Module 2 TAYLOR SERIES EXPANSION

Review of Mathematical Taylor series of a function is an infinite sum of terms

Foundation that are expressed in terms of the function's
derivatives at a single point. For most common
functions, the function and the sum of its Taylor series
Table of Contents are equal near this point. Taylor's series are named
Taylor Series Expansion after Brook Taylor who introduced them in 1715.

Matrix and Determinants

If zero is the point where the derivatives are
considered, a Taylor series is also called a Maclaurin
series, after Colin Maclaurin, who made extensive
Learning Objectives use of this special case of Taylor series in the 18th
Student Upon completion of this module, century.
Learning you will be able to:
Objectives for Taylor Series Expansion The partial sum formed by the n first terms of a Taylor
this Module  Use the Taylor polynomial to series is a polynomial of degree n that is called the
give approximations for nth Taylor polynomial of the function. Taylor
functions. polynomials are approximations of a function, which
Matrix and Determinants become generally better when n increases. Taylor's
 Define what is matrix and theorem gives quantitative estimates on the error
determinants introduced by the use of such approximations. If the
 Perform the operations on Taylor series of a function is convergent, its sum is the
Matrices limit of the infinite sequence of the Taylor
 Determine the transpose polynomials. A function may be not equal to the sum
and inverse of a matrix of its Taylor series, even if its Taylor series is
convergent. A function is analytic at a point x if it is
Learning Activities equal to the sum of its Taylor series in some open
Activities for  Do the assignments interval (or open disk in the complex plane)
this module  Take the quizzes containing x. This implies that the function is analytic
Graded Assessment at every point of the interval (or disk).
Evidence to  Completed all the
proceed exercises and tasks in this The Taylor series of a real or complex-valued function
module f (x) that is infinitely differentiable at a real or complex
number a is the power series
References  Essential Mathematics for
Engineering by W.Bolton
 An Introduction to
Numerical Methods and
Analysis by James F.
Epperson Where n! denotes the factorial of n. In the more
 Elementary Numerical compact sigma notation, this can be written as
Analysis by Atkinson and
Han
 Advanced Engineering
Mathematics by Ruben
Cope
where f(n)(a) denotes the nth derivative of f
evaluated at the point a. (The derivative of order
zero of f is defined to be f itself and (x − a)0 and 0! are
both defined to be 1.)

When a = 0, the series is also called a Maclaurin

series.

ENGR. APRILLE ANN M. SIM | Numerical Solutions to Civil Engineering Problems 1

Example 1 Exercise (Problem Set 4)
Let 𝑦 = √𝑥 + 1; then the second-order Taylor Instruction: Evaluate the following. Show and WRITE
polynomial (computed about x0= 0) is computed as your solution in a long coupon bond, send the
follows: picture or scanned copy of your answer (either pdf or
jpeg format) thru private message in our Edmodo
platform or submit a hardcopy to my table @ Dean’s
Office (Solutions are all Handwritten)
A. Obtain the TSE of the following
1. h(y) = ln y computed about y = 2
2. f(x) = 2x–2 computed about x = 1
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
3. f(x) = √ computed about x = 0
2
Example 2 4. g(y) = 3ey/2 computed about y = 2
Obtain the MSE of the function f(θ) = cos θ
B. Obtain the MSE of the following functions
1
1. h(y) = 𝑒 2𝑦
2
2. f(t) = 3𝑒 𝑡
3. f(x) = tanx
Due Date: On or Before November 20, 2020 (11.59 PM)
4.
QUIZ 5.7 will be given/sent to students on November 23,
2020@5:00pm
6. and to be submitted/returned on November
25, 2020.
7.

MATRIX AND DETERMINANTS

Matrix
A matrix is simply a set of numbers arranged in a
rectangular table. We usually write matrices inside
parentheses ( ) or brackets [ ].
Example 3
Obtain the MSE of the function f(θ) = e θ A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers arranged
in rows and columns. The array of numbers below is
an example of a matrix.
21 62 33 93
44 95 66 13
77 38 79 33
The number of rows and columns that a matrix has is
called its dimension or its order. By convention, rows
are listed first; and columns, second. Thus, we would
say that the dimension (or order) of the above matrix
is 3 x 4, meaning that it has 3 rows and 4 columns.

Numbers that appear in the rows and columns of a

matrix are called elements of the matrix. In the
above matrix, the element in the first column of the
first row is 21; the element in the second column of
the first row is 62; and so on.

ENGR. APRILLE ANN M. SIM | Numerical Solutions to Civil Engineering Problems 2

Matrix Notation  Each matrix has the same number of columns.
Statisticians use symbols to identify matrix elements  Corresponding elements within each matrix
and matrices. are equal.
 Matrix elements. Consider the matrix below, in
which matrix elements are represented B. Types of Matrices
entirely by symbols. This lesson describes a few of the more important
A11 A12 A13 A14 types of matrices: transpose matrices, vectors, and
different kinds of square matrices.
A21 A22 A23 A24
By convention, first subscript refers to the row  Transpose Matrix
number; and the second subscript, to the The transpose of one matrix is another matrix that is
column number. Thus, the first element in the obtained by using by using rows from the first matrix
first row is represented by A11. The second as columns in the second matrix.
element in the first row is represented by A12.
And so on, until we reach the fourth element For example, it is easy to see that the transpose of
in the second row, which is represented by matrix A is A'. Row 1 of matrix A becomes column 1 of
A24. A'; row 2 of A becomes column 2 of A'; and row 3 of
A becomes column 3 of A'.
 Matrices. There are several ways to represent
a matrix symbolically. The simplest is to use a 111 222
111 333 555
boldface letter, such as A, B, or C. Thus, A A= 333 444 A' =
might represent a 2 x 4 matrix, as illustrated 222 444 666
555 666
below.
11 62 33 93 Note that the order of a matrix is reversed after it has
A= been transposed. Matrix A is a 3 x 2 matrix, but matrix
44 95 66 13 A' is a 2 x 3 matrix.
Another approach for representing matrix A is:
 A = [ Aij ] where i = 1, 2 and j = 1, 2, 3, 4  Vectors
This notation indicates that A is a matrix with 2 Vectors are a type of matrix having only one column
rows and 4 columns. The actual elements of or one row.
the array are not displayed; they are
represented by the symbol Aij. Vectors come in two flavors: column vectors and row
vectors. For example, matrix a is a column vector,
Terminology and matrix a' is a row vector.
 A matrix with m rows and n columns is called
11
a matrix of order m x n.
 A square matrix is a matrix with an equal a= 12 a' = 11 22 33
number of rows and columns. Since the 33
number of rows and columns are the same, it
We use lower-case, boldface letters to represent
is said to have order n.
column vectors. And since the transpose of a column
 The main diagonal of a square matrix are the
vector is a row vector, we use lower-case, boldface
elements from the upper left to the lower right
letters plus a prime to represent row vectors. Thus,
of the matrix.
vector b would be a column vector, and vector b'
 A row matrix is a matrix that has only one row.
would be a row vector.
 A column matrix is a matrix that has only one
column.
 Square Matrices
 A matrix with only one row or one column is
A square matrix is an n x n matrix; that is, a matrix with
called a vector.
the same number of rows as columns. In this section,
we describe several special kinds of square matrix.
Properties of a matrix
a. Symmetric matrix. If the transpose of a
matrix is equal to itself, that matrix is
A. Matrix Equality
said to be symmetric. Two examples of
To understand matrix algebra, we need to
symmetric matrices appear below.
understand matrix equality. Two matrices are equal if
all three of the following conditions are met:
 Each matrix has the same number of rows.

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 567 How to Add and Subtract Matrices
12 Two matrices may be added or subtracted only if
A = A' = B = B' = 632
23 they have the same dimension; that is, they must
721 have the same number of rows and columns.
Note that each of these matrices satisfy the Addition or subtraction is accomplished by adding or
defining requirement of a symmetric matrix: A subtracting corresponding elements. For example,
= A' and B = B'. consider matrix A and matrix B.
b. Diagonal matrix. A diagonal matrix is a 123 567
special kind of symmetric matrix. It is a A= B=
symmetric matrix with zeros in the off- 789 345
diagonal elements. Two diagonal
matrices are shown below.
Both matrices have the same number of rows and
500 columns (2 rows and 3 columns), so they can be
10
A= B= 030 added and subtracted. Thus,
03
001
Note that the diagonal of a matrix refers to 1+5 2+6 3+7 6 8 10
the elements that run from the upper left A+B= =
corner to the lower right corner. 7+3 8+4 9+5 10 12 14
c. Scalar matrix. A scalar matrix is a
special kind of diagonal matrix. It is a And,
diagonal matrix with equal-valued
elements along the diagonal. Two
1-5 2-6 3-7 -4 -4 -4
examples of a scalar matrix appear
below. A-B= =
7-3 8-4 9-5 4 4 4
500
30
A= B= 050 And finally, note that the order in which matrices are
03
005 added is not important; thus, A + B = B + A.
These square matrices play a prominent role in the
application of matrix algebra to real-world problems. Problem 1
For example, a scalar matrix called the identity matrix Consider the matrices shown below A, B, C, and D
is critical to the solution of simultaneous linear A B C D
equations. = 1 = 3 5 = 4 5 = -1 0
d. Identity matrix is an n x n diagonal 2 6 6
4 6 -2 0
matrix with 1's in the diagonal and
zeros everywhere else. The identity
Which of the following statements are true?
matrix is denoted by I or In. Two
I. A + B = C
identity matrices appear below.
II. B + C = D
100 III. B - C = D
10
I2 = I3 = 010
01 Answer: III
001
D. Matrix Multiplication
The identity matrix has a unique talent. Any matrix In matrix algebra, there are two kinds of matrix
that can be premultiplied or postmultiplied by I multiplication: multiplication of a matrix by a number
remains the same; that is: and multiplication of a matrix by another matrix.
AI = IA = A
How to Multiply a Matrix by a Number
C. Matrix Addition and Matrix Subtraction When you multiply a matrix by a number, you multiply
Just like ordinary algebra, matrix algebra has every element in the matrix by the same number. This
operations like addition and subtraction. operation produces a new matrix, which is called a
scalar multiple.

ENGR. APRILLE ANN M. SIM | Numerical Solutions to Civil Engineering Problems 4

 For example, if x is 5, and the matrix A is: Let AB = C. Because A has 2 rows, we know that C will
have two rows; and because B has 2 columns, we
know that C will have 2 columns. To compute the
100 200
value of every element in the 2 x 2 matrix C, we use
A=
the formula Cik = Σj AijBjk, as shown below.
300 400
 C11 = Σ A1jBj1 = 0*6 + 1*8 +2*10 = 0 + 8 + 20 = 28
Then,  C12 = Σ A1jBj2 = 0*7 + 1*9 +2*11 = 0 + 9 + 22 = 31
 C21 = Σ A2jBj1 = 3*6 + 4*8 +5*10 = = 18 + 32 + 50
5 * 5 * = 100
100 200 100 200 500 1000  C22 = Σ A2jBj2 = 3*7 + 4*9 +5*11 = 21 + 36 +55 =
5A = 5 = = = B 112
300 400 5 * 5 * 1500 2000
300 400 Based on the above calculations, we can say

In the example above, every element of A is 28 31

multiplied by 5 to produce the scalar multiple, B. AB = C =
100 112
Note: Some texts refer to this operation as multiplying
a matrix by a scalar. (A scalar is a real number or a What we did to compute Matrix C was not
symbol representing a real number.) complicated. All we did was to multiply row elements
in Matrix A by corresponding column elements in
How to Multiply a Matrix by a Matrix Matrix B.
The matrix product AB is defined only when the
number of columns in A is equal to the number of Multiplication Order
rows in B. Similarly, the matrix product BA is defined As we have already mentioned, in some cases,
only when the number of columns in B is equal to the matrix multiplication is defined for AB, but not for BA;
number of rows in A. and vice versa. However, even when matrix
multiplication is possible in both directions, results may
Suppose that A is an i x j matrix, and B is a j x k matrix. be different. That is, AB is not always equal to BA.
Then, the matrix product AB results in a matrix C,
which has i rows and k columns; and each element in Because order is important, matrix algebra jargon has
C can be computed according to the following evolved to clearly indicate the order in which
formula. matrices are multiplied.

Cik = Σj AijBjk  To describe the matrix product AB, we can

say A is postmultiplied by B; or we can say
where that B is premultiplied by A.
Cik = the element in row i and column k from matrix C  Similarly, to describe the matrix product BA,
Aij = the element in row i and column j from matrix A we can say B is postmultiplied by A; or we can
Bjk = the element in row j and column k from matrix B say that A is premultiplied by B.
Σj = summation sign, which indicates that the aijbjk The bottom line: when you multiply two matrices,
terms should be summed over j order matters.

Let's work through an example to show how the

above formula works. Suppose we want to compute Problem 1
AB, given the matrices below. Consider the matrices shown below - A, B, and C
ab ef wx
6 7 A= B= C=
cd gh y z
012
A= B= 8 9 Assume that AB = C. Which of the following
345 statements are true?
10 11 (A) w = a*e + b*h
(B) x = a*f + b*h

ENGR. APRILLE ANN M. SIM | Numerical Solutions to Civil Engineering Problems 5

(C) y = c*g + d*h
(D) All of the above
(E) None of the above

Answer: B

E. Matrix Division
If C matrix will be divided by D matrix, we get the
inverse of D then proceed to multiplication;
C/D = CD-1 where D-1 is the inverse of D.

F. Matrix Inverse
Matrix Inversion
Suppose A is an n x n matrix. The inverse of A is
another n x n matrix, denoted A-1, that satisfies the
following conditions.

AA-1 = A-1A = In

where In is the identity matrix. Below, with an

example, we illustrate the relationship between a
matrix and its inverse.

21 0.8 -0.2 0.8 -0.2 21 10

= =
34 -0.6 0.4 -0.6 0.4 34 01

A A-1 A-1 A I

Not every square matrix has an inverse; but if a matrix

does have an inverse, it is unique.

Does the Inverse Exist?

There are two ways to determine whether the inverse
of a square matrix exists.

 Determine its rank. The rank of a matrix is a

unique number associated with a square
matrix. If the rank of an n x n matrix is less than
n, the matrix does not have an inverse. We
showed how to determine matrix rank
previously.
 Compute its determinant. The determinant is
another unique number associated with a
square matrix. When the determinant for a
square matrix is equal to zero, the inverse for
that matrix does not exist. We showed how to
find the determinant of a matrix previously.

A square matrix that has an inverse is said to be

nonsingular or invertible; a square matrix that does
not have an inverse is said to be singular.

ENGR. APRILLE ANN M. SIM | Numerical Solutions to Civil Engineering Problems 6

ENGR. APRILLE ANN M. SIM | Numerical Solutions to Civil Engineering Problems 7
ENGR. APRILLE ANN M. SIM | Numerical Solutions to Civil Engineering Problems 8
  A( B + C ) = AB + AC (Distributive law of
matrix algebra)
 x( A + B ) = xA + xB
Transposition Rules
 ( A' )' = A
 ( A + B )' = A' + B'
 ( AB )' = B'A'
 ( ABC )' = C'B'A'
Inverse Rules
 AI = IA = A
 AA-1 = A-1A = I
 ( A-1 )-1 = A
 ( AB )-1 = B-1A-1
 ( ABC )-1 = C-1B-1A-1
 ( A' )-1 = ( A-1 )'

Exercise (Problem Set 5)

Instruction: Evaluate the following. Show and WRITE
your solution (if they should have) and answer only if
it only requires. Write in a long coupon bond, send
the picture or scanned copy of your answer (either
pdf or jpeg format) thru private message in our
Edmodo platform or submit a hardcopy to my table
@ Dean’s Office (Solutions are all Handwritten)
A. Perform the following (Calculator is
allowed)
1. What is the size of the matrix A? _________
2. What is the (2,3) entry in the matrix A?
_____

Matrix Theorems
Here, we list without proof some of the most
important rules of matrix algebra - theorems that
govern the way that matrices are added, multiplied, 3. Which sums can be made with the
and otherwise manipulated.
Notation following matrices
 A, B, and C are matrices.
 A' is the transpose of matrix A.
 A-1 is the inverse of matrix A.
 I is the identity matrix.
 x is a real number.

Matrix Addition and Matrix Multiplication

 A + B = B + A (Commutative law of
addition)
 A+B+C=A+(B+C)=(A+B)+
C (Associative law of addition)
 ABC = A( BC ) = ( AB )C (Associative law of
multiplication)

ENGR. APRILLE ANN M. SIM | Numerical Solutions to Civil Engineering Problems 9

 4. Which of the following statements are _____5. If A is non-zero and AB = AC, then B
correct? = C.
_____6. The square of a non-zero square
matrix must be a non-zero matrix
_____7. If B = AT A, then 3B is symmetric.
_____8. (A B)T = AT BT.
_____9.

_____10.
C. Fill in the blanks
For addition to be possible, two matrices must have
the same __________. For multiplication to be possible,
the number of __________ in the first matrix must be
5. Which of the following products can be
made from the given matrices?

the same as the number of __________ in the second

matrix. The resultant matrix would have the number
of __________ the first matrix has, and the number of
___________ the second matrix has.
D. Kindly box your final answer. Make your work
neat and clean.
1. Determine the determinants using Pivotal
method

3 7 –1 3
2 5 0 2
0 2 6 3
1 2 0 3

6. If A is a 2×3 matrix, and B is a 3×4 matrix, how

many columns does AB have?__________ 2. Determine the determinant using Chios
B. Understand the following. Put T if the Method
statement is always true, otherwise put F . O is
the zero matrix (A zero matrix is a matrix 1 6 4 –1 8
consisting of all 0s) and I is the identity matrx.
2 7 8 4 4
All variables are assumed to be well-defined
unless otherwise stated. All equations are 3 4 7 6 5
linear.
4 6 2 7 6
_____1. If A is a square matrix and A2 = I,
then A = I or A = -I. 5 –3 4 2 7
_____2. If AB = O, then A = O or B = O. Due Date: On or Before November 25, 2020 (11.59 PM)
_____3. If A, B, C are square and ABC = O,
QUIZ 8 and Quiz 9 will be given/sent to students on
then one of them is O .
November 27, 2020@5:00pm and to be submitted/returned
_____4. If AB = AC, then B = C. on November 29, 2020.

ENGR. APRILLE ANN M. SIM | Numerical Solutions to Civil Engineering Problems 10