1

Introduction

The basic principles involved in earth reinforcement some of the questions raised by engineers working in
techniques are simple to grasp and have been used by design and construction and to provide a wider
man for centuries. Recently there has been a major treatment of the subject for the academic and research
growth in interest in the subject due in part to the worker than is usually given in theoretical studies
pioneering work of Henri Vidal in the development of associated with the state of the art. The arrangement of
'Reinforced Earth', a term which is now widely used as the text has been chosen so as to guide the reader into
a general description of this form of construction. The the subject in a structured approach, and although
basic attributes of earth reinforcement which are of each chapter can be referred to separately, the order of
particular advantage in civil engineering are, re- presentation is chosen to follow in sequence.
ductions in costs and ease of construction, coupled A brief history of soil structures and earth reinforce-
with a basic simplicity which provides an attraction to ment is pro/ided in Chapter 2 in order to place the
engineers. subject in context with the work of the pioneers and
Recognition and interest in the subject have gained past generations and civilisations. Examples of mo-
impetus because of the technical and commercial dern applications are provided in Chapter 3, which
success that has been demonstrated by the prac- illustrates the breadth of use. These examples are not
titioners. The concept of reinforcing soil has also exhaustive and the implication in presenting this brief
attracted the attention of the academic world, for catalogue is that the use of Reinforced Earth and soil
although the concept is easily grasped the theoretical structures is expected to develop in many other
aspects involved are numerous. As a result, much applications, particularly as hybrid systems are
research and development work has been undertaken developed.
in Universities and laboratories and soil reinforcing is Theoretical developments associated with reinfor-
now recognized as a separate subject in its own right in ced soil have been extensive in recent years. How-
the geotechnical field. ever, a complete understanding of every aspect and
It is argued that the rate of development of the use of the subject has not yet been developed, but an
modern concept of earth reinforcement could have understanding of the fundamental principles was
been greater. However, the critical elements in con- established by the early developers and users and these
struction are not necessarily advanced theoretical have since been confirmed or further expanded. The
concepts, but the development of design standards, text attempts to provide a balanced over-view of the
specifications and technique, without which economi- theoretical concepts involved based upon the needs of
cal efficient structures cannot be produced. The pio- the practising engineer.
neers of the modern earth reinforcing systems re- The interaction between soil and reinforcement is
cognized this and have been consistent in establishing critical to the subject and the material properties
reliability and quality control methods. Recognized which influence the interaction are covered in Chapter
specifications and standards are available and the 5, together with a consideration of the other material
technique has developed to the point where it has properties used in soil structures.
reached general acceptance with the engineering Design and Analysis are considered separately from
profession. Theory in recognition of the systematic procedures
The objectives of this book are to assist in answering and disciplines which are required in developing an
1
2 Introduction

actual structure. The importance of idealization and Chapter 9 which covers costs and economics. It is
conceptual design in predetermining the decision to recognized that the market and financial conditions
use earth reinforced structures is explained before the are volatile; accordingly the economics of any pro-
consideration of individual analytical techniques. As posed structure or use of earth reinforcement must be
with theory, there have been numerous advances in related to the prevailing circumstances and conditions.
analytical procedures. The text covers the fundamen- Similarly the acceptance or rejection of the concept of
tals of the main analytical systems, and gives details of any ecology audit depends upon an interpretation of
the design procedures which may be used in a range of economic philosophy.
structural problems. Rigid procedures for design are Durability of earth reinforced and soil structures is
avoided as, in accordance with any design problem, critical and Chapter 10 describes the mechanism of
engineering judgement is needed when using earth corrosion and the factors which influence the life of
reinforcing techniques. any structure. In accordance with conventional design
Successful production of soil structures is as de- requirements, the measurement of corrosion factors is
pendent upon good constructional techniques as upon covered and the durability of potential reinforcing
the correct interpretation of theory. The development materials are discussed.
of workable and effective constructional systems has The final part of the text provides a set of three
been a key to the success of the subject without which worked examples. The first is a straightforward design
Reinforced Earth and soil structures would have re- of a retaining wall which serves to illustrate the
mained an interesting academic toy. Chapter 7 pro- difference between the theoretical concepts illustrated
vides a set of general constructional parameters while in Chapter 4 and the Design and Analysis and
Chapter 8 provides information of constructional Construction principles covered in Chapters 6 and 7.
details which have been used successfully. It should be The second example considers the design of a bridge
emphasized that the suitability of these details in other abutment and, although it uses the same analytical
structures where conditions, either contractual, ma- model as the first example, an abutment produces a
terial or financial may be different, must not be design problem dominated by external forces. The last
assumed. As with all design, engineering judgement is example illustrates an entirely different concept of
essential. earth reinforcement in the strengthening of the foun-
Probably the most contentious element of the text is dations of an embankment.