Conic Sections

Dr. Alpha O Soko

Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources

August 2, 2024

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Outline

1 Definitions
2 Generate Form Of Conic
3 The parabola
4 The Ellipse
5 The hyperbola
6 Shifted Conics
7 Conic Sections in Polar Coordinates
8 Exercises
9 Thanks

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Terminology
A conic is the intersection of a plane and a right circular cone.
The four basic types of conics are parabolas, ellipses, circles, and
hyperbolas.

In a non-degenerate conic the plane does not pass through the

vertex of the cone.
When the plane does intersect the vertex of the cone, the resulting
conic is called a degenerate conics
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Generate Form Of Conic
All conics can be written in terms of the following equation

Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

We use the discriminant B 2 − 4AC to do the classification.

1 If B 2 − 4AC < 0, the equation represents an ellipse.
2 In the event when A = C and B = 0, the equation represents a
circle, which is a special case of an ellipse;
3 If B 2 − 4AC = 0, the equation represents a parabola;
4 If B 2 − 4AC > 0 the equation represents a hyperbola.
Standard equation for non-degenerate conic section
circle x2 + y 2 = a2
x2 y 2
ellipse + 2 =1
a2 b
2
parabola y = 4ax, with a > 0
x2 y 2
hyperbola − 2 =1
a2 b
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Classify the following conic sections as a parabola, an ellipse, a
circle, or a hyperbola
−3x2 + y + 2 = 0
2x2 + 3xy − 4y 2 + 2x − 3y + 1 = 0
2x2 − 3y 2 = 0
−3x2 + xy − 2y 2 + 4 = 0
x2 = 0
x2 − y 2 = 0
x2 + y 2 = 0

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The parabola

A parabola is the set of points in a plane that are equidistant from

a fixed point F (called the focus) and a fixed line (called the
directrix).

Figure: Definition of Parabola

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Notice that the point halfway between the focus and the directrix
lies on the parabola; it is called the vertex.
The line through the focus perpendicular to the directrix is called
the axis of the parabola.
We obtain a particularly simple equation for a parabola if we place
its vertex at the origin O and its directrix parallel to the x-axis

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If the focus is the point (0, p), then the directrix has the equation
y = −p.
If P (x, y) is any point on the parabola, then the distance from P to
the focus is
p
|P F | = x2 + (y − p)2

the distance from P to the directrix is |y + p|.

The defining property of a parabola is that these distances are
equal:
p
x2 + (y − p)2 = |y + p|

Squaring and simplifying we have An equation of the parabola

with focus (0, p) and the directrix y = −p is

x2 = 4py (1)

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If we write a = 1/4p, then x2 = 4py becomes y = ax2 .
It opens upward if p > 0 and downward if p < 0
The graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis because
x2 = 4py is unchanged when x is replaced by −x.
If we interchange x and y we obtain
y 2 = 4px (2)
which is an equation with focus (p, 0) and diretrix x = −p.
Interchanging x and y amounts to reflecting about the diagonal
line y = x

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Example
Find the focus and directrix of the parabola y 2 + 10x = 0 and sketch
the graph.

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Example
Find the focus and directrix of the parabola y 2 + 10x = 0 and sketch
the graph.

Solution
If we write the equation as y 2 = −10x and compare with y 2 = 4px.
We see that p = −2.5. Thus the focus is (−2.5, 0) and the directrix
is x = 2.5

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The ellipse

An ellipse is the set of points in a plane the sum of whose

distances from two fixed points F1 and F2 is a constant

These two fixed points are called the foci (plural of focus).
One of Kepler’s laws is that the orbits of the planets in the solar
system are ellipses with the sun at one focus.
In order to obtain the simplest equation for an ellipse, we place the
foci on the x-axis at the points (−c, 0) and (c, 0) as in Figure below
so that the origin is halfway between the foci.

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Figure showing the foci in simplified form

Let the sum of the distances from a point on the ellipse to the foci
be 2a > 0.
Then P (x, y) is a point on the ellipse when

|P F1 | + |P F2 | = 2a

Which is equivalent to
p p
(x + c)2 + y 2 + (x − c)2 + y 2 = 2a

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The equation can also be written as
p p
(x − c)2 + y 2 = 2a − (x + c)2 + y 2

Squaring both sides and simplifying, we have

p
a (x + c)2 + y 2 = a2 + cx

We square again and collect like terms together to obtain

(a2 − c2 )x2 + a2 y 2 = a2 (a2 − c2 )

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From triangle F1 F2 P , we see that 2c < 2a, so c < a and therefore
(a2 − c2 ) > 0.
For convenience, let b2 = (a2 − c2 ) Then the equation of the
ellipse becomes

b2 x2 + a2 y 2 = a2 b2

if both sides are divided by a2 b2 we have

x2 y 2
+ 2 =1 (3)
a2 b
Since b2 = a2 − c2 < a2 , it follows that b < a. The x-intercepts are
found by setting y = 0.
Then after solving for x we have x = ±a. The corresponding
points (a, 0) and (−a, 0) are called the vertices of the ellipse
The line segment joining the vertices is called the major axis. To
find the y-intercepts we set x = 0 and obtain y = ±b. The line
segment joining (0, b) and (0, −b) is the minor axis.
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The Ellispse is unchanged if x is replaced by −x or y is replaced
by −y, so the ellipse is symmetric about both axes.
Notice that if the foci coincide, then c = 0, so a = b and the ellipse
becomes a circle with radius r = a = b.

The ellipse

x2 y 2
+ 2 = 1, a≥b>0 (4)
a2 b
has foci (±c, 0) where c2 = a2 − b2 , and vertices (±a, 0)
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If the foci of an ellipse are located on the y-axis at (0, ±c), then
we can find its equation by interchanging x and y

The ellipse
x2 y 2
+ 2 = 1, a≥b>0 (5)
b2 a
has foci (0, ±c) where c2 = a2 − b2 , and vertices (0, ±a)
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Example
Sketch the graph of 9x2 + 16y 2 = 144 and locate the foci.

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Example
Sketch the graph of 9x2 + 16y 2 = 144 and locate the foci.

Solution
Divide both sides of the equation by 144:

x2 y 2
+ =1
16 9
The equation is now in the standard form for an ellipse, so we
have a2 = 16, b2 = 9, a = 4, and b = 3.
The x-intercepts are ±4 and the y-intercepts are ±3.
√ √
Also, c2 = a2 − b2 = 7, so c = 7 and the foci are (± 7, 0).

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 The graph is sketched below

Example
Find an equation of the ellipse with foci (0, ±2) and vertices (0, ±3)

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Using the standard notation we have c = 2 and a = 3.
Then we obtain b2 = a2 − c2 = 9 − 4 = 5 so an equation of the
ellipse is

x2 y 2
+ =1
5 9
Another way of writing the equation is 9x2 + 5y 2 = 45

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Application of Ellipse

Like parabolas, ellipses have an interesting reflection property that

has practical consequences.
If a source of light or sound is placed at one focus of a surface
with elliptical cross-sections, then all the light or sound is reflected
off the surface to the other focus.
This principle is used in lithotripsy, a treatment for kidney stones.
A reflector with elliptical cross-section is placed in such a way that
the kidney stone is at one focus.
High-intensity sound waves generated at the other focus are
reflected to the stone and destroy it without damaging surrounding
tissue.
The patient is spared the trauma of surgery and recovers within a
few days.

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The hyperbola

A hyperbola is the set of all points in a plane the difference of

whose distances from two fixed points F1 and F2 (the foci) is a
constant.
This definition is illustrated in in the Figure below

Hyperbolas occur frequently as graphs of equations in chemistry,

physics, biology, and economics (Boyle’s Law, Ohm’s Law, supply
and demand curves).
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Notice that the definition of a hyperbola is similar to that of an
ellipse; the only change is that the sum of distances has become
a difference of distances.
In fact, the derivation of the equation of a hyperbola is also
similar to the one given earlier for an ellipse. We leave it as an
exercise for one to complete the derivation of the equation.

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From the derivation, when the foci are on the x-axis at (±c, 0) and
the difference of distances is

|P F1 | − |P F2 | = ±2

Then the equation of the hyperbola is

x2 y 2
− 2 =1 (6)
a2 b
Where c2 = a2 + b2 . Notice that the x-intercepts are again ±a and
the points (a, 0) and (−a, 0) are the vertices of the hyperbola.
But if we put x = 0 in Equation 6 we get y 2 = −b2 , which is
impossible, so there is no y-intercept. The hyperbola is symmetric
with respect to both axes.

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To analyze the hyperbola further, we look at Equation 6 and obtain
x2 y2
= 1 + ≥1
a2 b2
This shows that x2 ≥ a2 , so |x| ≥ a. Therefore we have x ≥ a or
x ≤ −a. This means that the hyperbola consists of two parts,
called its branches.
When we draw a hyperbola it is useful to first draw its asymptotes,
which are the dashed lines y = (b/a)x or y = −(b/a)x as shown in
Figure below

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Both branches of the hyperbola approach the asymptotes; that is,
they come arbitrarily close to the asymptotes.
The hyperbola
x2 y 2
− 2 =1 (7)
a2 b
has foci (±c, 0) where c2 = a2 + b2 , vertices (±a, 0) and
asymptotes y = ±(b/a)x
If the foci of a hyperbola are on the y-axis, then by reversing the
roles of x and y we obtain the following information, which is
illustrated in Figure below

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 The hyperbola

y 2 x2
− 2 =1 (8)
a2 b
has foci (0, ±c) where c2 = a2 + b2 , vertices (0, ±a) and
asymptotes y = ±(a/b)x

Example
Find the foci and asymptotes of the hyperbola 9x2 − 16y 2 = 144 and
sketch its graph.

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Solution
If we divide both sides of the equation by 144, it becomes

x2 y 2
− =1
16 9
which is the form given by stadard form with a = 4 and b = 3.
Since c2 = 16 + 9 = 25, the foci are (±5, 0).
The asymptotes are the lines y = ±(3/4)x. The graph is shown
below.

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Example
Find the foci and equation of the hyperbola with vertices (0, ±1) and
asymptote y = 2x

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Example
Find the foci and equation of the hyperbola with vertices (0, ±1) and
asymptote y = 2x

Solution
From the standard Form and the given information, we see that
a = 1 and a/b = 2.
So b = 0.5 and c2 = a2 + b2 = 5/4.
p
The foci are (0, ± 5/4) and the equation of the hyperbola is

y 2 − 4x2 = 1

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Shifted Conics
We shift conics by taking the standard equations of the given
conic and replacing x and y by x − h and y − k.
Example
Find an equation of the ellipse with foci (2, −2), (4, −2) and vertices
(1, −2), (5, −2).

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Shifted Conics
We shift conics by taking the standard equations of the given
conic and replacing x and y by x − h and y − k.
Example
Find an equation of the ellipse with foci (2, −2), (4, −2) and vertices
(1, −2), (5, −2).

Solution
The major axis is the line segment that joins the vertices
(1, −2), (5, −2) and has length 4, so a = 2.
The distance between the foci is 2, so c = 1. Thus b2 = a2 − c2 = 3.
Since the center of the ellipse is (3, −2), we replace x and y in Ecllipse
Equation by x − 3 and y − 2 to obtain

(x − 3)2 (y + 2)2
+ =1
4 3
as the equation of the ellipse.
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Example
Sketch the conic 9x2 − 4y 2 − 72x + 8y + 176 = 0 and find its foci.

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Example
Sketch the conic 9x2 − 4y 2 − 72x + 8y + 176 = 0 and find its foci.

Solution
We complete the squares as follows:

4(y 2 − 2y) − 9(x2 − 8x) = 176

4(y 2 − 2y + 1) − 9(x2 − 8x + 16) = 176 + 4 − 144
4(y − 1)2 − 9(x − 4)2 = 36
(y − 1)2 (x − 4)2
− =1
9 4
This is in the form hyperbola except that x and y are replaced by
x − 4 and y − 1.

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Thus a2 = 9, b2 = 4, and c2 = 13. The hyperbola is shifted four
units to the right and one unit upward.
√ √
The foci are (4, 1 + 13) and (4, 1 − 13) and the vertices are
(4, 4) and (4, −2).
The asymptotes are y − 1 = ±3/2(x − 4). The hyperbola is
sketched in below

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Conic Sections in Polar Coordinates

In the preceding section we defined the parabola in terms of a

focus and directrix
we defined the ellipse and hyperbola in terms of two foci.
we give a more unified treatment of all three types of conic
sections in terms of a focus and directrix.
Further-more, if we place the focus at the origin, then a conic
section has a simple polar equation, which provides a convenient
description of the motion of planets, satellites, and comets.

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Theorem
Let F be a fixed point (called the focus) and l be a fixed line (called
the directrix) in a plane. Let E be a fixed positive number (called the
eccentricity). The set of all points P in the plane such that

|P F |
=E
|P l|

(that is, the ratio of the distance from F to the distance from l is the
constant E) is a conic section. The conic is
(a) an ellipse if E < 1
(b) a parabola if E = 1
(c) a hyperbola if E > 1

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Proof
Notice that if the eccentricity is E = 1, then P F = P l and so the
given condition simply becomes the definition of a parabola.
Let us place the focus F at the origin and the directrix parallel to
the y-axis and d units to the right.
Thus the directrix has equation x = d and is perpendicular to the
polar axis. Figure below shows the arrangement

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Proof Continued
If the point P has polar coordinates (r, θ), we see from Figure
above that

|P F | = r |P l| = d − r cos(θ)

Thus the condition |P F |/|P l| = E becomes

r = E(d − r cos(θ)) (9)

If we square both sides of this polar equation and convert to

rectangular coordinates, we get

x2 + y 2 = E 2 (d − x)2 = E 2 d2 − 2dx + x2

making rearrangement we have

(1 − E 2 )x2 + 2dE 2 x + y 2 = E 2 d2

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Proof Continued

After completing the square, we have

2
E 2d y2 E 2 d2

x+ + =
1 − E2 1 − E2 (1 − E 2 )2

If E < 1. We recognize the equation as the equation of an ellipse.

It is a good exercise to show how the equation becomes
hyperbolic.

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By solving eq. (9) for r, we see that the polar equation of the conic
can be written as
Ed
r=
1 + E cos(θ)

If the directrix is chosen to be to the left of the focus as x = −d , or

if the directrix is chosen to be parallel to the polar axis as y = ±d ,
then the polar equation of the conic is given by the following
theorem,

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Figure: Polar equations of conics

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Theorem
A polar equation of the form
Ed Ed
r= or r = (10)
1 ± E cos(θ) 1 ± E sin(θ)

represents a conic section with eccentricity E. The conic is an ellipse if

E < 1, a parabola if E = 1, or a hyperbola if E > 1.

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Example
Find a polar equation for a parabola that has its focus at the origin and
whose directrix is the line y = −6.

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Example
Find a polar equation for a parabola that has its focus at the origin and
whose directrix is the line y = −6.

Solution
with E = 1 and d = 6, and using part (d) of Figure above we see that
the equation of the parabola is
6
r=
1 − sin(θ)

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Example
A conic is given by the polar equation
10
r=
3 − 2 cos(θ)

Find the eccentricity, identify the conic, locate the directrix, and sketch
the conic.

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Example
A conic is given by the polar equation
10
r=
3 − 2 cos(θ)

Find the eccentricity, identify the conic, locate the directrix, and sketch
the conic.

Solution
Dividing numerator and denominator by 3, we write the equation
as
10
3
r= 2
1− 3 cos(θ)

From the theorem above, we see that this represents an ellipse

with E = 2/3.

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Since Ed = 10/3, we have d = 5. So the directrix has Cartesian
equation x = −5.
When θ = 0, r = 10; when θ = π, r = 2. So the vertices have
polar coordinates (10, 0) and (2, π).
The ellipse is sketched below

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Example
Sketch the conic given by
12
r=
2 + 4 sin(θ)

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Example
Sketch the conic given by
12
r=
2 + 4 sin(θ)

Solution
Writing the equation in the form
6
r=
1 + 2 sin(θ)

we see that the eccentricity is E = 2 and the equation therefore

represents a hyperbola.
Since Ed = 6, d = 3 and the directrix has equation y = 3.
The vertices occur when θ = π/2 and 3π/2, so they are (2, π/2)
and (−6, 3π/2) = (6, π/2).

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It is also useful to plot the x-intercepts. These occur when
θ = 0, π) ; in both cases r = 6.
For additional accuracy we could draw the asymptotes.
The hyperbola is sketched in Figure below.

Figure: Polar Hyperbola

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Exercises
1 Find the vertex, focus, and directrix of the parabola and sketch its
graph.
1 x2 = 6y
2 2x = −y 2
3 (x + 2)2 = 8(y − 3)
4 y 2 + 2y + 12x + 25 = 0
2 The point in a lunar orbit nearest the surface of the moon is called
perilune and the point farthest from the surface is called apolune.
The Apollo 11 spacecraft was placed in an elliptical lunar orbit with
perilune altitude 110 km and apolune altitude 314 km (above the
moon). Find an equation of this ellipse if the radius of the moon is
1728 km and the center of the moon is at one focus.
3 Show that the tangent lines to the parabola x2 = 4py drawn from
any point on the directrix are perpendicular.
4 Show that if an ellipse and a hyperbola have the same foci, then
their tangent lines at each point of intersection are perpendicular.
5 If an ellipse is rotated about its major axis, find the volume of the
resulting solid.
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1 If an ellipse is rotated about its minor axis, find the resulting
volume.
2 Calculate the surface area of the ellipsoid that is generated by
rotating an ellipse about its major axis.
3 Show that the equation of the tangent line to the parabola
y 2 = 4px at the point (x0 , y0 ) can be written as

y0 y = 2p(x + x0 )

What is the x-intercept of this tangent line? Use this fact to draw
the tangent line.

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Exercise Continued
For the following questions (a) Find the eccentricity, (b) identify the
conic, (c) give an equation of the directrix, and (d) sketch the conic.
1

2
r=
3 + 3 sin(θ)
2

8
r=
4 + 5 sin(θ)
3

4
r=
5 − 4 sin(θ)
4

10
r=
5 − 6 sin(θ)
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5
3
r=
4 − 8 cos(θ)

6
12
r=
3 − 10 cos(θ)

7
3
r=
2 + 2 cos(θ)

8
9
r=
6 + 2 cos(θ)

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Thank You

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