METALLURGY

ATMOSPHERE

IT CONSISTS OF A GASIOUS MIXTURE , WEATHER CLIMATE PHENOMENON OCCORS IN IT

HYDROSPHERE

It covers about 80% of earths surface and constitutes streams , lakes ,rivers & oceans .there are large
no. Of elements present in sea water. These are present in the form of their dissolved salts.

The common among them are sodium , potassium , calcium , chloride & sulphate.

The main source of these elements is the chemical weathering of ignous rocks followed by extraction
of soluble salts & water.

It may be noted that although sea water is treassure house of valuable elements , yet only four
elements namely chlorine , bromine ,magnesium & sodium are commercially recovered form sea
water

MAGNESE NODULES

 DEEP-SEA OR OCEANS FLOOR ARE THE MAIN SOURCE OF MAGNESE NODULES

 MAGNESE NODULES ARE PRIMARILY COMPOSED OF MAGNESE & IRON.
 PACIFIC OCEAN IS RICHEST IN MAGNESE NODULES

LITHOSPHERE

IT IS A SOLID PHASE OF EARTH.IT CONSISTS OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF ROCKS .

 IGNEOUS ROCKS SENDIMENTARY ROCKS METAMORPHIC ROCKS
SANSTONE MARBLE*
GABBO
LIMESTONE SLATE*
SILL*
SHALE* QUARTZITE*
BASALT*
CHALK* GNEISS
DIORITE/ GRANITE
ANTHRACITE* SCHIST
DACITE / TUFF
CONGLOMERATE
PUMICE**
BANDED IRON
OBSIDIAN**

RHYOLITE / LHERZOLITE

KIMBERLITE / PEGMATITE

ROCKS THAT ARE FORMED BY THE COOLING OF MAGMA ARE CALLED IGNEOUS ROCKS

THE ROCKS WHICH RESULTS FROM THE ALTERATION OF THE ALREADY EXISTING ROCKS BECAUSE OF
CHANGING ENVIRNMENTAL CONDITIONS ARE KNOWN AS METAMORPHIC ROCKS.

THESE ROCKS FORM A SOURCE OF LARGE NUMBER OF ELEMENTS

OCCURRENCE OF ELEMENTS

The occurrence of elements can be classified into two main forms: native and combined. Here's a
breakdown of each:

1. Native State

 Definition: Elements are found in their pure or free form without combining with other
elements.

 Examples:

o Noble gases (e.g., helium, neon, argon) are found in their free state in the atmosphere.

o Metals like gold (Au), silver (Ag), platinum (Pt), and copper (Cu) are found in their
native state as nuggets or grains in the Earth's crust.

o Non-metals like sulfur (S) can also be found in their native form.

2. Combined State

 Definition: Elements are found in combination with other elements, forming compounds.

 Examples:

o Hydrogen (H) is found in water and organic compounds.

o Metals like iron (Fe) are found in ores such as hematite (Fe₂O₃) and magnetite (Fe₃O₄).

o Non-metals like chlorine (Cl) are found in the form of salts, such as sodium chloride
(NaCl).

Carbonates

CALCIUM CALCITE CALCIUM CARBONATE CaCO₃

MAGNESIUM DOLOMITE MAGNESIUM CARBONATE MgCO₃
ZINC CALAMINE ZINC CARBONATE ZnCO₃
IRON SIDERITE IRON CARBONATE FEC0₃

Sulphates

CALCIUM GYPSUM CALCIUM SULFATE CaSO₄·2H₂O

MAGNESIUM EPSOM SALT MAGNESIUM SULFATE MgSO₄)
SODIUM GLABER`S SALT SODIUM SULPHATE NA2SO4
BARIUM BARITE BARIUM SULFATE BaSO₄)

Halides

 Sodium (Na): Found as sodium chloride (NaCl) in rock salt.

 Potassium (K): Found as potassium chloride (KCl) in sylvite.

  Calcium (Ca): Found as calcium fluoride (CaF₂) in fluorite.

 Silver (Ag): Found as silver chloride (AgCl) in chlorargyrite.

 Magnesium found in carnalite

Oxides

 Iron (Fe): Found as iron oxides (Fe₂O₃ in hematite, Fe₃O₄ in magnetite).

 Aluminum (Al): Found as aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃) in bauxite.

 Copper (Cu): Found as copper oxides (Cu₂O in cuprite).

Sulphides

 Lead (Pb): Found as lead sulfide (PbS) in galena.

 Zinc (Zn): Found as zinc sulfide (ZnS) in sphalerite.

 Iron (Fe): Found as iron sulfide (FeS₂) in pyrite (fool's gold).

Silicates

 Aluminum = feldspar/ china clay

 Silican as quartz
 Calcium & magnesium as asbestos

METALLURGICAL OPERATIONS

Metallurgy Is The Branch Of Science Which Deals With Extraction Of Metals From Its Ore .

1. Crushing and Grinding (Pulverization)

 Purpose: Reduce the size of the ore for better processing.

 Equipment: Crushers, grinders, ball mills.

 Crushing And Grinding Of Ore Is Known As Pulverization .

2. Concentration of Ores (Beneficiation)

 Purpose: Remove impurities (GANGUE/ MATRIX) from the ore to increase metal content.

 THE REMOVAL OF GANGUE OR MATRIX FROM ORE IS KNOWN AS BENEFICIATION OR

CONCENTRATION OF ORE OR DRESSING OF ORE .

 Methods:

o Gravity Separation: Based on differences in density (e.g., jigging, tabling).

o Froth Flotation: For sulfide ores.

o Magnetic Separation: For magnetic ores like magnetite.

 o Leaching: Dissolves metal into a solvent.

3. Extraction of Metal

 Purpose: Obtain the metal from concentrated ore.

 Methods:

o Pyrometallurgy: Use of heat (e.g., roasting, smelting, calcination).

o Hydrometallurgy: Use of aqueous solutions to extract metals (e.g., cyanidation for gold).

o Electrometallurgy: Use of electrolysis to extract or purify metals.

4. Refining of Metal

 Purpose: Purify the extracted metal.

 Methods:

o Distillation: For volatile metals like zinc.

o Liquation: For metals with low melting points (e.g., tin).

o Electrolytic Refining: Metals like copper and silver.

o Zone Refining: For semiconductors like silicon

5. Heat Treatment

 Purpose: Modify the mechanical properties of metals.

 Processes:

o Annealing A heat treatment process where a material is heated and then slowly cooled
to improve ductility, reduce hardness. Used in manufacturing processes like wire
drawing, sheet metal forming, and tool-making.

o Quenching A heat treatment process where a material is heated and rapidly cooled to
increase hardness and strength. & make it brittle. Used in making cutting tools, blades,
gears, and high-strength components.

o Tempering is a heat treatment process in which a hardened metal or alloy (usually after
quenching) is reheated to a lower temperature and then cooled in air to reduce
brittleness while maintaining strength and hardness.

o Normalizing is a heat treatment process in which a metal or alloy is heated to a

temperature above its critical point.

GRAVITY SEPARATION
WILFLEY TABLE METHOD = A sloped table with a riffled surface is used. As water flows over it, lighter
particles are carried away, and heavier particles settle.

HYDROLIC CLASSIFIER METHOD = Classifies particles in a liquid medium based on their settling velocity.

FROTH FLOTATION METHOD is used for sulfide ores.

Froth flotation is a widely used method for separating hydrophobic (water-repellent) materials from
hydrophilic (water-attracting) ones, particularly for the concentration of sulfide ores.

MAGNETIC SEPRATION

LEACHING OR CHEMICAL SEPARATION

CONVERSION OF CONCENTRATED ORE TO ITS OXIDE FORM

Calcination is a thermal treatment process in which an ore or other material is heated to a high
temperature in the absence (or limited supply) of air

Used to extract metals like Zinc, Lead, And Copper from their ores by removing sulfur or other
impurities.

Roasting is a type of pyrometallurgical process in which an ore is heated in the presence of excess air or
oxygen.

Roasting is used to produce oxides of various metals such as copper, lead, zinc, and iron, which are
further used in other metallurgical processes.

BOTH CALCINATION & ROASTING ARE DONE IN REVERBERATORY FURNANCE

CONVERSION OF OXIDE FORM TO METALLIC FORM (REDUCTION)

THE OXIDE FORM OBTAINED FROM CALCINATION & ROASTING IS CONVERTED TO FREE METAL BY
REDUCTION BY FOLLOWING WAYS

SMELTING is a pyrometallurgical process used to extract metals from their ores by heating the ore at
high temperatures in the presence of a reducing agent (usually carbon).ADDITIONAL REAGENT IS ALSO
ADDED TO REMOVE IMPURITIES , REAGENT IS KNOW AS FLUX

REDUCTION WITH HYDROGEN

Reduction with hydrogen is a chemical reaction in which a metal oxide or a metal compound is reduced
to its pure metal by using hydrogen gas (H₂) as the reducing agent

Tungsten & Indium Is Obtained By Reduction Of Their Oxides With Hydrogen

REDUCTION WITH ALUMINIUM

The process of reduction of oxides with aluminiumis known as aluminium thermy

Titanium & cromimum are obatained

SELF REDUCTION

ELECTROLYTIC REDUCTION

HIGHLY ELECTROPOSTIVE ELEMENTS SUCH AS SODIUM , MAGNESIUM & ALUMINIUM CANNOT BE

EXTRACTED BY CARBON REDUCTION METHOD .

In electrolytic reduction, the metal ions in the electrolyte are reduced at the cathode (negative
electrode), while oxidation occurs at the anode (positive electrode). The metal is deposited onto the
cathode, and the electrolyte solution may contain dissolved salts or acids that facilitate the flow of
current (molten sodium chloride)

HYDROMETALLURGY is a branch of metallurgy that involves the use of aqueous solutions to extract
metals from their ores or concentrates. The process typically involves three main stages: leaching,
extraction, and purification

REFINING OF METALS

THE PROCESS OF REMOVAL OF IMPURITIES FROM CRUDE METAL IS KNOWN AS REFINING

LIQUATION

THIS METHOD IS APPLIED TO THE METALS HAVING LOW MELTING POINT SUCH AS LEAD , TIN , MERCURY
ETC. THE IMPURE METAL IS HEATED ABOVE ITS MELTING POINT POINT , THE METAL MELTS AND FLOWS
DOWN THE SLOPPING CONTANER LEAVING BEHIND SOLID IMPURITIES

TIN AND LEAD is refined by Liquatin process

DISTALLATION

THIS METHOD IS APPLIED TO THE METALS HAVING LOW BOILING POINT SUCH AS BI, HG, CD . THEY CAN
BE RECOVERED FROM CRUDE METALS BY DISTALLATION.THEY READILY CHANGES INTO VAPOUR PHASE
LEAVING BEHIND IMPURITIES. THE VAPOUR ARE COLLECTED AND THEN COLLECTED TO GET PURE
METALS .

ZINC & MERCURY is refined by distillation process

POOLING

THIS METHOD IS APPLIED TO THOSE METALS WHICH CONTAINS IMPURITIES AS THEIR OWN OXIDES.

CRUDE METALS IS HEATED IN BIG CONTAINER AND STIRRED WITH GREEN WOOD POLE, GASUES
HYDROCARBOS REDUCED WITH GREEN POLES WHICH REDUCES THE OXIDE S OF METALS TO PURE STATE

TIN FROM CASSITERITE

COPPER IS PURIFIED BY POOLING PROCESS.

OXIDATION

CUPEILATION

This method is used in the refining Of a crude metal which contains the impurities of another metal
capable of getting oxidised to a volatile oxide. This method is used in refining of silver containing lead as
impurities. A cupel is boat - shaped dish made up of bone ash or cement. The crude metal is heated in
cupel placed in reverberate furnance and a blast of air is blown over the molten surface. The impurities
are converted into volatile oxides which are swept away by the air current. In case of silver, Jead is
converted into litharge (PbO) which being volatile leaves behind pure silver.

b) Bessemerisation In this method the impure or crude metal is taken in a specially designed furnance
called Bessemer Converter into which hot blasts of air and sand is blown impurities are removed as
volatile oxides which escapes leaves the metals in the pure state. Impurities of As, Mn, P etc present in
prg iron can be removed by this method.

ZONE REFINING

ZONR REFINIG IS USED TO PURIFY SEMI-CONDUCTING METALS

Zone refining is a method of obtaining a metal in very pure state. It is based on the principal that
impurities are more soluble in molten state of metal than solidified state. In this method a rod of impure
metal is moved slowly over circular heater. The portion of the metal being heated melts & forms the
molten zone. As this portion of the rod moves out of heater it solidified while the impurities pass into
molten zone. The process is repeated to obtain ultrapure metal and end of rod containing impure metal
cutoff.

Zone refining is a very useful method to get metals with very high purity such as SILICON AND
GERMANIUM. It is also referred to as zone melting, floating zone process, and travelling melting zone.

ELECTROLYTIC REFINING

Electrolytic refining is a process that uses electricity to purify metals. It involves passing an electric
current through a solution of metal salt, with an impure metal as the anode and a pure metal strip as the
cathode. The process produces pure metal at the cathode and insoluble impurities as anode mud.

THE VAN ARKEL METHOD is used to refine metals like Titanium, Zirconium, hafnium, and silicon. It's a
process that converts impure metals into volatile compounds and then breaks them down to obtain pure
metal