unattached)
in the
cytoplasm
59
 Mitochondrion
(plural = mitochondria)
• Second largetest organelle
• “Powerhouse” of the cell
• Generate cellular energy
(ATP)
• More active cells like
muscle cells have MORE
mitochondria
• Both plants & animal cells
have mitochondria
• Site of CELLULAR
RESPIRATION (burning
glucose) 60
MITOCHONDRIA
Surrounded by a DOUBLE
membrane
Has its own DNA
Folded inner membrane
called CRISTAE
(increases surface area
for more chemical
Reactions)

Interior called MATRIX

61
What do mitochondria do?

“Power plant”
of the cell

Burns glucose to
release energy (ATP)

Stores energy as ATP

62
 Golgi Bodies
• Stacks of flattened sacs
called cisternae
CIS
• Have a shipping side
(trans face) and
receiving side (cis face)
• Receive proteins made
by ER
• Transport vesicles with TRANS
modified proteins pinch
off the ends
Transport
vesicle
63
 Golgi Bodies
Look like a stack of pancakes

Modify, sort, & package

molecules from ER
for storage OR
transport out of cell
64
 Lysosomes
• Membrane bound
• Contain digestive
enzymes
• Break down food,
bacteria, and worn out
cell parts for cells
• Programmed for cell
death (AUTOLYSIS)
• Lyse (break open) &
release enzymes to
break down & recycle
cell parts)
65
 Lysosomes
• They are more in cells that digest and
destroy other cells e.g Macrophages
• Cells take in food by phagocytosis
• Lysosomes digest the food & get rid of
wastes

66
 Cilia & Flagella
• Made of protein tubes
called microtubules
• Microtubules arranged
(9 + 2 arrangement)
• Function in moving
cells, in moving fluids,
or in small particles
across the cell surface

67
 Cilia & Flagella
• Cilia are
shorter and
more numerous
on cells
• Flagella are
longer and
fewer (usually
1-3) on cells

68
Cell Movement with Cilia &
Flagella

69
Cilia Moving Away Dust Particles from
the Lungs
Respiratory System

70
 Vacuoles
• The most prominent
structure in a plant cell
• Fluid filled sacks for
storage
• Small or absent in
animal cells
• Plant cells have a large
Central Vacuole
• No vacuoles in bacterial
cells

71
 Vacuoles

• In plants, they store

Cell Sap
• Includes storage of
sugars, proteins,
minerals, lipids,
wastes, salts, water,
and enzymes

72
 Contractile Vacuole
• Found in unicellular
protists like
paramecia
• Regulate water intake
by pumping out excess
(homeostasis)
• Keeps the cell from
lysing (bursting)

73
 Chloroplasts
• Found only in producers
(organisms containing
chlorophyll)
• Use energy from
sunlight to make own
food (glucose)
• Energy from sun
stored in the Chemical
Bonds of Sugars

74
 Cell Size
Question:
Are the cells in an elephant
bigger, smaller, or about the
same size as those in a
mouse?

75
 Cell Size
Question:
Are the cells in an elephant
bigger, smaller, or about the
same size as those in a mouse?
About the same size, but …
The elephant has MANY MORE cells
than a mouse!

76
 CELL TRANSPORT

TYPES OF TRANSPORT ACROSS

THE CELL MEMBRANE

77
 Relevant definitions
• Transport: Movement of substances in and
out of the cell
• Concentration :The amount of matter in a
given amount of space (area)
• Concentration Gradient: A difference in
concentrations.
• Permeability: The ability of matter to move
across a boundary.
• Semi-Permeable: The ability of only certain
types of matter to move across a boundary 78
Factors That Determine Permeability
▪ Lipid solubility
✓Lipid soluble substances easily diffuse through
▪ Molecular size
✓Larger molecules, less permeable
▪ Polarity
✓Polar molecules hydrophilic, less permeable
✓Very small, polar uncharged (water) molecules can
diffuse
▪ Charge
✓Charged molecules hydrophilic, less permeable
✓Surrounded by coat of water (hydration shell),
increases the size 79
 Relevant definitions
• Diffusion: The movement of particles across
a concentration gradient, from an area of
higher concentration, to an area of lower
concentration

80
 Relevant definitions
• Osmosis :The movement of water particles,
across a concentration gradient, from an
area of higher water concentration, to an
area of lower water concentration

81
 Cells in Solutions
• Isotonic
– A solution whose solute concentration is the same
as the solute concentration inside the cell.

• Hypotonic
– A solution whose solute concentration is lower than
the solute concentration inside a cell

• Hypertonic
– A solution whose solute concentration is higher than
the solute concentration inside a cell.
Cells in Solutions
 Cells in Solutions
• Cytolysis
– The destruction of a cell.
• Cells swell and burst

• Plasmolysis
– The shrinking of a cell.
• Cells shrink and shrivel
 Cytolysis & Plasmolysis

• Cytolysis Plasmolysis
Three Forms of Transport Across the
Membrane
Passive Transport Active Transport
 Passive Transport: Simple Diffusion
• Simple Diffusion
– Doesn’t require energy
– Moves high to low
concentration
• Example: Oxygen or
water diffusing into
a cell and carbon
dioxide diffusing out.
 Passive Transport: Facilitated Diffusion

• Facilitated Diffusion
– Does not require
energy
– Uses transport proteins
to move high to low
concentration
• Examples: Glucose or
amino acids moving from
blood into a cell.
Proteins are Crucial to Membrane Function
 Types of Transport Proteins
• Channel proteins are
embedded in the cell
membrane & have a pore
for materials to cross

• Carrier proteins can

change shape to move
material from one side of
the membrane to the other
 Facilitated Diffusion
• Some carrier
proteins do not
extend through the
membrane.
– They bond and drag
molecules through the
lipid bilayer and release
them on the opposite
side.
 Active Transport
• Active Transport
– Requires energy or
ATP
• Moves materials from
LOW to HIGH
concentration
– AGAINST concentration
gradient
 Active Transport
• Examples: Pumping Na+
(sodium ions) out and K+
(potassium ions) in—
against concentration
gradients.
– Called the Sodium-Potassium
Pump.
 Active Transport-Exocytosis
• Exocytosis
➢Type of active transport
➢Moving things OUT
✓Molecules are moved out of
the cell by vesicles that
fuse the with the plasma
membrane.

✓This is how many hormones

are secreted and how nerve
cells communicate with each
other.
94
Active Transport-Endocytosis
• Large molecules move materials into
the cell by one of three forms of
endocytosis.
– Pinocytosis
– Phagocytosis
– Receptor-mediated endocytosis
 Endocytosis-Pinocytosis

• Most common form of endocytosis.

– Takes in dissolved molecules as a vesicle.
 Endocytosis-Pinocytosis
• Cell forms an invagination
– Materials dissolve in water to be brought
into cell
– Called “Cell Drinking”
 Endocytosis-Phagocytosis

Used to engulf large particles such as food, bacteria,

etc. into vesicles
Called “Cell Eating”
 Phagocytosis
Phagocytosis - Capture of a
parasite (green) by
Membrane Extensions of
an Immune System Cell
(orange)

parasite macrophage
 Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

Some integral proteins have receptors on their

surface to recognize & take in hormones,
cholesterol, etc.