1.

Neuron
Neurons or the nerve cells form the basic
components of the nervous system. A
typical neuron possesses a cell body
called as soma, hair like structures called
as dendrites and an axon. Dendrites are
thin structures that arise from the cell
body. These dendrites acquire
information from synapses via
neurotransmitters and convert them into
electrical impulses. These impulses are
further carried over to the cell body.
. Brain
A human brain is composed of three main
parts- the forebrain, the midbrain and the
hindbrain. These three parts have specific
functions.
• Forebrain: This consists of the
cerebrum, hypothalamus, and thalamus.
• Midbrain: Consists of the tectum and
tegmentum.
• Hindbrain: Is made of the cerebellum,
medulla, and pons.
3. Reflex Arc
The pathway of a reflex action is called
reflex arc. In a reflex arc the stimulus is
received by the receptors (sense organs)
and it passes through the sensory nerves
to the spinal cord. From the spinal cord
the information is passes through the
motor nerves to the effectors
(muscles/glands) for the response.
A simple pathway can be
represented as follows:
4. Human Excretory System/Human
Urinary System
The human excretory system mainly
comprises of the following parts:
• A pair of kidneys
• A pair of ureters
• Urinary bladder
• Urethra
Kidneys have a structural filtration unit
called nephron where the blood is filtered.
Each kidney contains a million of
nephrons. Capillaries of kidneys filter the
blood and the essential substances like
glucose, amino acids, salts, and required
amount of water are reabsorbed.
Meanwhile, the pure blood circulates back
to other parts. Excess water and
nitrogenous waste in humans are
converted to urine. Urine thus formed will
be passed to urinary bladder via ureter.
Through the urinary opening at urethra,
we excrete urine.

5. Human Digestive system

The primary function of the digestive
system is to break down food both
mechanically and by the use of enzymes
so as to release energy that can be used
by the body to perform various functions
and proper growth/repair of body cells.
• Food is taken inside mouths where
saliva that secreted by salivary glands
and contains digestive enzymes like
salivary amylase, breaks down starch
(contained in food) into sugar.
• Then tongue helps in chewing,
moistening, rolling and swallowing it.
• Food moves into the stomach, through
the movement of walls of oesophagus
peristaltic movement
• Stomach mixes the food hence received
with various digestive juices to cause its
partial digestion.
• The food from stomach moves into the
small intestine. It is the site where
complete digestion of carbohydrates,
proteins, and fats takes place. It gets
intestinal juices from two different glands
– liver and pancreas that help in the
further digestion of food.
• Liver is the largest gland of the body
and secretes bile juice. Bile juice is stored
in the gall bladder and helps in digestion
of fats.
• Pancreas has enzymes that help in total
digestion of all food components.
• A part of the food which we eat cannot
be digested by our body passes from
small intestine to large intestine. The
walls of large intestine absorb most of the
water from this food and become solid.
Last part of the large intestine called
‘rectum’ stores this undigested food for
some time and finally, egested from our
body through anus as faeces or ‘stool’.

6. Internal Structure of Heart

The human heart is mainly divided into
four parts: two upper parts are called
atria, and the lower ones are called
ventricles. The ventricles are the
chambers that pump blood and atrium
are the chambers that receive blood.
Among which both right atrium and
ventricle make up the right heart, and the
left atrium and ventricle make up the left
heart. The right and the left regions of the
heart are separated by the wall of muscle
called septum. The de-oxygenated blood
from various parts of the body is poured
into right atrium through large veins
called vena cava. As the right atrium
contracts, the corresponding right
ventricle expands and blood through
tricuspid valve gets collected. It then
pumps it to the lungs for oxygenation by
pulmonary arteries which arise from the
right ventricle. The right semilunar valves
close and prevent the blood from the
pulmonary veins after blood passes
through the pulmonary arteries. Then the
oxygenated blood is received by the left
atrium from the lungs via pulmonary
veins. From left atrium the blood is
transferred to left ventricle through
bicuspid valve. From the left ventricle the
blood is pumped to various parts of body
through aorta.
7. Human Respiratory System
It consists of the following parts:
• Nasal cavity: It facilitates the intake of
air. It is lined with hair and mucus to filter
the air and remove dust and dirt.
• Pharynx: It is a passage behind the
nasal chamber and serves as the
common passageway for both air and
food.
• Larynx: Also known as the sound box
as it helps in the generation of sound and
thus helps us in communicating.
• Epiglottis: It is a flap-like structure
that covers the glottis and prevents the
entry of food into the windpipe.
• Trachea: It is a long tube passing
through the mid-thoracic cavity.
• Bronchi: The trachea divides into left
and right bronchi.
• Bronchioles: Each bronchus is further
divided into finer channels known as
bronchioles
• Alveoli: The bronchioles end up into
the balloon-like structures known as the
alveoli
• Lungs: We have a pair of lungs, which
are sac-like structures and covered by a
double-layered membrane known as
pleura.
Labelled diagram of human
respiratory system
8. Nutrition in Amoeba
Amoeba is a unicellular animal. It takes in
food by forming finger like projections
called pseudopodia and forms a food
vacuole. Inside the food vacuole the food
is digested and absorbed. The undigested
food is then sent out through the surface
of the cell.

9. Human Male Reproductive System

It consists of the following parts:
• Testicles (testes): A pair of oval-
shaped organ masked in a pouch called
scrotum. Testes are responsible for the
production of the sperms and male
hormone, testosterone.
• Epididymis: The sperms formed in
testes come out and go into a coiled tube
called epididymis. Here the sperms get
matured.
• Vas deferens: From epididymis,
sperms are passed to urethra through the
muscular tube called vas deferens.
• Accessory glands: This includes three
glands namely, seminal vesicles, prostate
gland, and Cowper’s gland. The
secretions from the three glands mix to
form a fluid called semen. Semen
nourishes the sperm, increases the
volume and helps in lubrication.
• Penis: Penis is a cylindrical tube which
serves as both reproductive organ as well
as excretory organ. It delivers sperms
into the vagina during sexual intercourse.
10. Human Female Reproductive
System
It consists of the following parts:
• A pair of ovaries: Ovaries produce
and store ovum in them. They also
produce a female hormone called
estrogen.
• Fallopian tubes (Oviducts): They are
the site of fertilization. They connect
ovaries with the uterus.
• Uterus: Uterus is the site of
development for the embryo.
• Cervix: It is located at the lowermost
portion of the uterus and is involved in
connecting the uterus and the vagina.
• Vagina: It is the part which connects
cervix to the external female body parts.
It is the route for penis during coitus as
well as a foetus during delivery.
11. Budding in Yeast and Hydra
Budding is a method of reproduction in
unicellular organisms like yeast and
hydra. In this method a bud like
projection is formed on the body of the
organism. The bud then develops into a
new individual. It then separates from the
parent and forms an independent
individual.
12. Regeneration in Planaria and
Hydra
Regeneration is a method of reproduction
in which a part of the body of an
organism if cut or broken, can develop
into a new individual.
13. Fragmentation in Spirogyra
In this method the body of a simple
multicellular organism breaks up into
smaller pieces on maturation and each
fragment develops into new individuals.
14. Longitudinal Section (LS) Of A
Flower
This flower contains both male and
female reproductive parts. The female
reproductive part of the flower is known
as pistil or carpel. It consists of three
subsections stigma, stile and ovary as
shown in the following diagram of
longitudinal section of flower.
The male reproductive part of the flower
is known as stamen. It consists of two
subsections anther and filament which
are clearly shown in the longitudinal
section of flower.
15. Germination of Pollen on Stigma
(Fertilisation in flowering plants)
After the pollen grain is transferred to the
stigma it produces a pollen tube which
passes through the style and enters the
ovary and ovule. In the ovule the male
germ cell fuses with the female germ cell
to produce zygote. This process of
formation of single celled zygote is called
fertilisation. Zygote then divides several
times and forms the embryo which then
develops into the seed and the ovary
develops into the fruit.
16. Mendel’s Dihybrid Cross
Mendel selected pea plants having two
pairs of characters- shape and colour of
seeds.He selected plants having round
yellow seeds (RRYY) and wrinkled green
seeds (rryy) and cross pollinated them.
He obtained all plants with round yellow
seeds (RrYy) in F1 generation. When
these plants were self pollinated in the F2
generation then out of 16 plants, 9 had
round yellow (RrYy) seeds, 3 had round
green (Rryy) seeds, 3 had wrinkled yellow
(rrYy) seeds and 1 had wrinkled green
(rryy) seeds. So, in F2 generations 4
different traits wrinkled-yellow, round-
yellow, wrinkled-green seeds and round-
green were obtained in the ratio 9:3:3:1.