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Vision Ias Revision Ancient and Medieval PDF

The document provides an overview of the Prehistoric Period in India, detailing the Stone Age's three phases: Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic, each characterized by advancements in tool use and lifestyle changes. It also discusses the Chalcolithic Age, highlighting the transition to metal use alongside stone tools, agricultural practices, and social structures. Key sites and cultural developments during these periods are outlined, emphasizing the evolution of human society from nomadic lifestyles to settled agricultural communities.

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Quick Revisi n

Module #01

Prehistoric
Period

It refers to the time in human history before the advent of

Prehistoric Period written records. The prehistoric age in India dates back to
the start of the Stone Age.

Stone Age in India: A Brief Overview

The Stone Age in India marks the earliest phase of human history and is characterized by the
use of stone tools. It is generally divided into three major periods:

Paleolithic Mesolithic Neolithic

(Old Stone (Middle Stone (New Stone
Age) Age) Age)
( 2.5 Million (10,000-7000 (7000BCE-200
years-10,000 BCE) 0 BCE)
BCE)

1 Paleolithic (Old Stone Age): It is the earliest and

longest phase of human history, spanning from
around 2.5 million years ago to 10,000 BCE. During this
period, early humans developed basic stone tools,
lived as hunter-gatherers, and began to adapt to
their environments.

According to the kind of stone tools people used and

the pattern of climate change the palaeolithic age in
India is divided into three phases.

PALEOLITHIC PHASE (2.5 Million years-10,000 BCE)

Tools Lifestyle Sites
(2.5 million years-10,0000 BCE)

Hand axes, It mostly Bhimbetka,

Lower Paleolithic

Cleavers,Choppers, encompasses the Attirampakkam, Soan

Scrappers etc. Ice Age. Peoples Valley (in present
were nomadic Pakistan),
hunter-gatherers, Nagarjunakonda in
practice cave Andhra Pradesh, Several
dwellings sites have been found in
Kashmir and the Thar
desert.

Tools Lifestyle Sites

(10,0000 BCE-40000BCE)
Middle Paleolithic

Tools were largely based Nomadic Belan Valley,Valley of Luni

upon flakes or small pieces hunter-gatherers. (Rajasthan),Rivers Son and
of stone. Flakes, blades, Narmada river valleys,
pointers, scrapers, and Bhimbetka, Potwar plateau
borers were the tools (between Indus &
employed. In comparison to Jhelum),Cave of Sanghao
other instruments, the use of (near Peshawar, Pakistan)
hand axes decreased. etc.

Tools Lifestyle Sites

(40000 BCE -10000 BCE)
Upper Paleolithic

The era is characterised The last stage of the Bhimbetka, Sohan Valley,
by technological and ice age, Nomadic Nevasa(Maharashtra.)
tool innovation. a large hunter-gatherers. Bellan Valley. Only the
number of bone caves of Kurnool and
implements, including Muchchatala chintamani
burins, harpoons, Gavi in Andhra Pradesh
parallel-sided blades, have yielded bone
and needles. implements.

2 Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age): Existed between the

Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) and the Neolithic (New
Stone Age). A rise in temperature and a warming of
the environment during this time period caused
the ice to melt and brought about changes in the
flora and fauna.

Time Period: Around 10,000 BCE to 7,000 BCE

Tools Used: Smaller, more refined tools called

microliths (a microlith is a small stone tool
usually made of flint or chert and typically a
centimetre or so in length and half a centimetre
wide), made for hunting and fishing.

Bone and antler tools are yet another category

of tools used by the Mesolithic people.

Lifestyle: The people of this age lived on

hunting, fishing, and food gathering initially but
later on they also domesticated animals.

Famous Sites: Bagor (Rajasthan),Adamgarh, Pachmarhi, Bhimbetka, Baghor II, Baghor III
(Madhya Pradesh), Lekhahia, Baghai Khor, Sarai Nahar Rai, Mahadaha, Damdama,
Chopani Mando (Uttar Pradesh), Langhnaj (Gujarat) etc.

3 Neolithic (New Stone Age): Greek words “neo” for

new and “lithic” for stone. As a result, the phrase
“Neolithic Age” designates the “New Stone Age.”
Since it brought about numerous significant
changes in man’s social and economic existence, it
is also known as the “Neolithic revolution”- man
transitioned from being a food gatherer to a food
producer.
Time Period: Around 8,000 BCE to 2,000 BCE
Tools Used: Polished stone tools like sickles,
axes, and grinders along with microliths and
bone implements like arrowheads, scrapers,
needles, and borers.
Lifestyle: Settled life, agriculture, domestication
of animals, use of wheels, pottery, and the
beginning of early village life.
Famous Sites: Mehrgarh (Balochistan, Pakistan),
Gufkral and Burzahom (Kashmir) known for pit
dwellings, Chirand (Bihar), Utnur (Andhra
Pradesh), Piklihal and Brahmagiri (Karnataka),
Koldihwa and Mahagara (Uttar Pradesh).

Conclusion
The Stone Age in India shows the gradual evolution of human society from primitive tool use
to settled agricultural communities. The Paleolithic period marks the dawn of human culture
with crude tools, followed by advancements in the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods, where
societies became more organized and involved in early forms of agriculture, leading to the
foundation of civilization.

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Chalcolithic Age The term “Chalcolithic” means Chalco (Copper) + Lithic

(Stone). It was the time when humans began using metals
(2800 BCE – 700 BCE) along with stones.

First metal used by humans was Copper. Hence this age was also called the
‘Copper-Stone’ age.

Technologically, the Chalcolithic stage is applied to the pre-Harappan phase. However, in

various parts of India, the Chalcolithic cultures followed the Bronze Age Harappa culture.

They lived in the hilly lands and along the rivers and were primarily a rural community.

The important non-Harappan chalcolithic cultures lay mainly in western India and Deccan.
These include

Ahar-Banas culture (2000 BC— 1200 BC) in south-east Rajasthan, with Ahar and Balathal
near Udaipur, and Gilund as its key sites.

Ganeshwar Jodhpura Culture (2800-2200 BCE) Ganeshwar is a Chalcolithic site in

Kayatha culture (2000-1800 BC BC) with

Kayatha in Chambal as its chief site in Madhya
Pradesh.

Malwa Culture (1900–1400BC) with Nagda,

Kayatha, Navdatoli and Eran as its key sites.

Jorwe culture (1400BC– 700BC) Sites of the

Jorwe culture include Jorwe, Prakash (Tapi
valley), Daimabad (Godavari-Pravara valley),
and Inamgaon (Bhima valley).

Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) Culture

(2600-900 BC) The Ochre Coloured Pottery
(OCP) culture is found in northern India,
primarily within the Indo-Gangetic plain, and
dates back to the Chalcolithic period.This
culture is often referred to as the "Copper
Hoard Culture" due to the discovery of copper
figures and artifacts at various sites.

Chalcolithic Culture: Overview

Livelihood: The people of the Chalcolithic Age relied on

gardening, fishing, and hunting for their food. A major
occupation was hunting. They practice slash and burn
type of cultivation.

Tools: The use of copper and stone tools (microliths,

axes, etc.) was prevalent, marking an advancement in
technological skills.

Agriculture and Food: Barley and wheat, lentil, bajra,

Domestication of Animals: Sheep, buffalo, goat, cattle, and pigs were raised and killed for
food.

Chalcolithic people were unable to completely utilise domestic

animals they only used domestic animals for food (meat) and
not for milk. Because there is little or no evidence of dairy
products found in the chalcolithic sites.

Pottery: During the Chalcolithic period, people used a variety of

pottery, including both hand-made and wheel-made types.
Black-and-red pottery was quite common, and ochre-colored
pottery was also widely used.

Art in Chalcolithic Age: During the Chalcolithic Age,

people were skilled coppersmiths and stone workers.
They crafted beads from semi-precious stones like
carnelian, steatite, and quartz crystal. The discovery of
spindle whorls in Malwa suggests that the Malwa culture
was familiar with spinning and weaving techniques.

Social Life: The Chalcolithic age marked the rise of settled village life with social stratification.
Settlement patterns and burial practices, such as in Jorwe, indicate social inequalities. Some
settlements were as large as 20 hectares, while others covered only 5 hectares or less,
suggesting a two-tier habitation system.

Houses and Burial Styles: The houses were simple in design, either rectangular or circular.
Ovens and circular pit houses found in Inamgaon.
Houses built by Chalcolithic peoples were
constructed of stone or mudbrick but there
are no traces of burnt (baked) bricks.

Mostly people buried the dead on the floors

of their houses in the north-south direction
with pots and copper objects.. Children were
buried in urns placed in pits, while adults
were often buried with their ankles chopped
off. Notably, a four-legged urn containing an
adult skeleton was also found.

Religious life: Numerous terracotta figurines

of women, believed to represent the Mother
Goddess, have been discovered, indicating
the importance of fertility worship in the
Chalcolithic period. In Malwa and Rajasthan,
stylized terracotta bull figurines have been
found, suggesting that the bull may have
been a central symbol in a religious cult,
possibly related to fertility or agricultural
prosperity.

Limitations of Chalcolithic Culture in India

They were unaware of the art of mixing tin with copper to form bronze.

Unlike the Harappan civilization, Chalcolithic cultures were not urbanized, limiting
complex social structures and large-scale trade. There is no evidence of writing.

Despite being a food producing economy, the rate of infant mortality werevery high
suggesting limitations in nutrition, medical knowledge, or epidemic control.

The cultures were geographically scattered and lacked a unified civilization, leading to a
lack of cohesion in cultural developments.

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Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)

Indus Valley The Harappan Civilization, also known as the Indus Valley
Civilization, was a Bronze Age urban culture that flourished
Civilization (IVC) along the Indus River in present-day Pakistan, northwest

northeast Afghanistan from 3300 to 1300 BCE. It is called Harappan civilization because this
civilization was discovered first in 1921 at the modern site of Harappa.

Early Harrapan- 3300-2600 BCE

Phases IVC excavation
Mature Harappan- 2600-1900 BCE
of IVC
Late Harrapan phase- 1900-1300 BCE
Harrapa (1921) - Daya Ram
Sahni

Mohenjo-Daro (1922) - R. D.
Banerji

In 1924, John Marshall

recognized the significance of
the excavations, revealing
India's ancient history.
Daya Ram Sahni R D Banerji John Marshall

Geographical Extent: The epicenter of the civilization was located in present-day Pakistan and
northwestern India, from which it expanded in all directions. The area formed a triangular shape
and covered approximately 1.3 million square kilometers.

(North) Manda (Jammu & Kashmir) (Chenab River)

(West)Sutkagen-Dor (East) Alamgirpur (Hindon River)

(Dasht River, Makran (Ganga-Yamuna doab
coast,Baluchistan) of Uttar Pradesh)

(South) Daimabad ( Maharashtra)

Pravara River tributaries of Godavari

Administration and Political Organization

Although much of the
political and administrative
structure of the Indus Valley
Civilization remains
speculative due to the
absence of deciphered
written records, some
aspects can be inferred from
archaeological evidence.

The complexity of structures

like the Great Bath, Granaries,
and drainage system
suggests strong centralized
governance.

The sophisticated economy and craftsmanship indicate leadership under a centralized

authority, likely by a class of merchants.
Raised Habitations: Centralized residential areas indicate the presence of important figures,
possibly headmen and councils.
Absence of Temples: Unlike Egypt and Mesopotamia, no temples were found, suggesting
Harappan rulers focused on commerce rather than conquests.
Lack of Weapons: Harappans lacked significant weapon-making, possibly reflecting a
non-militaristic society.

Town Planning and Structures

Unified Urban Design: Harappan cities followed a

consistent grid pattern with streets oriented
north-south and east-west.
City Division: Cities were divided into:
Citadel: Located on higher ground, housing
administrative or ritual centers.
Lower Town: Residential areas, with distinct
structures and layout.
( Harrapan road)

Examples of Settlements:
Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, and Kalibangan had
distinct citadel and lower town divisions
Lothal: A rectangular settlement with no internal
division.
Dholavira was divided into three parts, and each
part was surrounded by massive stone walls, with
entrances through gateways.
(Citadel Mohenjo-daro)

Building Materials:
Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro: Used baked bricks with standardized sizes.
Kalibangan: Utilized mud bricks.

Notable Public Structures

Great Bath (Mohenjo-Daro):

A large tank surrounded by rooms for changing
clothes.
Built with burnt bricks.

Granaries:
The largest building in Mohenjo-Daro.
Harappa had six granaries.
(Great Bath Mohanjodaro)
Granaries were linked to grain storage and
distribution.

Threshing Floors:
Rows of circular brick platforms at Harappa for
threshing grain (evidence of wheat and barley).

Barracks (Harappa):
Two-roomed structures, likely used to house
laborers.

Harappa granary

Drainage and Sanitation

Advanced Drainage System:
Mohenjo-Daro's drainage system was
sophisticated, with street drains and manholes.

Private Sanitation:
Most houses had courtyards and bathrooms;
Kalibangan homes had wells.

Health and Cleanliness:

Harappans prioritized hygiene, which was
unmatched by other Bronze Age civilizations. (Harrapan drainage pattern)

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Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)

Social Life in the IVC

The social structure of the Indus Valley Civilization
can be inferred from archaeological discoveries
such as sculptures, figurines, and seals. These
findings suggest that society was divided into two
distinct groups: those residing in the citadels and
those living in the surrounding cities.

Nature of Society
There is no conclusive evidence
regarding the social structure of the
Indus Valley, leaving open the
possibility that it could have been
either patriarchal or matriarchal, but
the egalitarian depiction in figurines,
showing both male and female
figures, suggests gender equality in
some aspects.

Some figurines depict bearded men wearing feminine clothing, hinting at the possibility of
gender equality and shared status for both men and women.

Burial Practices
The Harappans followed a burial ritual that involved placing the deceased in north-south
orientation, often with goods to accompany them, indicating a belief in the afterlife.

Burial Goods: Pots, jewelry (e.g., bangles, steatite beads), and personal items (e.g., copper
mirrors, found mostly with females) were buried with the deceased.

In Kalibangan, some burials consisted of urns without skeletal remains, indicating

cremation practices.

Variations in Burial Sites

Lothal: Multiple burials, including couple burials,
were found.

Ropar: A man was buried with a dog.

Fire Altars: Found in Kalibangan, these

brick-lined pits suggest ritual sacrifices and fire
rituals.

Script

Undeciphered Writing System

The Harappan script remains

undeciphered, despite efforts to
connect it with languages like
Sanskrit, Dravidian languages, and
Sumerian.
Harrapan script

The Harappan script was pictographic. Most inscriptions were short, typically found on
seals rather than lengthy texts, and written in a Boustrophedon style (alternating
writing directions).

The script appears to be indigenous to the Indus Valley and unrelated to other ancient
civilizations.

Cosmetics and Fashion

Fashion Conscious: People were mindful of their appearance, with a focus on personal
adornment.

Cinnabar was used as face paint, lipstick, and collyrium (eyeliner).

Religious Practices
Rituals and Beliefs

The Great Bath at Mohenjodaro may have held

ritualistic significance, possibly used for purification or
religious ceremonies.

The association of the Great Bath with a nearby

structure suggests the presence of priests or religious
leaders, pointing to organized rituals.

No evidence of temples has been found in Harappan

culture.

Deities

Proto-Shiva: Depictions of a deity with a buffalo-horned

headgear, surrounded by animals like tigers, elephants,
and rhinos, suggest the worship of a proto-Shiva figure,
often identified as Pashupati (Lord of Beasts).

Mother Goddess: Numerous terracotta figurines of a female figure

suggest the worship of a fertility goddess, possibly linked to the earth and
motherhood.

Other Religious Symbols

Tree Worship: Seals depicting figures worshipping a

Pipal tree suggest the significance of trees in religious
beliefs, with some figures possibly representing sages
or mothers in mythology.

Animal Worship: Animals like bulls,

tigers, elephants, and rhinoceroses
were revered, as shown in terracotta
figurines and seals. The unicorn seal
might represent a rhinoceros.

Fire Altars: Found in Kalibangan, these

brick-lined pits suggest the practice of fire
rituals and animal sacrifices.

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Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)

Science and Technology

Harappans excelled in urban planning, advanced water management system, metallurgy,
pottery, textiles, and advanced craftsmanship, showcasing remarkable technological
advancements.

Metallurgy

The Harappans were advanced in

metallurgy, particularly in creating bronze
sculptures, such as the famous Dancing
Girl statue.

Copper was sourced from the Khetri

copper mines in Rajasthan, while tin was
obtained from Afghanistan, indicating
trade networks for raw materials.

Advanced Water Systems

The Harappans were pioneers in water

management, constructing wells in public and
private spaces and building large reservoirs
for water storage.

Notable examples include the water reservoir

at Dholavira and the Great Bath at
Mohenjodaro.

Craftsmanship
Harappans excelled in various crafts, including:

Stone Statues
Stone statues found at Harappa and Mohenjodaro are refined
and show mastery in three-dimensional volumes.
Bust of a bearded priest

Stone statues found at Harappa and Mohenjodaro are refined and

show mastery in three-dimensional volumes.

Bronze Casting
Bronze statues were crafted using the lost-wax technique.
Dancing Girl: A prominent bronze statue.
Animal Figures: Bronze buffalo, goat,
and bull statues found in major
Harappan sites like Mohenjodaro,
Lothal, and Kalibangan.
Bronze dancing girl

The tradition of metal casting continued in later periods at sites like Daimabad.

Terracotta Art

Terracotta figures were more simplistic and crude

Mother goddess, terracotta

A terracotta figurine
compared to stone or bronze.
Mother Goddess figures: Most common terracotta
representations.
Other Figures: Bearded males, horned deities, toy
carts, whistles, birds, and animals.
Terracotta masks of deities were also found.

Seals

Thousands of seals made from steatite, agate, chert,

copper, and terracotta.
Depicted animals like unicorns, tigers, elephants, and
bulls, often with intricate designs.
Pashupati Seal: Depicts a seated human figure with
surrounding animals, identified by some scholars as
a male deity.
Copper Tablets: Square or rectangular, with animals
or human figures, possibly used as amulets.

Pottery

Harappan pottery includes fine wheel-made ware, with

minimal hand-made items.
Plain Pottery: Red clay with or without a fine slip.
Painted Ware: Geometric and animal motifs in black
paint.
Polychrome Pottery: Rare, often decorated with red,
black, green, and occasionally white/yellow.
Perforated Pottery: Likely used for straining
beverages.

Beads and Ornaments

Harappan people decorated themselves with various

ornaments.

Materials used: Gold, semi-precious stones,

copper, faience, bone, and baked clay.

Necklaces, bracelets, earrings: Found at

Mohenjodaro and Lothal.

Bead Industry: Well-developed, with factories at

Chanhudaro and Lothal.

Beads: Made from carnelian, lapis lazuli, turquoise, and more. They came in various
shapes and sizes, often intricately designed.

Textiles

Evidence of spinning with spindles and spindle whorls

found at Harappan sites.

Clothing: Two-piece attire similar to dhoti and shawl.

Conclusion
The Harappan Civilization showcases remarkable advances in social organization, religious
practices, science, and technology. Despite the limited evidence due to the undeciphered
script, the archaeological findings reveal a complex society with diverse cultural and
religious beliefs, advanced craftsmanship, and intricate social structures.

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Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)

Important places of IVC_Part 1

Harappa
Discovery: Excavated in the 1920s by Daya Ram
Sahni, M.S. Vats, and Mortimer Wheeler. Located
on the Ravi River in modern-day Pakistan.
City Layout:
• Citadel mound to the west, lower town to the
southeast.
• Surrounded by a mud-brick wall with towers
and gateways for defense.

• Lower town had workshops for shell, agate, and copper artifacts, as well as houses,
drains, and possibly a well.
Granaries & Trade:
• Known as the "City of Granaries" with 12 granaries, suggesting large-scale grain storage.

• Evidence of trade with Mesopotamia via seals.

Cultural Practices:
• Coffin burials in "H" patterns, possibly linked to organized rituals or invader attacks.
• Identified with the city of Hariyupiya in the Rig Veda.

Mohenjo-Daro
Mohenjo-Daro, meaning "Mound of the Dead," is located
in the Larkana District of Sind (Pakistan), about 5 km from
the Indus River. It was excavated by Rakhaldas Banerjee
and Sir John Marshall.
City Features
• Divided into a citadel and lower city, it represents one of the best examples of town
planning in the Harappan Civilization.
• The citadel, raised for symbolic or defensive purposes, houses significant structures,
including:
- The Great Bath, measuring 14.5 x 7 meters, believed to be one of the earliest examples
of waterproofing.
- A large granary and a large assembly hall with rectangular brick piers.
- Pashupati Seal and a bearded man's bust indicating potential religious practices or
iconography.

Lothal
Lothal, located between the Sabarmati and Bhogavo
rivers in Gujarat, was excavated by S.R. Rao. Known for
its role in maritime trade, Lothal is unique for its
well-preserved dockyard.
City Layout
• Lothal was built with a rectangular plan, surrounded by
brick walls and divided into a citadel and lower city.
• Some houses were large, with multiple rooms, courtyards, and bathrooms, signifying a
well-developed urban lifestyle.
Craft and Trade
• Lothal was a key trading hub, with evidence of bead-making, shell working, and pottery.
• It was one of the first Harappan towns to cultivate rice, and it boasted a dockyard,
believed to be used for loading and unloading goods, making it a prominent maritime
site.

Recently, the Union Cabinet, chaired by the Prime, has approved the development of
National Maritime Heritage Complex (NMHC) at Lothal.

Dholavira
Dholavira (ca. 3000-1500 BCE) was a key southern
center of the Harappan Civilization, located on Khadir
bet Island in Gujarat's Rann of Kachchh. Discovered in
1968 by archaeologist Jagat Pati Joshi.
City Layout:
• Unlike other Harappan sites, Dholavira was divided
into three sections instead of the usual two, with
each section surrounded by massive stone walls and
gateways.
• The walled city consists of a fortified Castle with attached fortified Bailey and
Ceremonial Ground, and a fortified Middle Town and a Lower Town.
• A large open area was present for public ceremonies.
Unique Findings:
• Large letters of Harappan script carved from white
stone, a rare find compared to small seals.
Water Management:
• Two seasonal streams (Manhar and Mansar)
provided water.
• Stone-cut reservoirs and rock-cut wells stored water, with dams channeling water into
reservoirs.
Dholavira was inscribed as India's 40th UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2021.

Kalibangan
Kalibangan, meaning "City of Black Bangles," is located
on the banks of the dry Ghaggar River in Rajasthan,
India. It provides evidence from both the early and
mature phases of the Harappan Civilization.
City Layout
• Kalibangan is divided into a citadel and lower town,
both of which are fortified.
• A notable feature is a large number of fire altars associated with sacrificial rituals,
indicating the community's spiritual practices.

Burial Practices
• Circular pits with grave goods, but no human remains, suggest the belief in an afterlife
and possibly cremation practices.
• A rich assortment of bangles, terracotta items, and materials like shell, alabaster, and
faience indicates a strong craft industry.

Rakhigarhi

Location: Hisar district, Haryana, in the

Saraswati/Ghaggar-Hakra River plain.
Significance: One of the five largest Harappan
townships, alongside Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro,
Ganveriwala, and Dholavira.
City Structure
• The city is divided into a citadel and lower town with fortified structures and significant
civic features like platforms, wells, and drains.
Crafts and Burial Practices
• A lapidary workshop was identified, with unfinished beads and tools for bead-making.
• Bone and ivory working evidence has been found, alongside a unique wooden coffin
associated with burials.
• Excavations uncovered animal sacrificial pits, fire altars, and what may be an
"aristocratic settlement" at Mound No. 3.

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Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)

Important places of IVC_Part 2

Kot-Diji
Kot-Diji is situated on the left bank of the Indus
River, opposite Mohenjo-Daro. Excavated by F.A.
Khan, it is considered a precursor to the
Harappan Civilization, with both pre- and mature
Harappan evidence.

City Structure
• The citadel area was on high ground, fortified
with unbaked mud-bricks and stones.
• The site yielded terracotta bulls, mother goddess figurines, and large cooking ovens,
reflecting early Harappan traditions.
Cultural Features
• Evidence of large-scale burning across the site points to a significant event or ritualistic
activity.

Surkotda
Surkotda, located in Kutch District, Gujarat, was excavated
by J.P. Joshi.

City Features
• Surkotda has a fortified citadel and lower town, with
structures made of burnt bricks.

Ropar

Location: Punjab, India, on the banks of the Sutlej River.

Significance: The first Harappan site to be excavated in

post-partition India.

Findings:

• The site has a fortified citadel and lower town, with

evidence of trade and craftsmanship through finds like
beads, bangles, and terracotta items.

• Unique burial practices include the burial of a dog with

humans, indicating a distinct ritualistic practice.

Amri

Amri, located in Sind (Pakistan), south of Mohenjo-Daro,

shows signs of both pre-Harappan and mature Harappan
phases.
Notable Features
• Lacking fortifications, Amri had a simpler layout than
other Harappan cities.

• The site yielded remains of rhinoceros, which is a rare find for the Harappan Civilization.

Chanhu-Daro
Located about 130 km south of Mohenjo-Daro, Chanhu-Daro was excavated by N.G.
Majumdar in 1930. It is an Indus Valley city that did not have a citadel.

Chanhudaro Craft Industry

• Chanhu-Daro was a hub for
bead-making, seal-making, and
shell-working.
• A bead factory was discovered,
highlighting the city’s role in craft
production.

Banawali

Banawali is located in the Hissar district of

Haryana, near the dry bed of the ancient
Sarasvati River, has evidence of all three
phases of the Harappan Civilization.

City Layout
• The city had a citadel and lower town, both
fortified.
• It was primarily a trading center, with evidence of fire altars suggesting ritualistic
practices.
• The discovery of a terracotta plough model and stone weights indicates agricultural
activity and trade.

Rangpur

Rangpur, located near Vanala in Saurashtra, Gujarat,

was a trading port in the Harappan civilization.
City Structure
• The citadel and lower town were fortified, with
evidence of rice cultivation and trade.

Desalpur
Location: Gujarat, India.

Significance: A Harappan settlement with

well-planned streets, houses, and drainage
systems.

Artifacts: Pottery, seals, beads, and other

objects, indicating a thriving urban center
during the Indus Valley Civilization.

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AHMEDABAD BENGALURU BHOPAL CHANDIGARH DELHI GUWAHATI HYDERABAD JAIPUR JODHPUR LUCKNOW PRAYAGRAJ PUNE RANCHI

Introduction to Vedic Culture

Vedic culture emerged after Indus Valley Civilization. It was the rural culture of Indo-Aryan
speakers who spoke Sanskrit and migrated into India from the north-west.

Vedic Period Timeline

The Vedic period (1500 BC – 600 BC)
Vedic Period (1500
can be divided into two phases:
BC – 600 BC)

Early Vedic or Rigvedic Period Later Vedic Period (1000 BC

(1500 BC - 1000 BC) - 600 BC)

The Vedic Age and the Vedas

The Vedic Age refers to the period during which the Vedas were composed. This era is named
after the Vedas, which provide the primary source of information about this period. The Vedic
Age began with the arrival of the Aryans or Indo-Aryans in India.

Veda: Meaning and Significance

Definition: The word "Veda" means "sacred spiritual knowledge" and is derived from the
Sanskrit word "Vid" (to know).
Sacred Texts: The Vedas are compilations of hymns and prayers dedicated to various
deities. They were considered infallible and transmitted orally.
Divine Origin: The Vedas are considered revelations from God, and thus are Apaurushaya
(not of human origin).
Oral Tradition: Initially passed down orally, the Vedas were not written down when
composed, which makes it difficult to date their exact origins.
The Vedas were so sacred that they were memorized and called 'Shruti', meaning "that which
is heard." Shruti represents eternal, revealed truth.
In contrast, 'Smriti' means "that which is remembered," supplementary, and subject to
change over time.

The Vedas are divided into four main

collections, known as Samhitas, each serving a
unique purpose:

1. Rigveda:

Name: Book of Mantras

The Rigveda, the oldest and most important

Veda, contains 1,028 hymns divided into ten
books (mandalas). Mandals 2 to 9 contain Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed

the oldest hymns, while the first and tenth 2. Samaveda:

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+57 12 345 667 Name: Book of Mantras

These
Yourhymns praise deities like Agni, Indra,
city address Content: Hymns from the Rigveda,
and Soma, offering insights into early Vedic adapted with musical notation for ritual
religious beliefs, rituals, and society. chanting.
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3. Yajurveda: 4. Atharvaveda:
Name: Book of Rituals Name: Book of Spells
Content: Contains prose formulas Content: Includes incantations,
and hymns for sacrificial rituals. spells, and rituals for everyday life.

VEDAS & ALLIED LITERATURE

FOUR VEDAS

UPAVEDA - Applied Knowledge VEDANGA - Auxiliary to Veda

UPAVEDA VEDANGA
Subclassification
of each Veda Śikśā
Ayurveda

Samhita Aranyaka Vyakarana

Gandharvaveda Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed
Brāhmana Jyotişa
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+57Dhanurveda
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Your city address Kalpa

Arthaveda
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Chandas
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Parts of the Vedas

Each Veda is divided into four parts:

1. Samhitas: Collections of sacred hymns dedicated to gods and

goddesses.

2. Brahmanas: Prose texts explaining sacrificial rites (Yajna).

3. Aranyakas: The Aranyakas or ("Forest Treatises") bridge ritualistic

worship and philosophical contemplation, linking the Brahmanas
with the Upanishads for deeper spiritual insight

4. Upanishads: The Upanishads are philosophical texts that explore the nature of reality, the
self (Atman), and the ultimate truth (Brahman).

The word Upanishad in Sanskrit means “sitting down by the side” which actually relates to
hearing the teachings of the saint by sitting close to him.

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Kalpa Vedanga or also known as the Kalpa Sutra are divided into four
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Srauta Sutra deals with Vedic sacrifices.
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Dharma Sutra
Your city deals with social duties.
address
Griha Sutra: deals with household rites
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Sulva Sutra- Deals with the rules of measuring fire-altars
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Veda Brahmanas Aranyakas Upanishads Upveda Priest

Rigveda Aitareya, Aitareya, Aitareya, Ayurveda Hotra

Kaushiki Kaushiki Kaushiki

Samaveda Jaimini Chandogya, Chandogya, Gandharvaveda Adhvaryu

Jaminiya Jaminiya

Shukla Shatapatha Brihadaranyaka Brihadaranyaka, Dhanurveda Udgata

Yajurveda Isha

Krishna Taitriya Taitriya Kathopanishad, Dhanurveda Udgata

Yajurveda Taitriya,
Maitriyani,
Shvetashvatar
Atharvaveda Gopatha None Mundaka, Shilpaveda/ Brahma
Mandukya Arthasastra

Notable Texts and Concepts

Mundaka Upanishad: Famous for the phrase "Satyameva
Jayate," meaning "Truth alone triumphs."

Shatapatha Brahmana: Describes agricultural rituals like

ploughing and introduces the idea of reincarnation
(rebirth).
Aitareya Brahmana: Explains the duties and responsibilities of all four
varnas (social classes) in Vedic society.

Shukla Yajurveda: Describes the Rajasuya Yagya, an elaborate royal

sacrifice performed by kings to assert their power.
VASUDHAIVA KUTUMBAKAM
"THE WORLD IS A FAMILY"
Chandogya Upanishad: Highlights the three Ashramas (stages of life).
“Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam” is a Sanskrit phrase found in the Maha Upanishad, a
philosophy that inculcates an understanding that the “whole world is one family”.
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The political structure during the

Rig Vedic period was largely
tribal, with the Rajan as the
central figure of authority,
supported by various tribal
councils and functionaries.

The largest social unit in Rig

Vedic society was the Jana
(tribe), and it was organized
hierarchically within patriarchal
families.

The hierarchy began with the Kula (family), followed by the Grama (village), then the Vish
(clan), and finally, the Jana (tribe), with each level having its respective leader.

Rigvedic Political Organistion

JANA Jana (Tribes)- Head-Rajan or

Janasya Gopa

VISH Vish ( Groups of Gram)

VISH
VISH (Head-Vishpati)

GRAMA GRAMA Gram ( Village) ( Head- Gramini)

GRAMA
Kula ( Family) ( Head-Kulapa)
KULA KULA
KULA

Rajan: The Tribal Chief

Role and Power of the Rajan:
The Rajan or Janasya Gopa was the leader of the
tribe, primarily responsible for military leadership,
protecting the tribe, and ensuring the prosperity of
cattle wealth.
The Rajan's primary role was not to rule over land or
territory, as the concept of territorial rule did not exist
at this time. His leadership was based on his success
in war and defense of the tribe.
Not an absolute monarch, the Rajan's authority was
constrained by tribal councils (Sabha, Samiti).
The position was typically hereditary, but there were instances where the Rajan was
elected by the tribal assembly (Samiti).
There was no regular revenue system; the Rajan's income came from voluntary tributes
(Bali) and battle spoils, but these were irregular and could not be considered taxes.
The Rajan did not have a judicial role, though theft, particularly ofsit cattle,
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Tribal Assemblies
Your city address
The tribal assemblies were crucial in the decision-making processes related to military,
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religious, and social matters of the Rig Vedic society. These councils, including the Sabha,
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Samiti, Gana,
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The most important assemblies included the Vidatha, Sabha, and Samiti.

Sabha:
Functions: Judicial, administrative, and religious
decisions.
In the Rig Vedic period, the Sabha was an assembly
where the elder members of the Jana (tribe)
gathered.
It was attended by both men and women, the latter
being referred to as Sabhavati. However, women
stopped participating in the Sabha during the later
Vedic period.
Over time, it became a place for gambling, music,
and social activities.

Samiti:
Functions: Primarily focused on folk assembly
discussions, religious ceremonies, and philosophical
debates.
The Rajan could be elected or re-elected by the
Samiti, which had a more democratic role.
Over time, the Samiti became less influential, and its
role diminished.
The Samiti gained prominence towards the end of
the Early Vedic period, and unlike the Sabha, it did
not engage in judicial functions.
Vidatha:
Functions: An early assembly for religious,
economic, military, and social purposes. It was
more inclusive and provided a common ground for
worship.
The Vidhata was the earliest tribal assembly in the
Rig Vedic period, mentioned 122 times in the Rig Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed
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Vedas, indicating its importance.
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Women actively
+57 12 345 667 participated in the Vidhata,
frequently taking part in discussions, unlike in the
Your city address
Sabha where their participation was rare.
The Vidhata served as a common ground for various clans and tribes, providing a
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platform for the worship of their gods.

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Functionaries Assisting the Rajan

1. Purohita - The chief priest who performed sacrifices
for the tribe’s prosperity and military success.

2. Senani - The military general responsible for leading

campaigns and cattle raids.

3. Vrajapati - The officer in charge of the pasturelands,

responsible for leading family heads (Kulapas) and
militia during battle.

4. Gramani - The head of the village; Initially the leader

of a tribal fighting unit, later becoming the head of a
village.
5. Madhyamasi - The mediator in disputes.

6. Bhagadugha - The tax collector (although there was no formal taxation).

7. Sangrahitria - The treasurer of the tribe.

8. Suta - The charioteer.

9. Palagala - The messenger.

10. Akshvapa - The accountant.

Tribal Conflicts

Intra-Tribal Conflicts:
Aryan tribes like the Bharatas and Tristus often engaged in conflicts among themselves.

The Battle of Ten Kings (Dasaraja): A significant battle fought on the Parushni (Ravi) river
is a notable example, where the Bharatas, led by King Sudas, defeated a coalition of ten
tribes (five Aryan and five non-Aryan). The battle is first mentioned in the 7th Mandala of
the Rigveda. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed
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Inter-Tribal Conflicts:
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Conflicts with Dasa and Dasyu tribes, indigenous people often described as dark-skinned,
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non-Aryan, and living in fortified places called Pur.

The Panis, wealthy non-Aryan traders, were alsoLorem frequent adversaries of the Aryans,
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especially due to their refusal to support Vedic rituals.
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Military and Technology

The Aryans succeeded in

their battles, especially
against the Dasa and Dasyu
tribes, because of their
superior military technology
(Use of chariots and superior
weaponry (coats of mail,
arms).
The chariot, driven by horses,
was used for the first time in
West Asia and India by the
Aryans. This gave them a
tactical advantage over their
enemies.

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AHMEDABAD BENGALURU BHOPAL CHANDIGARH DELHI GUWAHATI HYDERABAD JAIPUR JODHPUR LUCKNOW PRAYAGRAJ PUNE RANCHI
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The Rig Vedic Aryans were primarily

pastoralists, with agriculture serving as a
secondary activity. Cattle, especially cows,
were the most significant source of wealth, and
war booty was another important economic
factor.

Pastoralism

Cattle as Wealth: In the Vedas cows were considered sacred and referred to as
"Aghanya," meaning they should not be killed. Only sterile cows were used in sacrifices,
while fertile cows were protected. They were central to the economy and social structure,
with several terms derived from the word "Gau" (cow):

Term Meaning

Gopa A leader or chief.

Gomat A wealthy or influential individual (literally "one who owns cows").

Refers to "wealth of cows," emphasizing cattle as a primary form

Godhana
of wealth.

Gavisthi "Search for cows," also signifying wars fought for cattle possession.

Goshu Refers to the wealth or abundance of cattle.

Duhitri Daughter, literally meaning "one who milks the cow."

Cow pen; a group of people with a common ancestor, named
Gotra after a sage.

Godhuli Measurement of time based on the dust raised by cattle at dusk.

Gavyuti Measurement of distance.

Goghna "Cow killer," referring to a guest (atithi).

Cattle herding was primarily performed by the non-priestly and non-warrior classes,
indicating a clear division of labor within the society.

Nomadic Lifestyle: The Aryans led a nomadic life, frequently moving in search of grazing
lands for their cattle. As a result, there was little time for large-scale agriculture, and wars
over cattle were common.

Agriculture

Basic Crops:

Barley (Yava) and Wheat (Godhuma) were Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed
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Rice (Vrihi) was cultivated in the northwest, but
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Other crops likely included pulses, legumes, and
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Irrigation and Tools:

Simple tools like wooden plows and sickles.The plough (langala) was powered by oxen,
with references to 24 oxen being used to plough a single field.
Dependent on natural rainfall; no large-scale irrigation.
Geography:
Practiced in the fertile Sapta Sindhu region (land of seven rivers).

Ownership of Land
in the Rigvedic Period
In general, there was no private ownership of land during the Rigvedic period, and
scholars have varying views on this matter-
Community Ownership:
Scholars like Dr. H.C. Raychaudhury argue that pasturing lands (used for grazing
cattle) were community-owned, while homestead and farming lands were privately
owned, reflecting a division between shared grazing areas and individually
controlled cultivation lands.
D.D. Kaushambi's View:
Suggested that land was primarily owned by the community in the early Vedic
period, with individual ownership emerging as agricultural practices increased..
Emerging Private Ownership:
By the end of the Rig Vedic period, land ownership shifted from communal to family
ownership due to the rise of agriculture and decline of the tribal system.

Domestication of Animals
Cows and Bullocks: Revered for their milk, which was essential for food, and ghee, which
was used in religious sacrifices.
Horses: Vital for transportation and warfare.
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Elephants: Rarely domesticated, mentioned only in later hymns
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Your city address
Occupations
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Weaving and Carpentry:
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Weaving was a key occupation, with wool and cotton being the primary materials used.
Carpenters made chariots, wagons, and household utensils.
Metalwork:
The Rig Veda mentions ayas for copper and bronze, indicating the use of metal for tools
and weapons.
Iron: The use of iron was likely unknown in the early Vedic period, with iron smelting
becoming widespread only in later periods.
Goldsmiths crafted ornaments such as earrings, necklaces, and bangles.
Bronze: The bronze smiths were skilled in creating tools and weapons.
Leatherwork: Leather workers produced bowstrings and casks for storing liquids, while
physicians used herbal remedies to treat diseases.

Trade and Commerce

Barter System: The primary means of trade was the barter system, with goods
exchanged, primarily using cattle as currency. Over time, gold (in the form of nishka
pieces) emerged as a unit of exchange.
Overseas Trade: Some references in the Rig Veda to ships suggest that maritime trade
could have existed, but these are often seen as poetic descriptions.
Trade Regulation: Trade and commerce were managed by a group of individuals known
as the Pani, who facilitated the exchange of goods.

Transportation and Communication

Land Transport: The primary means of transport were chariots (rathas) and wagons,
drawn by oxen and horses. Horseback riding was also common.
Water Transport: Boats were used for river transport.

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Society was predominantly patriarchal.

Family structure was patrilineal, and
inheritance was through the male line.
Women had a respectable position but were
subordinate to men in the patriarchal
framework.
Family (Kula): The basic unit was the family
(Kula), led by the eldest male, known as
Kulapa.

The family was often extended, with multiple generations living together.
The Grama was a group of families, not necessarily settled, and was governed by the
Gramini (village head).

Kinship-based Society: Society was organized around kinship ties, with strong tribal
bonds.
The Vedic society was tribal, and the concept of a settled village did not exist in early
Vedic times.

Social Organization

Tribal and Egalitarian Society: According to

R.S. Sharma, the early Vedic society was
tribal, egalitarian, and lacked a rigid caste
system.

Class Division: The Rig Vedic society had

professional mobility, Occupation was not
based on birth and people could adopt
various professions.

A person could adopt different

professions, as shown in the example from Mandala IX: “My father is a physician, my
mother is a grinder, I am a poet.”

Initial social differentiation was based on Varna (colour), distinguishing between the
Vedic and non-Vedic people.

Slavery: Slaves existed in society, primarily for domestic work, and were not involved in
productive activities.

Social Structure in the Rigvedic Tribe

The Rigvedic society were primarily divided

into three sections:

Warriors (Rajanyas) Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed

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Common People (peasants, artisans, etc.)
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(Vish)

The Shudra category did not emerge until the Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed diam

end of the Rigvedic period. nonummy nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing

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Caste System

The caste system had not evolved during the Rigvedic period.
Professional mobility was encouraged, and inter-class marriage and inter-dining were
common.
Anuloma: Higher Varna man marrying a lower Varna woman.
Pratiloma: Lower Varna man marrying a higher Varna woman.

Position of Women

Gender Equality: Women were given equal

educational opportunities and could
participate in religious rituals.

Role in Society: Women held an important role

in society, enjoying the freedom to participate
in public life and festivals. They also took part
in public sacrifices alongside men.

Property and Education: Women had access

to education and property rights.

Notable Female Scholars: During the Rigvedic

period, more than 27 women scholars are
mentioned. Notable examples include Viswavara,
Apala, Lopamudra (who composed two verses of
the Rigveda), and Gosha. These women were
referred to as 'female Rishis' or 'Rishikas' in the
Rigveda. Many of them contributed to the hymns of
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the Vedas and were known as 'Brahmavadinis',
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adipiscingthe Vedas.
elit, sed diam nonummy nib.

+57 12 345 667

Your city address
GHOSHA GARGI
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Marriage Practices:
The institution of marriage was
well-established, with both bride price and
dowry being practiced.
There were eight distinct types of
marriages, each with its own customs:

Type of Marriage Description

1. Brahma Arranged marriage where the bride's parents choose a groom with
knowledge of the Vedas.

2. Prajapatya Arranged marriage where the groom's family approaches the bride's family,
both having equal education.

3. Gandharva Love marriage based on mutual consent between the bride and groom, with
Vedic rituals; family consent might not be involved.

4. Deva The groom marries the daughter of the person officiating the sacrifice.

5. Arsha The groom pays a bride price (Shulka) for the marriage; might be
condemned in some contexts if the couple is not compatible.

6. Asura The groom pays money to the bride's family for the marriage.

7. Pisacha The groom seduces the bride under undefined or questionable conditions for
marriage.

8. Rakshasa The bride is forcibly taken by the groom after her family members are
harmed or hurt.
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Monogamy was the norm, but polygamy and polyandry existed in some cases.
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+57 12Remarriage
Widow 345 667 was allowed, and the Niyoga system (levirate marriage- The widow
marrying
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Social Evils: There were no practices like Sati or Dowry during this period.
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Recreation and Lifestyle

Recreational Activities: Both men and women

engaged in dancing, singing, and playing
musical instruments.

Horse races and gambling were

male-dominated pastimes.

Food Habits: The daily diet included barley,

wheat, beans, vegetables, and milk products.
Non-vegetarian food like meat from ox, goat,
and birds was common.
Alcohol: Soma and Sura were consumed, with Soma used in religious rituals, and Sura
being a secular, stronger drink.

Clothing and Ornaments

Clothing: Men and women wore cotton and woolen garments, and deer skin was also
used. Women wore gold ornaments, and both genders adorned themselves with various
jewelry.
Hair and Appearance: Women braided their hair, and both men and women used oils and
adornments to enhance their appearance.

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Early Vedic Religion: Henotheism and Nature Worship

The early Vedic religion is often referred to as henotheism or kathenotheism. Henotheism

involves the belief in single gods, each in turn being exalted as the highest. During the early
Vedic period, there were no temples or idol worship practices. Worship was centered
around natural elements and forces, which were personified and revered as deities. Another
significant feature was the gradual inclination towards monotheism and even monism.

Key Features:

Use of Symbols: Material objects were occasionally used as symbols of deities.

Afterlife Beliefs: Rigvedic hymns did not present a consistent theory about life after death.

Respect for Nature: The Aryans showed profound respect for nature, bowing before
objects of beauty or power and entreating mercy from them.

Mode of Worship: Worship involved reciting prayers and offering sacrifices. Prayers were
both collective and individual, reflecting the egalitarian tribal society.

Deities of the Early Vedic Period

The Rigveda is replete with hymns

dedicated to various deities, each
representing natural forces or
phenomena:

Known as Purandara (breaker of forts) and the most

prominent deity.

Depicted as a warlord leading Aryans to victory and

associated with rain and thunderstorms.

Indra 250 hymns in the Rigveda are dedicated to him.

Represented fire and acted as an intermediary between

gods and humans.

200 Rigvedic hymns devoted to him.

Fire rituals were central, with offerings believed to reach

Agni the gods through smoke.

20 hymns in the Rigveda are devoted to Varuna.

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Cosmic Role: He spreaddiam out the nibh

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+57 12 345 667 rivers overflowing the ocean.

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Upholder of Cosmic Law: Known as the upholder of Rta
Varuna (natural and cosmic order), Varuna regulates both
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Sovereign of Cosmic Order cosmic and human nonummy
laws tonibhprevent
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Titles:

World Sovereign: Regulates all worldly activities.

Lord of Human Morality: Symbolizes justice and

righteousness.

Water Deity: Personifies water and oversees its vital role in

sustaining life.

Associated with an intoxicating ritual drink prepared from

unidentified plants.

Prominence: Soma was the important deity in the Rigveda.

Ritual Importance: The Soma sacrifice was a central

aspect of Rigvedic rituals, symbolizing vitality and divine
connection.

Mandala IX of Rigveda: Out of 120 hymns in this mandala,

114 are dedicated to Soma, highlighting its importance in
Soma
The King of Plants and Deities Vedic worship.

Distinct from Sura: Soma was differentiated from Sura

(wine), as Soma was considered sacred and integral to
spiritual practices.

Domain: Solar energy and illumination.

Significance: A solar deity invoked for inspiration and

enlightenment, praised through the Gayatri Mantra
(mentioned in the third mandal of Rigveda), attributed
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Your city address Maruts: Represented storm deities and forces of nature.
Other Deities
Ashvins: twin god of war and fertility
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Prominent Female Deities of Rigvedic Period

Domain: Knowledge, wisdom, speech, rivers, and learning.

Significance: Saraswati is one of the most celebrated
goddesses in the Rigveda, often associated with the
Saraswati River, symbolizing fertility and prosperity. She is
also revered as the goddess of eloquence (Vāk).
Mentions: Appears in multiple hymns in Rigveda where
she is described as powerful and purifying. The Saraswati
Saraswati river is also called Naditarna or the best and most sacred
rivers of Rigvedic period.
The river most frequently mentioned in the Rigvedic
period ( 176 times) is the Sindhu (Indus).

Domain: Earth and fertility.

Significance: The nurturing Mother Earth, providing

sustenance and stability.

Prithvi

Domain: Infinity, motherhood, and the cosmic order.

Significance: Aditi is the mother of the Ādityas (solar

deities) and symbolizes unboundedness, freedom, and
the cosmic law (Rta).
Aditi

Domain: Forests and wilderness.

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Significance: Guardian diamofnonummy

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+57 12 345 667

Mentions: Mentioned in Rigveda.
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Aranyani
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Nirrti Godess of decay and death
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Lorem ipsum dolorsitamet. elit, sed diam nonummy nib.

Rituals and Sacriﬁces

Yajnas or Sacrifices played a central role in Vedic

religious practices. These rituals were performed
to please the gods and secure their blessings for
material needs like children (praja), cattle
(pashu), food, wealth, and health.

Role of Priests

Yajnas required four types of priests:

Hota: Recited invocations from the Rigveda.
Adhvaryu: Managed physical aspects like
building altars (Yajurveda).
Udgata: Chanted hymns from the Samaveda.
Brahman: Supervised the rituals.

Societal Context of Religious Practices

Sacrifices and Ritual Simplicity: Early sacrifices lacked the rigid rituals seen in later Vedic
times. Magical powers of chants were not emphasized.
Purpose of Worship: Worship aimed at material gains rather than spiritual upliftment.

The Rigvedic period laid the foundation for religious practices,

societal norms, and cultural traditions that evolved in later Vedic
times. While the era was marked by simplicity and reverence for
nature, its limitations sowed the seeds for the complexities of the
Conclusion later Vedic period.
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Extensive topics of the syllabus A Strategic Revision, Practice and
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preparation
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and performance

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The Later Vedic period, which followed the Rig Vedic era, is primarily understood through
texts compiled during this time. This era corresponds with the Iron Age and is associated
with the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Culture.

Geographical Expansion and Settlements

The Later Vedic period reflects a significant shift in the political, social, and economic
structures of the Aryan civilization, as well as increased migration and territorial expansion.
Aryans expanded further east, reaching the Gangetic plains, as described in the
Satapatha Brahmana. This period also saw the rise of larger kingdoms, with prominent
states such as Kuru, Panchala, Kosala, Kasi, and Videha.

Later Vedic texts categorize India into

three distinct regions:

Aryavarta:

Corresponds to Northern India, with

the Western Ganga Valley identified
as Aryavarta in the texts.

Madhyadesa:

Refers to Central India.

Dakshinapatha:

Represents Southern India.

Political Life in Later Vedic Period

Political Complexity: The period

reveals greater political
organization with the rise of larger
kingdoms and settled societies.
Territorial Expansion: By 1000
BCE, Aryans began migrating
from the Sapta Sindhu (Indus
Valley) to the Gangetic plains
(Ganga Doab region), settling in Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed

areas such as Delhi, Bihar, western

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Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan.
+57 12 345 667
Vedic Texts: The Vedas, Upanishads, and Aryankas document this migration,
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particularly between 1000 BCE and 600 BCE.
Population Growth: The increase in population led to the need for new settlements and
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nonummy nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing
further migration.
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Rise of Kingdoms and Centralized Power

Janapad

Jana

Vish

Gram

Kula

Political structure of Later Vedic period

Several Jana (tribes) merged to form Janapadas or Rashtras, giving rise to the term
"Janapada" for kingdom.
The Kula is the lowest political unit, while the Janapada is the higher political unit.
Aryans began forming settled societies, with the king at the head of each tribe.
Kingship became hereditary, but traces of elected chiefs are also found in the
literature.
Warfare shifted from raids for cattle to territorial conquests, which resulted in the
consolidation of royal power.
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Role and Power of the King
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The king, usually a Kshatriya, became central to the social and political order.
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Monarchs were addressed differently across regions:

Virat (North)
Samrat (East)
Svarat (West)
Bhoja (South)
The king's authority was often legitimized by conducting specific royal rituals:
Rajasuya: Bestowed supreme authority upon the king.
Asvamedha: Symbolized control over the land.
Vajapeya: A chariot race that demonstrated royal power.

Administrative Officials in the Later Vedic Period

The Later Vedic period saw the

emergence of a structured
administrative system, with
royal officials called Ratnins
(jewels), who were key
members of the king's council
and handled various
administrative functions.

Official Role & Function

Kulapati Head of the family.

Gramani Village headman, responsible for local administration.

Senani Commander of the army; organized the military and managed

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Madhyamasi Mediator of disputes.

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+57 12 345 667 Chief priest and advisor; performed key sacrifices (Abhiseka,
Purohita
Rajsurya, Asvamedha) to reinforce royal authority.
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Spasas Spies and messengers.
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed diam

Vrajapati Officer in charge of pastures. nonummy nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing

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Bhagadugha Revenue collector; responsible for taxes like Bali and Bhaga.

Jivagribha Police officer.

Mahishi Chief queen, with a role in governance.
Akshavapa Accountant.
Suta Charioteer.
Athapati Chief judge.
Sangrihitri Treasurer; managed state finances and collected revenues.
Kshatri Takshan
Chamberlain Palagala
Carpenter Messenger.
Govinkartana Keeper of forests and royal game

Decline of Popular Assemblies

Assemblies such as the Sabha and Samiti continued to exist, but their roles diminished,
and they became controlled by the nobility and Brahmanas.
Vidhata (popular assemblies) lost relevance.

Military Structure

The Later Vedic kings did not maintain standing armies.

Instead, tribal units were mobilized during times of conflict.
Kings were expected to share meals with their subjects to
foster unity and support in battle.

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+57 12 345 667
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Extensive collection A Strategic Revision, Practice and
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topics of the syllabus

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and performance
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The religious practices of the Later Vedic Age underwent significant changes compared to
the Rig Vedic period.

Decline of Early Vedic Gods and Rise of New Divinities

The prominence of Rig Vedic gods like Indra (god of rain and thunder) and Agni (fire
god) diminished.

New gods such as Prajapati (The Creator) and Rudra (The Destroyer), and Vishnu (The
Protector) gained importance.

Pushan, who became the Shudra deity and guardian of cattle.

Asvins were seen as protectors of agriculture.

Changes in the Mode of Worship

Yajnas became more significant

than prayers, emphasizing the
precise recitation of mantras.

Conducted in two forms:

Domestic sacrifices: Performed

privately for personal well-being.

Public sacrifices: Grand rituals

led by monarchs to assert power
and divine authority.
Major yajnas: Ashvamedha,
Vajapeya, and Rajasuya.

Sacrifices often involved

large-scale animal
slaughter, especially cattle,
signifying wealth.
Yajamana: The sacrificer;
Goghna: Guests fed with Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed
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yajnas, claiming exclusive
priestly knowledge
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elaborating rituals.
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Offerings included cows, gold, cloth, horses, and sometimes land
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Symbolism was central, with sacrifices seen as essential for maintaining cosmic order.
Prajapati and Agni symbolically linked to human sacrifices.

Brahmanical Supremacy

The Brahmins assumed a dominant

position in the social hierarchy,
acting as intermediaries between
humans and gods.

They encouraged elaborate and

expensive Yajnas, leading to the
economic exploitation of common
people.

Defiance or disrespect towards

Brahmins was considered a sin.

Brahmins propagated the belief that Yajnas could regulate and control divine powers.

Superstitions and Mysticism

Superstitions related to ghosts and supernatural

elements became widespread.
Tantric practices and mystical rituals gained traction,
further complicating religious beliefs.

Reaction Against Ritualism

The excessive dominance of Brahmins and the Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed

complexity of rituals led to dissatisfaction

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among Kshatriyas and other sections of
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society.
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Thinkers in regions like Panchala and Videha
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This period saw the emergence of heterodox sects like Buddhism and Jainism, which
challenged Brahmanical orthodoxy.

Philosophical and Ethical Evolution

The concept of Karma (action) and its

impact on destiny gained prominence.
Philosophers explored the relationship
between the individual soul (Atman) and
the universal soul (Brahman).
The Upanishads criticized ritualism and
emphasized knowledge, self-realization,
and the immortality of the soul.

The soul was believed to merge with Brahman upon achieving Moksha (liberation).
Morality and righteous conduct were highly valued, with obligations towards gods
(Devaruna), sages (Rishiruna), and ancestors (Pitruruna) forming essential duties.

The later Vedic period saw the development of more complex rituals, emphasizing
sacrifices and hymns. Brahman priests gained prominence, and religious life shifted
towards abstract concepts like dharma, karma, and moksha, setting the foundation for
Hindu philosophical traditions.

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[email protected] /c/VisionlASdelhi /visionias.upsc /vision _ias VisionIAS_UPSC
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LoremBENGALURU
AHMEDABAD
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BHOPAL CHANDIGARH DELHI GUWAHATI HYDERABAD JAIPUR JODHPUR LUCKNOW
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PRAYAGRAJ PUNE RANCHI

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met, consectetuer adipiscing

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The 6th century B.C. marked a

transformative era in Indian
history with the rise of new
religions. Opposition to the
ritualistic and orthodox
practices of the Brahmanas
gave way to heterodox
movements, notably Buddhism
and Jainism, which emerged as
well-organized and
widely-followed faiths.

Reasons for the Rise of Jainism and Buddhism:

Causes for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism

Reaction Rigid
Agricultural Corruption Difficult Political
against Caste
Economy in Religion Language Situation
Ritualism System

1. Social Stratification:
The rigid four-fold Varna system (Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras)
created inequality. Kshatriyas, including Mahavira and Buddha, challenged
Brahmanical dominance, questioning their authority and privileges.

2. Agricultural Economy:
The new agrarian economy relied on cattle for plowing, but Vedic sacrifices that
involved animal slaughter depleted cattle wealth. Jainism and Buddhism
promoted ahimsa (non-violence), opposing these practices.

3. Urban Growth and Trade:

The rise of cities like Kaushambi, Vaishali, and Benaras boosted trade and
commerce. Vaishyas, who ranked low in the Varna system, supported Buddhism
and Jainism for their egalitarian ideals, which promoted non-violence and
trade-friendly principles.

4. Reaction to Materialism:
The new agrarian economy relied on cattle for plowing, but Vedic sacrifices that
involved animal slaughter depleted cattle wealth. Jainism and Buddhism
promoted ahimsa (non-violence), opposing these practices.

5. Language of the People:

Using Pali (Buddhism) and Prakrit (Jainism), the common languages of the
masses, these religions spread widely among ordinary people.
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6. Curiosity and Debates:
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Intellectual curiosity about life, death, and rebirth drove philosophical discussions
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in public forums (Kutagara-shala-hut with a pointed roof) where philosophers
debated, challenged rivals, and gained Lorem followers. Jainism and Buddhism
ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed diam
challenged Vedic authority, advocating liberation for all, irrespective of gender,
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Jainism: A Historical Overview

Jainism, one of the world’s oldest religions, originated

in India around the 6th century BCE, though its roots
trace back earlier. Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th
Tirthankara, propagated its core doctrines,
emphasizing non-violence (ahimsa), asceticism,
and self-discipline as paths to spiritual liberation. Its
fundamental beliefs in the eternal soul and karma
have profoundly influenced Indian culture and
spirituality.

Key Philosophical Foundations

No Creator God: Jainism rejected the authority of the

Vedas and the concept of a creator God.
Ahimsa (Non-violence): All beings possess souls,
necessitating non-violence.
Karma and Liberation: Salvation is achieved through
penance and ethical living guided by the Three Jewels
(Triratna):
1. Right Knowledge (Samyak Jnana)
2. Right Faith (Samyak Darshana)
3. Right Conduct (Samyak Charitra) RIGHT VISION | RIGHT KNOWLEDGE | RIGHT CONDUCT

Equality: Mahavira opposed the caste system and

emphasized universal brotherhood.

Five Great Vows

1. Non-violence (Ahimsa) Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed
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3. Non-stealing 667
(Asteya)
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4. Non-possession (Aparigraha)
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Core Doctrines of Jainism

Anekantavada – Emphasizes multiple

perspectives, asserting that reality has
infinite aspects. Human perception is
limited, while omniscient beings (Kevalins)
fully comprehend it. This doctrine promotes
non-absolutism, recognizing the manifold
nature of reality.
Syadavada – Asserts that all judgments are
conditional and context-dependent. Reality's complexity means no single statement
can fully capture it. Prefixing "syat" ("maybe") to propositions encourages a conditional, Lor
non-dogmatic approach.
Nayavada – Highlights partial viewpoints, suggesting reality can be understood from
multiple perspectives. Each "naya" offers a partial truth, contributing to a broader
understanding without claiming absolute validity.

Tirthankaras of Jainism

Jain tradition identifies 24 Tirthankaras

(“ford-makers”) who guide souls across the
cycle of existence.

The names of two Jain Tirthankaras –

Rishabha and Arishtanemi – are found in the
Rig Veda.
Mahavira added Brahmacharya, completing
the five doctrines.

Some important Tirthankaras: Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed
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Tirthankara Symbol Birthplace Moksha
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1. Rishabhanath Bull Ayodhya Mount Kailash
Your city address
23. Parshwanath Serpent Varanasi Shikharji
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24. Mahavira Lion Kundgrama (Bihar) Pavapuri
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Jain Councils

Council 1st Jain Council 2nd Jain Council

Year 300 BCE 512 CE

Location Pataliputra Vallabhi

Chairperson Sthulabhadra Devridhigani

Kshmasramana
Compilation of Final compilation of 12
Outcome
12 Angas Angas & Upangas

Spread of Jainism Decline of Jainism

Jainism spread to Karnataka, 1. Lack of Royal Patronage: Post-Maurya

Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, and rulers favored Buddhism or Hinduism.
Gujarat. 2. Stringent Practices: Rigorous asceticism
limited mass appeal.
Influential patrons included:
3. Sectarian Divisions: Conflicts between
Bimbisara, Ajatshatru, and
Digambaras and Shvetambaras weakened
Chandragupta Maurya.
unity.
Southern dynasties like the
4. Complex Philosophy: Doctrines were
Gangas and Rashtrakutas.
inaccessible to the masses.
Jainism remained largely confined 5. Buddhism’s Popularity: Buddha’s
to India, unlike Buddhism. “middle path” approach appealed more
widely.

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Your city address

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AHMEDABAD
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met, consectetuer adipiscing

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Sects of Jainism: Digambara and Shvetambara

Jainism is divided into two major sects: Digambara (sky-clad) and Shvetambara
(white-clad). Each sect is further subdivided into various sub-sects due to differences in
practices, interpretations, and scriptures.

Origins of the Division

Time: 298 BCE, during a 12-year famine in

Sect Digambara Shvetambara

Foundation Established by Bhadrabahu during Established by Sthulbhadra in the
the Mauryan period after Jain aftermath of the Jain schism in
migration to South India. Magadha (modern Bihar).

Teachings & - Follow Mahavira's Pancha - Follow Parshvanatha's Four Restraints:

Philosophy Mahavratas: Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Aparigraha, with
Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Brahmacharya added later.
Brahmacharya, Aparigraha. Focus on moderate rituals and inclusive
Emphasize strict austerity and practices.
renunciation.

Clothing - Monks practice complete nudity, - Monks and nuns wear simple white
Practices symbolizing total renunciation. robes, symbolizing purity and
-Female monks (Aryikas) wear plain asceticism.
white sarees

Idol Worship - Tirthankara idols are nude, plain, - Tirthankara idols are adorned with
and unadorned. jewels and colorful decorations.
Eyes are downcast, symbolizing Eyes are lively, often decorated with
meditation and detachment. glass.

View on Women - Women cannot attain liberation -Women can attain liberation and
(salvation) unless reborn as men. become Tirthankaras.
Believe Malli (19th Tirthankara) was -Believe Malli was a female Tirthankara.
male.

Sacred Texts -Believe the original Jain scriptures -Preserve the Agamas (12 Angas and
were lost. Anga-bahyas) as sacred scriptures.
-Follow Prakrit texts like Suttapahuda
by Kundakunda.

Omniscient Believe a Kevali (omniscient being) Reject the belief that omniscients live
Beings no longer requires food. without sustenance.

Philosophical Emphasize austerity, renunciation, Promote moderation, inclusion, and

Focus and meditation as core principles. adaptability in practices.

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed

Key Temples -Shravanabelagola (Karnataka) - -Dilwara Temples

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features the giant Bahubali statue. Rajasthan) - known for exquisite
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+57 12 345 667 -Ellora Jain Caves (Maharashtra). work.

-Kundalpur (Madhya Pradesh). -Palitana Temples (Gujarat) - an

Your city address
important pilgrimage site.
-Shatrunjaya
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Sub-Sects of Jainism
Sects Sub-Sects Key Features
- Reject idol worship: pray to saints.
Shvetambara Sthanakavasi - Saints wear a muhapatti (mouth cover).
Murtipujaka - Worship Tirthankara idols in temples.
(Deravasi) - Saints do not wear a muhapatti.

Terapanthi - Reject idol worship: pray to saints.

- Saints wear a muhapatti.
Digambara Mula Sangh - Oldest sub-sect (c. 430 AD): associated with Acharya
Kundakunda.
- Divided into branches like Nandi Gana and Sena Gana.
Bisapantha - Worship Tirthankaras. Yakshas. and Yakshinis.
- Includes aarti, fruits, and flower offerings.
- Bhattarakas are religious leaders.
Terapantha - Worship idols with dry substitutes (no flowers/fruits).
- Reject Bhattarakas: focus on Tirthankaras.

Taranapantha - Reject idol worship but have temples for sacred books.
- Emphasize spiritual values and scripture study.
Others - Includes Gumanapantha and Totapantha.

Important Jain Practices

Practice Description
Santhara - A voluntary, peaceful death by fasting, undertaken in extreme old age or terminal illness.
(Sallekhana - Considered an act of spiritual purification and renunciation.

Ahimsa - Non-violence: central to Jain philosophy, influencing diet (strict vegetarianism) and
practices.
Aparigraha - Non-possessiveness: renouncing material wealth and attachments.
Anuvratas - Five vows for laypersons: Ahimsa. Satya (truth), Asteya (non-stealing). Brahmacharya
(celibacy). Aparigraha.
Mahavratas - Five great vows followed by monks: stricter forms of the Anuvratas.

Jain Literature
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+57 12 345 667

Key Texts:
Your city address
12 Angas
Kalpasutra (Bhadrabahu): Biographies of Tirthankaras.
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Jain literature
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dolorsitamet.

Important Jain literatures are:

Category Text/Scripture Author Description

Canonical Agamas Compiled by Sacred texts based on Mahavira's teachings.
Texts Ganadharas foundational to Jainism.

Tattvartha Sutra Umaswami Key philosophical text, authoritative for both

Svetambara and Digambara.

Svetambara Acharanga Sutra KshamaShraman First of the twelve Angas, based on

Texts Devardhigani Mahavira's teachings.

Hemachandra's Hemachandra Treatise on conduct for laypeople and

Yogasastra ascetics.

Digambara Shatkhandagama Pushpadanta Comprehensive text on karma theory, highly

Texts & Bhutabali technical.

Kasayapahuda Gunabhadra Treatise on passions, based on Mahavira's

teachings. Lor

Samayasara Acharya Expounds Jain concepts like Karma and

Kundakunda Moksha.

Ratnakaranda. Samantabha Discusses the conduct of Sravakas (lay

Sravakacara dra Swamy followers).
Sarvarthasiddhi Pujyapada Oldest commentary on Tattvartha Sutra.

Trishasthilkshana Jinasena & Comprehensive Jain history, divided into Adi

Mahapurana Gunabhadra Purana and Uttara Purana.

Contributions of Jainism

Art and Architecture

Caves: Hathigumpha, Udaygiri, Khandagiri (Orissa).
Temples:
Dilwara Temples (Mount Abu, Rajasthan) Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed
diam nonummy nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consecte-
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+57 12 345 667

Temples:
Your city address
Dilwara Temples (Mount Abu, Rajasthan)
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed diam

nonummy nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing

Lorem ipsum dolorsitamet. elit, sed diam nonummy nib.

Palitana Temples (Gujarat)

Shravanabelagola: Gommateshwara statue

(Karnataka)

Paintings: The “Western Indian School” developed from

Jain manuscript traditions.

Trade and Commerce

Jain merchants, guided by non-violence, focused on trade and banking instead of

agriculture or warfare.
They played significant roles in regional economies.

Conclusion

Jainism, with its emphasis on non-violence, self-discipline, and spiritual liberation,

remains a profound influence on Indian culture and values. Its enduring legacy is
reflected in its art, ethical principles, and contributions to India’s spiritual heritage.

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Your city address

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AHMEDABAD
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PUNE RANCHI

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met, consectetuer adipiscing

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A Historical Overview:

Buddhism, founded by Gautama Buddha in the 6th century BCE, began as a reform
against ritualistic practices in ancient India. Centered on the Four Noble Truths and the
Eightfold Path, it seeks liberation (Nirvana). The religion spread across Asia, profoundly
influencing cultures and spiritual traditions.

Life of Gautama Buddha

Born: 563 BCE in Lumbini, Nepal (Shakya Republic).

Died: 483 BCE in Kusinagar, Uttar Pradesh (Malla Republic).
Parents:
Father: Suddhodana (elected ruler of Kapilavastu, head of the Shakya clan).
Mother: Maya Devi (princess of the Koshalan dynasty).

Early Life
Born into a Shakya Kshatriya noble family near Kapilavastu, identified with Piprahwa in
Basti district near the foothills of Nepal.
Like Mahavira, Gautama belonged to a noble family but was deeply moved by the
suffering of people.
At age 29, renounced worldly life.
Wandered for seven years, seeking enlightenment.
At age 35, attained knowledge under a Peepal tree in Bodh Gaya, becoming the Buddha
(The Enlightened One).

Key Events in Buddha's Life

Event Age Symbol Place
Birth (Janma - Elephant Lumbini

Renunciation (Mahabhinishkramana) 29 Horse Kapilavastu

Enlightenment (Bodhi) 35 Bodhi Tree Bodh Gaya

First Sermon (Dharmachakra Pravartana) 36 Wheel Sarnath (near Benaras)

Death (Mahaparinirvana) 80 Stupa Kusinagar

Teachings of Buddha (Dhamma)

Three Core Teachings

1. Nothing is lost in the universe:
Matter transforms into energy and vice versa.
Actions towards others reflect back upon oneself.
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Advocated non-violence and respect for all life.
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2. Everything changes:
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Impermanence is the nature of life (e.g., dinosaurs ruled once but are now extinct).
+57 12 345 667
Emphasized
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address to change with mindfulness.
3. Law of Cause and Effect (Karma):
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Actions (good or bad) have consequences.
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The kind
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Four Noble Truths (Chatur Arya Satya)

1. Dukkha: Life is full of suffering.

2. Dukkha Samudaya: There is a cause for suffering.
3. Dukkha Nirodha: Suffering can be stopped.
4. Dukkha Nirodha Gamini Pratipada: There is a path leading to
the cessation of suffering.

The Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga)

Category Path
Wisdom Right View, Right Intention

Ethical Conduct Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood

Mental Discipline Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, Right Meditation

Right View: Understanding the nature of suffering and its

cessation.
Right Intention: Compassion and goodwill.
Right Speech: Truthful and kind communication.
Right Action: Ethical conduct (avoiding killing, stealing, lying, etc.).
Right Livelihood: Engaging in honest and ethical work.
Right Effort: Striving to overcome negativity.
Right Mindfulness: Awareness of body, mind, and surroundings.
Right Concentration: Focused meditation for inner peace.

Concepts of Buddhism
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Nirvana: Liberation from the cycle of birth FUTURE EFFECTS
tuer
PAST CAUSES
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Ignorance Karmic
and death
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Ageing-Death Formations
Birth Consciousness
Karma: Actions
Your influencing future outcomes.
city address The Cycle of
Dependent Origin Mind & Matter
Ahimsa: Non-violence towards all living Becoming

beings. Clinging Six Sense Bases

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Craving Contact
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Feeling
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Buddhist Social Order

1. Sangha (Monastic Order): Highest group,
devoted to spreading Buddha's teachings.
Open to all irrespective of caste or gender.
Legislation:
Based on the law of Karma.
Strict rules and regulations recorded in
Vinaya Pitaka.
2. Monks (Bhikkhus): lived simple lives,
meditated, and begged for food.

3. Nuns (Bhikkhunis): Assistants to monks,

respected in society.
4. Laypeople: Support monks with necessities like food and shelter.
5. Pilgrims: Seekers traveling to gain spiritual knowledge.

Spread of Buddhism
Early Expansion:
Spread across India during
Buddha's lifetime.
King Ashoka (Mauryan Dynasty)
played a key role in its
propagation.
Sent missionaries (e.g., his son
Mahendra and daughter
Sanghamitra) to Sri Lanka and
beyond.
Emperor Kanishka: Promoted
Mahayana Buddhism in Central
Asia.

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Global Reach:
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Region Period
+57 12 345 667 Form
Sri Lanka, Burma Theravada 3rd century BCE
Your city address
China, Korea, Japan Mahayana 2nd century CE
Tibet, Mongolia Vajrayana (Tibetan) 7th century CELorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed diam
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Buddhist Councils
Council Year Venue Chairman Patron Key Outcome
1st 483 Rajgriha Mahakassapa Ajatashatru Compilation of Sutta Pitaka and
BCE (Saptaparni Vinaya Pitaka.
Cave)
2nd 383 Vaishali Sabbakami Kalashoka Schism into Sthaviravadins and
BCE Mahasanghikas.

3rd 250 Patliputra Mogaliputta Tissa Ashoka Compilation of Abhidhamma

BCE (Asokarama) Pitaka; missionary expansion
initiated.

4th 98 Kashmir Vasumitra (Chair), Kanishka Division into Hinayana and

CE (Kundalavana) Ashvaghosha (Vice Mahayana; Mahavibhasha
Chair) Shastra compiled

Causes of Decline of Buddhism in India

1. Shift to Ritualism: Adoption of idol worship and

ceremonies, leading to loss of original simplicity.

2. Language Barrier: Abandonment of Pali

(people’s language) for Sanskrit (elite language).
3. Corruption in Monasteries: Accumulation of
wealth and moral degeneration.
4. Opposition:
Attacks by Hunas (e.g., Mihirakula) and Turks (e.g., Bakhtiyar Khilji).
Hostility from Shaivites and Vaishnavites.
5. Social Isolation: Monks became detached from common life.

Special Features of Buddhism

Rejected the concept of God and the permanent eternal soul.
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Simple Teachings: Avoided complex philosophy; appealed diam

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Equality:+57
Criticized the Varna system, gaining lower caste support.
12 345 667
Non-Vedic Roots:
Your Appealed to people in non-Vedic areas like Magadha, outside
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Aryavarta.
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Key Contributions of Buddhism

Promoted non-violence, equality, and spiritual discipline.

Played a role in cultural and educational advancements (e.g., Nalanda and
Takshashila).
Facilitated trade and cultural exchange through the Silk Road.

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Your city address

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AHMEDABAD
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Buddhism is divided into Major Sects of Buddhism

multiple sects based on Sect Key Characteristics Subsects/Key Features
philosophical interpretations, Hinayana Orthodox, conservative. Sthaviravada: Strict adherence to
practices, and propagation Focuses on Arahantship (individual original teachings.
salvation). Sautrantika: Emphasized Buddha's
methods. Rejects Buddha's deification and discourses.
idol worship.

Theravada Developed in Sri Lanka (~3rd BCE). Key Text: Visuddhimagga by

Preserves the Pali Canon. Buddhaghosa.
Focuses on Vibhajjavāda Practiced in Sri Lanka, Myanmar,
(analysis-based teaching). Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos.

Mahayana Liberal, focuses on Bodhisattva path Madhyamika: Founded by

and universal salvation. Nāgārjuna; emphasizes śūnyatā
Introduced Buddha deification and (emptiness).
idol worship. Yogācāra: Focused on
Consciousness-Only Doctrine.

Vajrayana Evolved from Mahayana (~5th CE). Prominent in Tibet, Nepal, and Bhutan.
Incorporates Tantric rituals, Features deities like Tara and
mantras, and meditation. Avalokitesvara.
Focused on esoteric enlightenment.

Zen Offshoot of Mahayana. Popular in Japan.

Buddhism Focuses on meditation and spiritual Practices include Zazen (seated
experience over formal doctrines. meditation) and simplicity.

Evolution and Division of Buddhist Sects

The division of Buddhism into various sects began after the Buddha's death (c. 483 BCE)
due to differences in interpretation of teachings, monastic code, and philosophy. The
Second Buddhist Council (~383 BCE) marked the first major split into Sthaviravada
(followers of traditional teachings) and Mahasanghika (a more liberal group). Over time,
further divisions emerged, evolving into major traditions like Theravada, Mahayana, and
Vajrayana, each with distinct beliefs and practices.

Below is a detailed table summarizing the key sects, their philosophies, and features:

Sect/Sub-Sect Time/Origin Key Teachings & Beliefs Key Features

Sthaviravada After 2nd Council (~383 BCE) Realist philosophy: All phenomena Rejected transcendental nature of
exist as unstable compounds of Buddhas.
elements. Root of Theravada.
Emphasized Arahantship Strict adherence to Vinaya (Monk's
(liberation from Samsara). Code).

Mahasanghika After 2nd Council (~383 BCE) Mind's original nature is pure but Introduced Buddha divinity and
contaminated by passions. anthropomorphic art.
Buddhas are supramundane and Mahayana Buddhism evolved from
transcendental. this sect.
Represented majority after the 2nd
Council.

Lokottaravadin Sub-sect of Mahasanghika Concept of Lokottara Buddha Buddha's teachings transcend worldly
(~1st CE) (Supernatural Buddha). reality.
Highlighted Buddha's supernatural
qualities.

Ekavyavaharika Sub-sect of Mahasanghika Emphasized unity of teachings Focused on the transcendental nature
(Ekavyavahara). of Buddha.

Kaukkutika Sub-sect of Mahasanghika Conservative interpretation of Focused on scriptural analysis and

Mahasanghika teachings. doctrinal adherence.

Sarvastivada Split from Sthaviravada (~3rd Doctrine of Sarvam asti All phenomena (past, present, future)
BCE) (everything exists). exist.
Influential in Abhidharma texts.
Spread across Central Asia and China.

Pudgalavada Split from Sthaviravada (~3rd Doctrine of Pudgala (self/person) Proposed a quasi-self concept.
BCE) distinct from aggregates. Criticized and declined after 7th
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Dharmaguptaka Split from Sarvastivada (~3rd Emphasized monastic discipline Spread Buddhism
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+57 12 345 667 Developed own Vinaya (monastic
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Navayana Modern (~20th CE) Focused on social equality and Popular among Dalits and
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Key Texts in Buddhism

Text Description Author/Attribution

Tripitaka (Pali Canon) Core Buddhist scripture divided into three parts: Vinaya Pitaka Compiled by early Buddhist
(monastic rules), Sutta Pitaka (discourses), and Abhidhamma disciples.
Pitaka (philosophy and psychology).

Milindapanha Dialogue between King Milinda (Menander) and monk Nagasena on Nagasena.
Buddhist philosophy and concepts.

Nettipakarana Guide for presenting Buddhist teachings to others, providing Kaccana.

interpretive methods for teaching.

Divyavadana Collection of Buddhist legends and stories emphasizing karma. Hinayana origin, 4th
Century CE.

Avadanashataka Collection of 100 stories (Avadanas) about the past lives of Buddha, Anonymous, 2nd Century
emphasizing karmic deeds. CE.

Lalitavistara Biography of Buddha, detailing his life from birth to enlightenment. Sarvastivada tradition.

Buddhacharita Epic poem on the life of Buddha, portraying him as a historical and Ashvaghosha, 1st-2nd
divine figure. Century CE.

Visuddhimagga Philosophical treatise on meditation, ethics, and the path to Buddhaghosa, 5th Century
purification. CE.

Mahavamsa Historical chronicle of Sri Lanka; mentions Buddhist councils and Mahānāma, 5th Century CE.
Ashoka's missions.

Dipavamsa Earliest historical chronicle of Sri Lanka, detailing the arrival of Anonymous, 3rd-4th
Buddhism in the region. Century CE.
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Jataka Tales Stories of Buddha's past lives, emphasizing moral lessons. Included
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Saddharma Pundarika (Lotus Mahayana scripture emphasizing Bodhisattva ideals and the six Mahayana tradition.
Sutra)
+57 12 345 667 Paramitas.
Your city address
Abhidhamma Kosha Treatise on Buddhist psychology and metaphysics. Vasubandhu, 4th-5th
Century CE.
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Suvarnaprabhasa Sutra Mahayana text focusing on rituals, mantras, and meritsnibh
nonummy of worship. Mahayana
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Tipitaka

Avadana Texts

Avadanas are non-canonical Buddhist texts written in Sanskrit, focusing on stories of

previous lives and karma, often linked to the Buddha. These texts were compiled between
the 2nd and 11th centuries A.D.
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Hinayanic Avadanas: Early texts like Avadana-Satakadiam

(2nd century) and Divyavadana
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+57 12 345 667

Mahayanic Avadanas:
Your city address Later works, including Suvarnavarnavadana,
Kalpadrumavadanamala, and Vratavadanamala.
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They emphasize moral lessons through narratives, reflecting
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Philosophical Contributions

Philosopher Time Period Contribution

Nāgārjuna 1st-2nd Century CE Founder of the Madhyamika School
(Middle Path); developed the
concept of Śūnyatā (emptiness).

Āryadeva 3rd Century CE Disciple of Nāgārjuna; expanded

Madhyamika philosophy;
emphasized dialectical reasoning.

Dignāga 5th-6th Century CE Founder of Buddhist logic (Hetu

Vidya); focused on perception
(pratyaksa) and inference
(anumāna).

Vasubandhu 4th-5th Century CE Proponent of the Yogācāra School

(Consciousness-only); authored
Abhidharmakosa.

Asanga 4th Century CE Brother of Vasubandhu; co-founder of Yogācāra; wrote treatises on

Mahayana philosophy.

Buddhaghosa 5th Century CE Theravada scholar, authored Visuddhimagga on meditation and ethical
practices.

Dharmakirti 7th Century CE Refined Buddhist logic and epistemology; emphasized pramāņa (valid
means of knowledge).

Ashvaghosha 1st-2nd Century CE Author of Buddhacharita; integrated Mahayana philosophy with poetic
tradition.

Shantideva 8th Century CE Mahayana philosopher, wrote Bodhisattvacharyavatara on Bodhisattva

ideals and ethics.

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AHMEDABAD BENGALURU BHOPAL CHANDIGARH DELHI GUWAHATI HYDERABAD JAIPUR JODHPUR LUCKNOW PRAYAGRAJ PUNE RANCHI
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The concept of Bodhisattvas (enlightened beings who guide others) is central to

Mahayana Buddhism. They embody compassion and altruism, choosing to remain in the
cycle of rebirth (samsara) to help others attain enlightenment. However, its interpretation
varies across different Buddhist schools.

Understanding Bodhisattva in Theravāda and Mahāyāna Buddhism

School Definition

Theravāda Refers to an individual who has taken a spontaneous vow to become a

Buddhism Buddha and receives assurance from a living Buddha regarding the
vow's fulfillment. Focuses on Buddha's previous lives before
enlightenment. (Arhatship)

Mahāyāna It views the Bodhisattva as an object of devotion and encourages

Buddhism everyone to follow this path. It believes all individuals possess
Buddha-nature and can attain Buddhahood. (Bodhisattvas)

Comparisons

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infocompanyname.com tuer adipiscing elit, sed diam nonummy nib.

+57 12 345 667

Your city address

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Bodhisattva Attributes/Associations Key Features

Avalokitesvara Embodiment of compassion Known as Padmapani, carries a lotus flower.
and mercy. Depicted with multiple arms/eyes to symbolize aid
to all beings. His Holiness the Dalai Lama is an
incarnation.
Manjusri Symbol of wisdom and Depicted with a sword (to destroy ignorance) and a
intelligence. book (Prajnaparamita Sutra). A key protector deity
in the Ajanta Caves.

Vajrapani Represents power and Hoids a vajra (thunderbolt), symbolizing strength

protection. and the powers of the five Tathagatas. Depicted in
the Ajanta Caves.

Maitreya The future Buddha, Prophesied to teach pure Dharma on Earth. The
embodiment of Laughing Buddha is considered an incarnation.
loving-kindness (Maitri).

Ksitigarbha Protector of beings in hell Depicted as a monk with a staff and wish-fulfilling
realms. jewel. Vowed to remain in samsara until all beings in
hell are liberated.

Samantabhadra Bodhisattva of meditation Associated with vows, virtues, and assisting

and practice. practitioners in achieving enlightenment.

Akasagarbha Associated with infinite Provides blessings for purification and overcoming
space and wisdom. ignorance.

Tara Female Bodhisattva of Revered for swift action in protecting devotees and
compassion. alleviating suffering. A key figure in Vajrayana
Buddhism.
Vasudhara Represents wealth, Particularly popular in Nepal for blessings of
prosperity, and abundance. material and spiritual riches.

Skanda Protector of Buddhist Guardian deity safeguarding viharas and the

teachings and monasteries. Dharma.

Sitatapatra Embodiment of protection. Revered for shielding against supernatural harm in

both Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions.

Sarvanivarana- Removes obstacles to Assists in purifying the mind and overcoming

Vishkambhin enlightenment. mental barriers.

Amitabha Bodhisattva of infinite light Central to Pure Land Buddhism, embodying the
and life. promise of salvation.
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Dipankara: A past Buddha, attained enlightenment
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before Gautama Buddha. In Buddhist tradition,
+57 12 345 667
Dipankara is regarded as one of the previous Buddhas,
with Your city address
Gautama being the most recent and Maitreya
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Buddhist traditions, including Mahayana, Vajrayana,
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and Theravada.
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Four Virtues of a Bodhisattva (The Brahmavihāras)

When a being (sattva) achieves enlightenment (bodhi), they exhibit the following four
virtues:

Virtue Description Four Virtues of a Budha

Maitri Loving-kindness: Goodwill towards all.
True Self Eternity
Karunā Compassion: Identifying the suffering of
others as one's own.
Four Virtues
Muditā Empathetic joy: Feeling happiness for others' of a Budha
joy, even without personal involvement.

Upeksā Equanimity: Maintaining serenity and Purity Happiness

impartiality towards all.

Paramitās: The Path to Perfection

There is a parallel path which consists of perfecting certain qualities, which leads the
pilgrim to becoming a Samma Sambuddha, a self Enlightened Universal Buddha. The
qualities are called the Paramis (perfections) in the Southern traditions and the
Paramitas in the Eastern and Northern traditions.
The ten Paramis are:
Paramitā Meaning
Dāna Generosity: Giving of oneself.

Sila Virtue: Proper conduct and morality.

Nishkāma Renunciation: Letting go of worldly

attachments.
Prajñā Wisdom: Discernment and insight.

Virya Energy: Diligence and effort.

Ksānti Patience: Tolerance and acceptance.

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+57 12 345 667

Maitri Loving-kindness: Friendliness towards all.
Your city address
Upekşā Equanimity: Serenity and impartiality.
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In Mahāyāna Buddhism, a Bodhisattva progressesnonummy
through ten stages (bhūmis) on the
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Comparison with Jainism: Pancha Paramesthi

Buddhism's concept of paramitás is comparable to Jainism's Pancha Paramesthi (five
supreme authorities):

Authority Description
Arihants Destroyers of inner vices like anger and greed, practicing the highest
penance.

Siddhas Souls free from the cycle of birth and death.

Acharyas Heads of monastic orders, ensuring discipline and guiding monks and
laity.

Upadhyayas Teachers and authorities on Jain scriptures.

Saints/Monks Renunciants observe strict vows and spiritual practices.

Differences between Buddhism and Jainism

Aspect Buddhism Jainism
Followers Relied primarily on the Sangha (community of Gave equal prominence to lay followers and monks in
monks) for spiritual guidance. spiritual practice.
Method of Advocated a moderate path (Middle Way) to Promoted an extreme path of asceticism to achieve
Salvation attain salvation. liberation.
Geographical Spread rapidly to foreign lands but eventually Remained confined to India but has survived there through
Spread declined in India. the centuries.

Status of Women Initially restrictive but later allowed women into More liberal in treatment of women, granting them equal
the monastic order. opportunity for spiritual progress.

Belief in Soul Denied the existence of a permanent soul (Anatta Strongly believed in the existence of a soul (Jiva).
doctrine).

Ahimsa (Non- Advocated Ahimsa as a principle of compassion Placed an extreme emphasis on Ahimsa, practicing it to avoid
violence) and practical behavior. harm to even the smallest beings.

Language of Early texts were written in Pali and Sanskrit. Scriptures were composed in Prakrit and Ardha- Magadhi.
Scriptures

Philosophy Focused on the Four Noble Truths and the Emphasized the Three Jewels (Right Faith, Right Knowledge,
Eightfold Path to end suffering. and Right Conduct) for liberation.

Role of Rituals Rejected elaborate rituals, emphasizing Accepted rituals and austerities as integral to spiritual
meditation and ethical living. practice.

God and Deities Rejected the concept of a creator God but Did not believe in a creator God but acknowledged divine
accepted celestial beings. beings in a spiritual hierarchy.

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Mahajanapadas
Key Historical Overview

Mahajanapadas were ancient Indian kingdoms or republics emerging around the 6th
century BCE after the consolidation of janapadas from the Later Vedic period. These states
marked the rise of urbanisation, centralised administration, and iron technology, which
laid the foundation for future empires like Magadha under the Mauryas.

Structure of Mahajanapadas: Republics and Monarchies

The Mahajanapadas, meaning "great kingdoms," were categorized into monarchies

(Rajyas) and republics (Ganas or Sanghas).

Republics: Kuru, Vrijji, Malla, Panchala, and Kamboja. These states were governed by
assemblies of senior members.

Monarchies: The remaining Mahajanapadas were ruled by hereditary kings.

Geographical extent: From modern-day Afghanistan to Bihar, and the Himalayan foothills
to the Godavari River.

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Sources of information
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Buddhist
+57 12 texts:
345 667Anguttara Nikaya, Jataka tales, Mahavastu.
JainYour
texts: Bhagavati
city address Sutra.
Mahabharata, and Puranas.
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Emergence of Mahajanapadas

Mahajanapadas

Janapad

Janapad
Jana

Jana Jana
Vish

Vish Vish

Gram
Gram Gram

Kula Kula Kula

Rigvedic Later Vedic period Mahajanapadas

Transition from Janapadas to Mahajanapadas

Agriculture and Economy:

Widespread use of iron tools

enabled deforestation, agricultural
expansion, and surplus production.

Surplus agricultural produce

supported trade, commerce, and
urbanisation. Agriculture Technology

Political Transition:

Janapadas, territorial entities Economics

Trade
based on tribal loyalties, expanded
into Mahajanapadas. Mahajanapadas

The shift marked the rise of Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed
centralised governance and Urbanisation
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earlier
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Urbanisation:
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16 Mahajanapadas: Capitals, Modern Locations, and Key Facts

Mahajanapada Capital Modern Location Key Facts
Anga Champa Munger & Bhagalpur (Bihar) Known for its wealth and commerce.

Magadha Rajagriha/ Nalanda, Gaya, Patna Important for Buddhism; site of Buddha's enlightenment
Pataliputra (Bihar) (Gaya); fertile land; rich iron resources.

Kasi Kasi Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh) Renowned textile manufacturing hub; produced kashaya
(orange- brown) robes for Buddhist monks.

Vatsa Kaushambi Allahabad/Prayagraj (Uttar Trade center on the Yamuna; capital located 64 km from
Pradesh) Allahabad; Central Malwa region.

Kosala Shravasti Awadh (Uttar Pradesh) Included Ayodhya, Saketa, and Shravasti; associated with
Gautama Buddha.

Surasena Mathura Mathura (Uttar Pradesh) Linked to the Yadava clan and Lord Krishna; uneven roads and
Yaksha cults prevalent.

Panchala Ahichhatra Bareilly & Farrukhabad Tribal polity; Western Panchala had Ahichhatra as its capital,
/Kampilya (Uttar Pradesh) Southern Panchala was centered at Kampilya.

Kuru Hastinapur/ Meerut, Delhi region Known for its tribal polity; associated with the Mahabharata.
Indraprastha

Matsya Viratnagar Jaipur, Bharatpur, Alwar Tribal polity; played a significant role in ancient Rajasthan.
(Rajasthan)

Chedi Suktimati Bundelkhand (Madhya Eastern Bundelkhand region; associated with Shishupala, a
Pradesh) Mahabharata figure.

Avanti Ujjaini / Malwa Plateau, Madhya Northern capital at Ujjaini, Southern capital at Mahishmati;
Mahishmati Pradesh linked with King Pradyota and Buddhism.

Gandhara Taxila Kabul Valley, Taxila Notable for international trade; part of the Persian
(Pakistan, Afghanistan) Achaemenid Empire (Herodotus); King Pukkusati ruled.

Kamboja Rajapur Kabul Valley, Kashmir Known for producing fine-quality horses; laid in Afghanistan
and Jammu & Kashmir.

Asmaka Paithan/Potali Bank of Godavari Only southern Mahajanapada; situated on the banks of the
(Maharashtra) Godavari River.

Vajji (Vrijji) Vaishali Vaishali (Bihar) A confederation of eight clans (e.g., Lichchhavis, Videhans,
Jnatrikas); Gautama Buddha frequently visited.

Malla Kushinara/Pava Deoria & Kushinagar (Uttar Non-monarchical polity; Gautama Buddha attained
Pradesh) Mahaparinirvana at Kushinara.

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Extensive collection
Efficient time utilization with a focus on core
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tuer adipiscing elit, sed Practice and nib.
diam nonummy
comprising 20000+
+57 12 345 667VisionIAS Access to PT 365 classes for current affairs
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Mentoring Program
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and performance
Your city address
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Features of
Mahajanapadas

Polity and Administration

Monarchies
Hereditary Kingship: King served as the highest administrative official and warlord.
Assisted by Mahamatras and Ayuktas for administration and military functions.
Kings controlled tax collection, justice, and defense.
Military: Permanent, professional armies were maintained by the state.

Republics (Gana-Sanghas)
Governed by assemblies of clan heads with democratic decision-making. King (Rajan)
was the first among equals, not an absolute ruler.
Leadership based on merit. One able-bodied ruling man elected as the leader (Rajan).
Key officials included- Raja (Ruling Chief), Uparaja (Deputy Chief), Senapati
(Commander of the Army), and Bhandagarika (Treasurer).

Representatives, known as Gana Mukhyas, were selected from each district to represent
the people in the Sangha or Assembly, which convened in a hall called Santhagara.

Economic and Technological Advancements

Metal Technology:
Widespread use of iron tools for
deforestation and agriculture.
Blacksmiths had advanced knowledge of
hardening iron tools, enabling large-scale
applications in agriculture and warfare.

Agriculture:
Iron-tipped ploughshares allowed for
clearing rainfed forests and cultivating
hard-soil areas, leading to large-scale
agricultural expansion.

Fertile alluvial soil in the Ganga plains contributed significantly to the growth of
agriculture.
Rice became the staple crop, particularly in eastern Uttar Pradesh, with the adoption of
paddy transplantation boosting yield.

Metal Coins (Legal Tender):

Metal coins first appeared in the 7th-6th century
BCE, primarily silver, with occasional copper
coins.
The coins of this period were punch-marked coins called Puranas, Karshapanas, or
Pana, they were stamped with specific figures and motifs like the sun, animals, trees, and
geometrical symbols.
Initially issued by merchant guilds, coins later became state-issued currency.

Trade: Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed

Use of coins facilitated commerce.

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Artisan and merchant
+57 12 345 667 guilds (Shrenis) organized economic activities and later evolved
into Jatis.
Your city address
Taxation:
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The burden of taxation fell on the Vaishyas and Grihapatis
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Kshatriyas
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The voluntary Bali payment of the Vedic age became a compulsory tax.
Tax officers, known as Balisadhakas, were appointed to ensure collection. Traders and
artisans were also taxed.

Society and Religion

Varna System
Society divided into four varnas with Brahmins gaining prominence due to elaborate
rituals.
Shudras faced discrimination and were denied legal and religious rights.

Rise of Buddhism and Jainism

Buddha and Mahavira, both from the Kshatriya
clan, challenged Brahminical authority by
introducing Buddhism and Jainism.
These religions opened religious and social spaces
for Shudras and women.

Urbanization and Culture

Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW)

Phase:
Archaeologically, this era (700-200 BCE) is
characterized by glossy, shining pottery,
primarily used by affluent classes.
NBPW
Urbanization:
The NBPW phase marked India’s Second Urbanization, with bustling cities like Mathura
and Pataliputra serving as centers of trade, politics, and culture.
Roads and Trade Routes:
Routes like Uttarapatha and Dakshinapatha connected various
Lorem ipsum dolor sit regions,
amet, consectetuer facilitating
adipiscing elit, sed

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The Art
+57 12 of667
345 Writing and Mathematics:
Writing
Your reappeared post-Harappan culture, enabling law compilation, bookkeeping,
city address
trade documentation, and tax collection.
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Sulba Sutras (Baudhayana and others) advanced geometry, including Pythagorean
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Loremtriples.
ipsum dolorsitamet. elit, sed diam nonummy nib.

Takshashila
Amritsar
Purushapura Ancient Trade Route
Amritsar
Gandhara

Kurukshetra

Has�napur

Shravas�
Mathura

Pataliputra
Varanasi
Prayag

Nalanda
Chitrakoot
Vidhisha
Tamralip�
Ujjain

Prathishthan(Paithan)

Rise of Magadha: The Formation of an Empire

Magadha emerged as the most powerful Mahajanapada, dominating

northern India.
Reasons for Magadha’s Rise:
1. Strategic Geography:
Capitals like Rajgriha (protected by hills) and Pataliputra (surrounded by rivers) were
virtually impregnable.
2. Economic Resources:
Abundance of iron ore
supported weapon
production.
Fertile Gangetic plains and
heavy rainfall supported
surplus production.
3. Military Innovations: Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed

First state to use war

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elephants extensively.
+57 12 345 667
4. Progressive Society:
Your city address
Magadha’s flexible social
policies encouraged talent Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed diam

and innovation. nonummy nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing

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5. Ambitious Rulers:
Kings like Bimbisara and Ajatshatru expanded the kingdom through conquests and
alliances.

Dynasties of Magadha

Haryanka Dynasty (544 BCE - 413 BCE)

Bimbisara: Ajatshatru:
Capital: Rajgriha Convened the
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(surrounded by five First

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+57 12 345 667 Rajgriha.

Introduced a
Your city address
standing army and Moved the
practiced marriage capital to
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alliances. Pataliputra.
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Sisunaga Dynasty (413 BCE - 345 BCE)

Ended rivalry with Avanti by annexing it.
Capital moved to Vaishali, later shifted to Pataliputra under
Kalasoka.

Nanda Dynasty (345 BCE - 321 BCE)

First non-Kshatriya dynasty.
Mahapadmananda:
Claimed to be the sole sovereign (Ekarat).
Expanded Magadha by annexing Kalinga.
Dhanananda:
Overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya with
Chanakya’s support.

Conclusion

The period of Mahajanapadas marks a transformative phase in Indian history,

characterized by political centralization, economic growth, and cultural development.
These advancements laid the groundwork for empires like the Mauryas, shaping the
trajectory of Indian civilization.

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The Mauryan Empire:

Overview

Rise of Magadha and the Nanda

Dynasty (343 BC - 321 BC)
During the Nanda dynasty, Magadha
was a formidable power in India.
Alexander's invasion in 326 BC
coincided with Nanda rule, highlighting
Magadha's strength.

Mauryan Empire (321 BC - 184 BC)

The Mauryan Empire was founded by
Chandragupta Maurya in 321 BC,
marking the first time a large part of
the Indian subcontinent was unified
under a single paramount power.

Key Mauryan Rulers

Chandragupta Maurya (321 BC - 298 BC)

Overthrew the last Nanda king, Dhanananda, with the
guidance of Kautilya (Chanakya).
He was also called Sandrocottus by the Greek scholars.
Expanded the empire westward by defeating Seleucus Nicator,
gaining control of territories in Afghanistan and Baluchistan.
Established a strong centralized administration.
Abdicated the throne, embraced Jainism, and spent his last
years in Sravanabelagola, Karnataka, under the guidance of
Jaina monk Bhadrabahu.

Bindusara (298 BC - 273 BC)

Known as Amitrochates (Sanskrit: Amitraghata, meaning
"slayer of foes") by Greek historians.
Faced revolts in the western provinces and appointed Ashoka
as governor of Taxila and later Ujjain.
Expanded the Mauryan Empire in the south.
Patronized the Ajivika sect, an ascetic order.

Ashoka (268 BC - 232 BC)

Ascended the throne after a four-year civil war (268 BC - 269
BC).
Conquered Kalinga in 260 BC, a turning point that led to his
conversion to Buddhism.
Promoted the policy of Dhammaghosa (spread of dharma)
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Sri Lanka, and Central Asia.
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Focused onaddress
public welfare and cultural unity through his inscriptions, emphasizing justice,
non-violence, and moral governance.
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Successors of Ashoka (232 BC - 184 BC)

After Ashoka’s death, the Mauryan Empire declined and fragmented:
Western part: Ruled by Kunal (Ashoka's son) and later by his son Samprati.
Eastern part: Ruled by Dasaratha (Ashoka's grandson).
The last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha, was assassinated by Pushyamitra Sunga in 184 BC,
marking the end of the Mauryan dynasty.

Mauryan Administration Overview

Key sources such as the Arthashastra,

Greek accounts, and Ashokan Amatyas
inscriptions provide insights into its (Ministers)
structure and functions.
Mitra Durg
The Mauryan administration was (Allies) (Forts)
highly centralized, with the king as
the fountainhead of power.
The king ruled based on parental King
despotism and was referred to as [Swami]
'Dharamapravartaka' (Promulgator
of Social Order) by Kautilya. Janapad
Bala
(Military (people/
Saptanga Theory of State: The territory)
strength)
Arthashastra outlines the Saptanga
theory, which organizes the State into Kosh
(Treasury)
seven essential elements:

Element Description

Swami The king or ruler, the central authority.

Amatya The ministers or officials who assist in governance.

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Janapada The territory and its people (subjects). diam nonummy nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consecte-
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Durga A fortified capital ensuring security and control.
+57 12 345 667
Kosha
Your city addressThe treasury, essential for economic stability.
Danda Justice or force used to maintain law and order.
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Mitra Allies who provide extemal support nonummy
and stability.
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Centralized Bureaucratic Administration

The King: Supreme

authority, assisted by the
council of ministers. The Sulkadhyaksha Sitadhyaksha

highest functionaries at Navadhyaksha Akshapataladhyaksha

the center were called

Tirthas, numbering 18, with Pautavadhyaksha Pattanadhyaksha

the following key

members: Samsthadhyaksha Devatadhyaksha

Mantri (Chief Minister)

Purohita (Chief Priest) Panyadhyaksha

King Lakshanadhyaksha

Senapati (Commander
-in-Chief)

Yuvaraja (Crown
Prince) Purohita Mantri Senapati Yuvaraja

Mantriparishad (Council of Ministers): It was a key advisory body assisting the king in
daily administration.
According to Kautilya’s Arthashastra, the administration included 27 superintendents
(Adhyakshas) who primarily regulated economic activities.

Superintendent (Adhyaksha) Responsibilities

Panyadhyaksha Oversaw commerce and trade regulations.

Samsthadhyaksha Managed markets and prevented fraudulent practices.

Pautavadhyaksha Regulated weights and measures to ensure fairness.

Navadhyaksha Supervised state-owned boats and water transport.

Sulkadhyaksha Collected tolls and managed revenue from transportation.

Sitadhyaksha Administered crown lands

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Akshapataladhyaksha Handled state accounts and financial management.
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+57Pattanadhyaksha
12 345 667 Supervised ports and maritime trade activities.
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Devatadhyaksha Oversaw religious institutions and ceremonies.

Lakshanadhyaksha Managed the mint

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Army: Large standing army with divisions for Gada

infantry, cavalry, chariots, and elephants. Clubman

Greek Mercenary
Commanding officers: Patyadhyaksha Mauryan Axemen

(Infantry), Ashvadhyaksha (Cavalry),

Rathadhyaksha (Chariots), Hastyadhyaksha
(Elephants).
Mauryan
War Chariot
Mauryan Heavy Cavalry

Espionage Network: The Arthashastra describes a sophisticated espionage system. Spies

operated in disguise (sanyasis, wanderers, beggars) and were divided into:
Sanstha: Stationary secret agents.
Sanchari: Touring secret agents.
Students, householders, and poisonous girls (Vishkanya) were also employed as
agents.
Key Officials:
Mahamatya-pasarpa: Head of the espionage department.
Gudhapurushas: Secret agents.
Pulisani: Public relations officer who gathered public opinion and reported to the
king.
Prativedaka: Special reporter with direct access to the king.
Law and Justice: Civil (Dharmasthiyas) and criminal courts (Kantakasodhanas), with
the king as the supreme judge.

Provincial Administration

Centre King
(Head)
Administration Hierarchy:
Province
(Main Officer)
Kumar or Aryaputra

Mandal (Commissioner) Pradeshika

Aahar (District) Sthanik

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Sthaniya (Group of 800 Villages
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+57 12 345 667 Dronamukh (Group of 400 Villages)

Your city address Kharvatik (Group of 200 Villages)

Sanagrahan (Group of 10 Villages) Main

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Structure: The Mauryan Empire was divided into five

provinces, each governed by a prince (Kumara) or
royal family member. The princes, when appointed Taxila
as viceroys were called Kumar Mahamatras while
the rest of the viceroys were simply designated as
Mahamatras.
Pataliputra
Provincial Administration
Province Capital Details Ujjain

Uttarapatha Taxila Northern province.

Prachyapatha
Avantipatha Ujjayini Western province and a trade hub.

Dakshinapatha Suvarnagiri Southern province.

Suvarnagiri
Magadha Pataliputra Central province and imperial capital.
Prachyapatha/ Tosali/Dhauli Eastern province, annexed by Ashoka.
Kalinga

District and Village Level Administration

Village: The smallest unit of administration.

District Officials:
Pradeshika: In charge of the district, responsible for land measurement, tax collection,
and law and order.
Rajukas: Equivalent to modern District Magistrates with judicial and revenue functions.
Ashoka’s 4th Pillar Edict granted them authority for public welfare.
Yukatas: Junior officers providing secretarial assistance.
Gopa and Sthanika: Intermediaries maintaining land records, tax collection, and
administrative duties.
Gramika: Local village heads appointed as officials.
Gramvriddhas: Village elders assisting the Gramika.
Villages had their own Panchayats to settle disputes.

City Administration
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Nagarika:
+57 Head of city administration, assisted by Gopa and Sthanika.
12 345 667
Bandhanagaradhyaksha:
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Lohadhyaksha and Sauvarnika: Managed manufacturing centers.

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Capital Administration: Pataliputra

The administration of Pataliputra, the Mauryan capital, was managed by

six committees, each consisting of five members: Trade (headed by
Panyadhyaksha), Industry, Taxation (headed by Sulkadhyaksha), Foreign
visitors and Registration of birth and deaths (headed by Gopa).

Mauryan Tax Administration

The Mauryan taxation system was Taxes paid in cash (Hiranya), kind (Pra-
advanced and efficient, focusing on tikara), or labor (Vishti-free
assessment and collection: labour)-Forced labour paid by slaves
Samaharta: Chief officer in and Shudras.
charge of assessment. Civil servants were responsible for the
Sannidhata: Custodian of the sale of state-owned goods (Rajapan-
treasury. ya), which were either collected as taxes
or produced by the State.
Bhaga: Land revenue (1/4 to 1/6 Villages were classified based on their
of produce). specific duties and exemptions:
Bali: Extra tax paid by peasants. Pariharaka Villages: Exempt from tax-
Shulka: Customs duty. ation.
Pravesya: Import tax. Ayudhiya Villages: Tasked with pro-
viding soldiers to the royal army,
Vartani: Road cess.
known as Senabhakta.
Parsvam: Surcharges. Kupya Villages: Required to pay taxes
Parigha: Monopoly tax. in the form of grain, cattle, gold, or raw
Prakriya: Royalty. metal, referred to as Pindikara.
Pranaya: Gift tax.

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Ashoka
Dhamma and Contributions

Ashoka, the third Mauryan ruler, is famed for his ethical governance, Dhamma, and
Buddhist contributions, overshadowing his vast conquests.

Historical Rediscovery of Ashoka

In 1837, James Princep deciphered a Brahmi script inscription referring to a king
named Devanampiya Piyadasi ("Beloved of the Gods").
A 1915 inscription identified "Devanampiya Ashoka," confirming that Piyadasi and
Ashoka were the same, thereby solidifying Ashoka's identity as a transformative figure
in Indian history.
The Kalinga War (261 BCE)
The Kalinga War, fought near the Dhauli hills and Daya River in
Odisha, was Ashoka’s only major battle.
Rock Edict XIII vividly describes the war's devastation, with countless
lives lost.
Witnessing the suffering, Ashoka renounced violent conquests.

Ethical Code and Social Responsibility

Ashoka's Dhamma was a broad ethical code designed to foster social responsibility and
harmony among his subjects. It reflected his duty as an emperor to remain impartial
and promote the welfare of all.

Key Features of Asoka's Dhamma

Tolerance and Respect: Harmony among sects, respect for
elders, and humane treatment of servants and animals.
Non-Violence (Ahimsa): Discouraged animal sacrifices,
cruelty, and meaningless rituals.
Moral Conduct: Advocated compassion, ethical behavior,
and truthfulness.
Welfare Measures: Promoted public works like planting trees,
digging wells, and constructing rest houses.
Religious Inclusivity: Respected all faiths and appointed
Dhamma Mahamattas to spread these values.
Dhamma Ghosa vs. Bheri Ghosa: symbolizing peace and conquest through moral
principles rather than war.
Simplification of Rituals: He disapproved of extravagant rituals, particularly those
observed by women, and discouraged frivolous social gatherings.

Goals of Asoka’s Teachings

Strengthen familial and social structures.
Encourage moral behavior to attain heaven, distinct from the Buddhist goal of Nirvana.
Promote tolerance and unity while maintaining the social order.

Propagation of Dhamma
Mediums of Communication
Edicts:
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Language: Primarily Prakrit, with Aramaic and Greek in
northwestern region.
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AHMEDABAD | BENGALURU | BHOPAL | CHANDIGARH | DELHI | GUWAHATI | HYDERABAD | JAIPUR | JODHPUR | LUCKNOW | PRAYAGRAJ | PUNE | RANCHI 2/6
Quick Revisi n
Module #27

Dhamma Yatras:
Tours by Ashoka and officials to interact directly with the populace, spreading the
principles of Dhamma.
Types of Edicts
Major Rock Edicts
These inscriptions are
usually carved on large
rocks and boulders.
There are 14 Edicts
(termed 1st to 14th) and
two separate ones
found in Odisha.
Languages: Primarily in Prakrit (Brahmi script)
with some inscriptions in Greek and Aramaic.
Key Sites: Dhauli, Jaugada, Girnar, Sopara,
Erragudi, and Kandahar.

Edict Key Points

I Prohibits animal slaughter and festive killings; Ashoka stops his own hunting practices.
II Medical care for humans/animals; mentions Chola, Pandya, Satyaputra, and Keralaputra, and Greek
ruler Antiochus II.
III Issued 12 years after coronation; promotes generosity to Brahmins; instructs Yuktas (subordinate
officers), Pradesikas (district heads), and Rajukas (rural officers) to spread Dhamma.
IV Advocates Dhammaghosa (sound of righteousness) over Bherighosa (sound of war); emphasizes
moral and ethical governance; promotes peace and righteous conduct in society.

V Declares "Every human is my child"; appoints Dhamma Mahamatras; addresses slavery.

VI Emphasizes welfare and administration; Ashoka's communication with subjects.

VII Encourages tolerance and respect among religions/sects.

VIII Ashoka's first Dhamma Yatra to Bodhgaya.

IX Condemns extravagant ceremonies, emphasizes simple rituals aligned with Dhamma.

X Criticizes pursuit of fame and glory; prioritizes Dhamma over materialism.

XI Declares Dhamma as primary policy, emphasizes respect foripsum

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XII Promotes tolerance among religions; highlights Mahamatras for women's welfare; inscribed in
+57 12 345 667 Greek Edict.
Kandahar

Your
XIII city Largest
address and most detailed inscription; expresses remorse after Kalinga War, mentions Ashoka's
Dhamma diplomacy with Greek rulers (Antiochus II, Ptolemy II, Magas, Antigonus, Alexander of Epirus)
and South Indian dynasties (Pandyas, Cheras, and Lorem
Cholas).
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XIV Mentions the dissemination of inscriptions across the empire.
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Minor Rock Edicts

These inscriptions are found at 15
smaller and less prominent locations.
They often convey messages similar
to the major rock edicts but in a more
condensed form.
Languages and Scripts:
Eastern Regions: Magadhi
Prakrit in Brahmi script.
Northwest Regions: Prakrit in
Kharoshti script, with some
inscriptions in Greek and Aramaic.
Ashoka uses his name
“Devanampiya" (Beloved of the Gods)
only in four of these places namely:
Maski, Brahmagiri (Karnataka),
Gujjara (MP), and Nettur (AP).

These early edicts highlight his personal

commitment to Dhamma and moral
governance.

Pillar Edicts
Ashoka’s pillar inscriptions are carved on monolithic
pillars, often topped with the iconic Lion Capital of
Ashoka. These inscriptions are concise and emphasize
Ashoka’s adoption of Buddhism and promotion of
Dhamma. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed

Major Pillar Edicts:

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Located at places such as Delhi (Topra and Meerut),
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Major Pillar Edicts of Ashoka

Edict Number Description

Pillar Edict: I Emphasizes Ashoka's principle of protecting his people.

Pillar Edict: II Defines Dhamma as minimal sin, many virtues, compassion, liberality, truthfulness, and purity.

Pillar Edict: III Encourages avoiding cruelty, sin, harshness, pride, and anger among subjects.

Pillar Edict: IV Outlines the duties of Rajukas (officers), who visit all regions every five years to spread Dhamma.

Pillar Edict: V Lists animals and birds that should not be killed on specific days, alongside those never to be
killed. Also describes the release of 25 prisoners.

Pillar Edict: VI Explains the Dhamma policy of the State, focusing on the welfare of the people.

Pillar Edict: VII Highlights Ashoka's works for promoting Dhamma. States that all sects should practice self-
control and purity of mind. This edict is inscribed only on the Delhi-Topra Pillar.

Rock-Carved Cave Inscriptions

Found in caves such as the Barabar Caves in Bihar. Records the gifting of caves to the
Ajivika sect.

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Important Edicts and Inscriptions of Ashoka

Edict/Inscription Details

Allahabad/Queen's Edicts Mentions Queen Karuvaki, Ashoka's second queen. Reflects Ashoka's
commitment to Buddhism and Dharma. Includes Samudragupta's inscription.

Kandahar Bilingual Inscription Found in Kandahar, Afghanistan. Written in Greek and Aramaic, praising
Ashoka's Dharma policies.

Kanganahalli Inscription Found on a stupa in Karnataka. Identifies Ashoka as "Ranyo Asoka" (King
Ashoka).

Kalinga Edicts Found in Odisha. Contains Ashoka's declaration: "All men are my children."
(Dhauli & Jaugada)

Sannati Inscription Located in Karnataka. Only site with all 14 Major Rock Edicts and unique Kalinga
Edicts.

Rummindei Pillar (Lumbini) Found in Nepal, Buddha's birthplace. Mentions tax exemptions (exemption of
Bali) and payment of only one-eighth of Bhaga (share of produce).

Sarnath Inscription Found in Uttar Pradesh. Praises Ashoka's promotion of Dhamma and Buddhist
institutions.

Nigalisagar Pillar (Nepal) Found in Nepal, Mentions Ashoka doubling the height of the stupa of Buddha
Kanakamuni and his devotion to Buddhism.

Girnar Rock Inscription Mentions construction of Sudarshan Lake by Pushyagupta, a Mauryan

governor.

Minor Rock Edict 1 Describes Ashoka's conversion to Buddhism after 2.5 years as emperor.

Minor Rock Edict 3 Ashoka greets the Sangha and recommends six Buddhist texts.

Shahbazgarhi & Mansehra Inscriptions in Kharosthi script, found in modern Pakistan.

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YourExtensive
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Efficient time utilization with a focus on core
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Post-Mauryan Period
(200 BCE - 300 CE)

The Post-Mauryan Period, spanning the fall of the Mauryan Empire to the rise of the Gupta
dynasty, is marked by the absence of a centralized empire, increased political and
cultural interactions with Central Asia, and the emergence of regional kingdoms.

Political Landscape
Eastern, Central India, and Deccan: Dominated by native rulers such as the Shungas,
Kanvas, and Satavahanas.
Northwestern India: Controlled by Indo-Greek and Central Asian rulers, with the
Kushans emerging as the most prominent power.

Foreign Invasion during Post-Mauryan period

Notable Rulers:
Demetrius: Invaded Afghanistan
and Punjab.
Demetrius and Eucratides—
simultaneously ruled
northwestern India.
Menander (165-145 BCE): The most
renowned Indo-Greek king,
Menander (also known as Milinda)
Capital at Sakala (modern Sialkot).
Converted to Buddhism by Nagasena; their dialogues are recorded in Milinda
Panho ("Questions of Milinda").
Antialcidas (115-95 BCE): Sent Heliodorus to erect the Heliodorus Pillar near Vidisha.
Contributions:
Coinage: They were the first to mint gold
coins in India, influencing future dynasties
like the Kushans. Unlike the punch-marked
coins of the Mauryan era, their coins bore
distinct royal imprints. Minted bilingual
coins (Greek and Pali languages).
Satrapy System: They introduced the
concept of military governorship, with
governors referred to as strategos or
satraps.
Art and Culture: Hellenistic art merged with Indian traditions, giving rise to
Gandhara art, renowned for its Greco-Roman influence on Buddhist sculptures.

Central Asian Dynasties of the Post-Mauryan Period

1. Sakas (Scythians 1st century BCE):

Origins: The Shakas, or Indo-Scythians Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed

migrated from Central Asia and

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tuer adipiscing elit, sed diam nonummy nib.
replaced the Indo-Greeks.
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Division: Five branches-Afghanistan,
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Punjab (Taxila), Mathura, Maharashtra +
Saurashtra and Central India (Ujjain). Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed diam

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Satraps (Maharashtra).

Important Ruler:
Maues (Moga): The first Saka king in India.
Rudradaman I (130-150 CE):
Expanded rule to Sindh, Kutch, Konkan, Malwa, and
Kathiawar.
Issued the first long inscription in chaste Sanskrit
(Junagarh Rock Inscription). It documents the repair of
the Sudarshan Lake, originally built during Chandragupta Maurya’s reign.
Rudradaman also married his daughter to a Satavahana king to foster peace.
Key Events: King Vikramaditya of Ujjain drove out the Sakas in 58 BCE, starting the
Vikrama Samvat era (57 BCE).
The Shakas adopted a confederation-style polity where clan chieftains ruled under
the Saka king.
They borrowed the satrap system from the Indo-Greeks, appointing governors called
Kshatrapas or Mahakshatrapas.

2. Parthian Dynasty (1st century CE):

Origins: Originated in Iran and ruled northwest
India alongside the Sakas.
Unique Features: Practiced dual rule (two kings
governing simultaneously). Referred to as
Saka-Pahlavas in Indian texts.
Notable Ruler:
Gondophernes (1st century
CE): Associated with St.
Thomas the Apostle, who is
believed to have introduced
Christianity to India.

3. Kushan Dynasty (1st - 3rd century CE):

Origins: The Kushanas were part of
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed
the Yuechi or Tocharian tribe from diam nonummy nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consecte-
Central Asia. They emerged as a
infocompanyname.com tuer adipiscing elit, sed diam nonummy nib.
dominant power after displacing
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the Shakas and Parthians.
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Extent: Controlled regions from
Central Asia to northern India, Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed diam

fostering cultural amalgamation. nonummy nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing

Lorem ipsum dolorsitamet. elit, sed diam nonummy nib.

Capitals: The Rabatak Inscription reveals that Kanishka's

empire stretched from the Oxus River in the west to Pataliputra
in the east, with Purushapura as the capital and Mathura as a
secondary hub.
Prominent Rulers:
Kujula Kadphises (30–80 CE): Unified the five tribes of Yuechi and laid the
foundation of the Kushan Empire.
Kanishka (127–150 CE): The most illustrious Kushan ruler, known for:
Hosting the Fourth Buddhist Council, which marked the rise of Mahayana
Buddhism.
Patronizing art and literature,
including Ashvaghosha, the
author of Buddhacharita.
Issuing high-purity gold coins
purer than Gupta-era ones with
Hindu, Buddhist, Greek, and Persian
deities, reflecting their syncretic
culture.
Economic Impact:
Controlled the Silk Route, a vital trade network connecting China to the
Mediterranean.
Cultural Contributions:
Art: The Kushanas fostered Gandhara and Mathura schools of art. Religion: They
patronized both Buddhism and Hinduism, strengthening the idea of divine kingship.

Impacts of Central Asian Contacts

1. Military Influences
Introduction of advanced cavalry tactics by Shakas
and Kushanas.
Popularization of reins, saddles, and toe-stirrups for
better mobility.
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed

2. Cultural Influences diam nonummy nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consecte-
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Adoption of Central Asian attire like tunics, trousers, coats, helmets, and boots.
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Strengthened cultural ties between Central Asia and India.
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3. Trade and Agriculture
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed diam
Kushans controlled the Silk Route, earning revenue through tolls.
nonummy nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing

Lorem
Goldipsum dolorsitamet.
from the Altai Mountains enriched trade. elit, sed diam nonummy nib.

Promotion of agriculture and early irrigation in Central Asia and surrounding regions.
4. Polity and Administration
Indo-Greeks introduced military governorship (Strategos).
The "Satrap system," borrowed from Persia, organized
empires into provinces under governors.
Strengthened divine kingship, with rulers claiming to be
"sons of god."
Hereditary dual rule allowed joint reigns by father and son.
5. Religious Developments
Central Asian rulers adopted Indian religions; Menander
converted to Buddhism (Milindpanho).
Religious harmony under Kushans, who worshipped Shiva,
Buddha, and Vishnu.
Mahayana Buddhism emerged with idol worship,
supported by Kushan patronage.
Early Bhakti references, such as the Garuda Pillar at
Besnagar (Vidisha) by Heliodorus, honoring Krishna
Vasudeva.

Literature and Learning

Central Asian rulers patronized Sanskrit,

with the Junagarh inscription of
Rudradaman I being the earliest example
of Sanskrit kavya.
The Kushans supported Ashvaghosha,
author of Buddhacharita,
Saundarananda, and Sariputra Prakaran,
and promoted Mahayana Buddhism,
leading to the composition of Avadanas
like Mahavastu and Divyavandana. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed
diam nonummy nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consecte-
Secular literature, including Vatsyayana's
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Kamasutra, Charaka Samhita by Charaka

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(on
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city address flourished during this
period.
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Greek influence introduced the curtain (Yavanika),
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of Indian
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Science and Technology

Greek contact enhanced Indian astrology and astronomy during

the post-Maurya period.
The practice of making leather shoes likely began during this
time, with Kanishka depicted wearing trousers and long boots.
Kushan coins in copper and gold closely resembled Roman
currency.
Foreign influence also impacted glassmaking techniques.

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Post-Mauryan Period
Rise of regional dynasties

The decline of the Mauryan Empire led to the emergence of several regional dynasties
that played a crucial role in shaping the political, social, and cultural landscape of India.
Among these, the Shungas, Kanvas, Chedis, and Satavahanas were significant.

The Shunga Dynasty (185 BCE - 73 BCE)

The Shunga Dynasty emerged after the fall of the Mauryan Empire, preserving Indian
culture, Brahmanical traditions, and influencing Buddhist art.
Establishment and Political Expansion
Founder: Pushyamitra Shunga, a
Brahmin general, assassinated the last
Mauryan ruler Brihadratha in 185 BCE.
Capital: Pataliputra (with Vidisha as a
secondary capital under Agnimitra).
Major Rulers: Pushyamitra Shunga,
Agnimitra, Vasumitra, Devabhuti.

Territorial Extent: Covered Magadha, Ayodhya, Vidisha, Punjab, Bihar, Bengal, Uttar
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, extending south to the Narmada River.

Military Achievements
Repelled Indo-Greek invasions, particularly against Demetrius I
and Menander (Milinda).
Vasumitra, son of Agnimitra, defended against Greek
incursions.
Pushyamitra performed two Ashvamedha sacrifices to assert
sovereignty.

Religious and Cultural Developments

Brahmanical Revival: Patronized Hinduism,
Vedic traditions, and Sanskrit literature.
Impact on Buddhism: Some accounts suggest
Buddhist persecution, yet Sanchi and Bharhut
stupas flourished.
Manusmriti (Manavadharmashastra), a major
Hindu legal text, was composed.
Heliodorus' Pillar: A Greek ambassador of Indo-Greek king Antialcidas, erected a
Vishnu-devoted pillar at Besnagar, Vidisha.

Art and Architecture

Transition from Mauryan to Shunga Art – Shift
from wooden to stone structures in Buddhist
stupas.
Key Monuments: Sanchi and Bharhut Stupas –
Adorned with Jataka tales, Yakshas, and floral
motifs.

Literature and Intellectual Contributions

Sanskrit Renaissance: Sanskrit became the
court language. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed

Patanjali wrote Mahabhasya (on Panini’s

diam nonummy nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consecte-
infocompanyname.com tuer adipiscing elit, sed diam nonummy nib.
grammar) and Yoga Sutras.
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Kalidasa's Malavikagnimitram (4th-century
Your city address
CE) depicts Agnimitra Shunga’s life.
Epigraphic References: Yavanarajya Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed diam

Inscription, Dhanadeva-Ayodhya Inscription nonummy nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing

Lorem ipsum dolorsitamet. elit, sed diam nonummy nib.

mention the Shungas.

The Kanva Dynasty (73 BCE - 28 BCE)

The Kanva Dynasty

succeeded the Shunga rule
in Magadha, ruling for 45
years before being
overthrown by the
Satavahanas. Their reign
marked political
fragmentation and the
decline of Magadhan
supremacy.

Key Highlights
Founder: Vasudeva Kanva, a minister of the Shunga dynasty, assassinated Devabhuti
and established Kanva rule in 73 BCE.
Major Rulers: Vasudeva Kanva, Bhumimitra, Narayana, Susharman.
Capital: Pataliputra, with Vidisha as an administrative center.
Extent of Rule: Limited to Magadha, while Punjab remained under Indo-Greek influence
and the Gangetic plains saw increasing fragmentation.
Decline: The last ruler, Susharman, was overthrown by the Satavahanas (Andhras),
marking the end of the Kanva dynasty.
Northern India saw the rise of smaller kingdoms, such as the Mitras of Kaushambi.

Satavahana Dynasty (1st Century BCE – 3rd Century CE)

The Satavahanas (Andhras) ruled the

Deccan (Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh). Emerging after Ujjayini
Satavahanas
the Mauryan decline, they bridged North and Pratiathana
Amaravati

South India, fostering trade, art, and religious Vanavasi

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed
tolerance (Buddhism & Brahmanism). diam nonummy nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consecte-
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Political Setup
+57 12 345 667& Administration
Founder
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Capitals
Founder: Simuka Satavahana
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed diam
Primary Capital: Pratishthana (Paithan, Maharashtra)
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Secondary
Lorem Capital: Amaravati
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Sources of Information
Literary Sources: Aitreya Brahmana, Puranas,
Epics, Brihat Katha (Gunadhya), Kamasutra
(Vatsyayana).
Inscriptions: Naneghat, Nasik, Hathigumpha (Kharavela), Erragudi.

Administration
King as the Upholder of Dharma Followed Dharmashastra principles
Ahara Administrative district unit
Amatyas & Mahamatras District officers
Gaulmika Rural administrator
Military Camps Katakas & Skandhvaras
Land Grants Given to Brahmins & officials, leading to feudalism

Prominent Rulers & Achievements

Gautamiputra Satakarni (c. 106-130 CE)
Defeated Sakas, Greeks, Parthians, and Nahapana (Western
Kshatrapa King).
Revived Vedic traditions, declared himself ‘Ekabrahmana’
(the sole Brahmin).
Nasik Inscription (by his mother Gautami Balashri) records his achievements.
Vashishtiputra Pulumavi
Expanded maritime trade with the Roman Empire.
Strengthened cultural & economic ties with South India.

Yajna Sri Satakarni (Last Powerful Ruler)

Reclaimed Gujarat, Malwa, Andhra after earlier losses.
Continued military expansion but faced growing external
threats.

Decline
Post Yajna Sri Satakarni, dynasty weakened due
Loremto internal
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Kshatrapa invasions.
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Replaced by667
+57 12 345 the Vakatakas (Brahmin rulers) in the 3rd century CE.
Economy & Trade
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Flourishing Trade Networks
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Major Ports: Sopara, Bharuch (linked India to nonummy
the Roman world).
nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing

Maritime
Lorem trade extended to Southeast Asia & the Mediterranean.
ipsum dolorsitamet. elit, sed diam nonummy nib.

Coinage
Issued lead, copper, silver, potin coins
Coins known as Karshapanas.
Agriculture & Industry
Irrigation systems improved agriculture.
Paddy transplantation & cotton production thrived.
Iron ore mining in Karimnagar & Warangal.

Art & Architecture

Rock-Cut Buddhist Architecture in the Western Ghats (Ajanta, Nasik, Karle, Bhaja,
Kondane, Kanheri).
Chaityas (Buddhist temples) & Viharas (monasteries) built.
Karle Chaitya – Largest Buddhist cave temple.
Stupas & Art Centers
Amaravati & Nagarjunakonda – Centers of Buddhist art & trade.
First use of white marble in India for stupa decorations.
Society & Religion
Religious Syncretism
Revival of Brahmanism, but coexisted with Buddhism.
Krishna & Vasudeva worship alongside Mahayana Buddhism.
Matrilineal Influence
Kings named after their mothers (Gautamiputra Satakarni,
Vasisthiputra Pulumayi, Yajna Sri Satakarni).

Literature & Language

Official Language: Prakrit (Most inscriptions in Prakrit).
King Hala composed Gathasaptasati (Prakrit poem collection).

Mahameghavahana (Chedi) Dynasty of Kalinga

(c. 1st Century BCE – 1st Century CE)
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed

Following the decline of Mauryan control, Kalinga (modern-day

diam nonummy nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consecte-
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Odisha) witnessed the rise of the Mahameghavahana dynasty, tuer adipiscing elit, sed diam nonummy nib.

also+57 12 345as
known 667the Chedi dynasty. Established around the 1st
century BCE,
Your city address
this dynasty revived Kalinga’s power after its
subjugation in the Kalinga War under Ashoka. The name
"Mahameghavahana" means "Lord of the Great Cloud,"
symbolizing divine authority.

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Kharavela: The Greatest Ruler

Kharavela, the third and most illustrious ruler, led
Kalinga’s resurgence through military conquests and
economic prosperity.
Political and Military Achievements
Launched military campaigns, restoring Kalinga’s dominance.
Extended control from northwestern India to the deep south.
Defeated the Satavahanas, expelled Indo-Greek forces, and invaded Magadha.
Reestablished Kalinga as a maritime power, with trade links to Sri Lanka, Myanmar,
Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, Malaysia, Sumatra, and Java.
Administration and Governance
Maintained a centralized monarchy, strengthening state structures.
Promoted economic growth, challenging Magadha’s influence in eastern India.
Religion and Cultural Contributions
Great patron of Jainism, supporting Jain monks and institutions.
Hathigumpha Inscription: A Historical Record- One of the most important sources
about Kharavela, found in the Udayagiri hills (Bhubaneswar, Odisha).
Written in Prakrit using Brahmi script, detailing his conquests, administration, and
patronage.

Signiﬁcance of the Post-Mauryan Period

The post-Mauryan period (c. 200 BCE – 300 CE) marked the transition
from a centralized Mauryan empire to regional kingdoms like the
Shungas, Kanvas, Satavahanas, and Chedis of Kalinga.

Conclusion

This period saw regional dynasties rise, political fragmentation, and increased
Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian, and Indo-Parthian influences. Trade with the
Mediterranean flourished, along with Sanskrit and Prakrit literature. Buddhist and Hindu
art advanced, setting the stage for the Gupta Empire.
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+57 12 345 667
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Your city collection
Extensive address topics of the syllabus A Strategic Revision, Practice and
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preparation
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Ancient and Medieval

Indian Ports
A Glimpse into India's Maritime Legacy

India's rich maritime history dates back to ancient times, with numerous ports playing
pivotal roles in trade, culture, and civilization. These ports served as vital gateways
connecting India to diverse regions, fostering economic prosperity and cultural exchange.

Harappan Civilization (3300–1300 BCE)

Sutkagendor (Baluchistan) – A Harappan port

located on the banks of the Dasht River.
Sotkakoh (Baluchistan) – Situated on the Shadikor
River, it was a major Harappan trade hub.
Balakot (Baluchistan) – A port on the Vidar River,
significant for Harappan trade.
Allahdino (Arabian Sea, Pakistan) – Known for its
rich findings of copper artifacts.
Lothal (Gujarat)

Sangam Era Ports East Coast Ports:

Tamralipti (West Bengal)
(300 BCE – 300 CE)
Pitroda (East Coast) – A minor
West Coast post-Mauryan trade port.
Ports:
Gupta Period
Muziris (Kerala
Tondi (West (4th–6th Century CE)
Coast)
Kottayam Deval
(West Coast) – (Karachi,
Located on the Pakistan) –
Kodoor River, A significant
important for Sangam-era trade Gupta-era
Kannur (Kerala) – A significant port of the port.
Sangama Dynasty.
Khambhat
East Coast Ports: (Cambay,
Korkai (Tamil Nadu) Gujarat) – A
Poduka (Puducherry) major port
Puhar (Tamil Nadu) – Also called known for
Kaveripattinam textile and spice trade.
Shaliyur (Tamil Nadu) Tamralipti (Tamluk, West Bengal) – A vital
Vasavsamudra (Tamil Nadu) – Situated hub for Southeast Asian trade.
on the Palar River
Medieval Indian Ports
Mauryan & Post-Mauryan Period
(7th–16th Century CE)
(322 BCE – 300 CE)

West Coast Ports: West Coast Ports:

Bharukaccha Calicut (Kozhikode, Kerala)
(Bharuch, Gujarat)
Tuticorin (Thoothukudi, Tamil Nadu)
Barbaricum (Near
Karachi, Pakistan) Sopara (Maharashtra)
Sopara East Coast Ports:
(Maharashtra)
Nirppeyarru (Tamil Nadu) – Associated
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Semilla (West diam nonummy nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consecte-
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(West Muchiri (Kerala)
Coast)
Your–city
Described
address Motupalli (Andhra Pradesh)
in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as
Masulipatnam (Machilipatnam, Andhra
major trade centers.
Pradesh)
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A Brief Overview of Ancient Bharuch Port (Gujarat)

and Medieval Indian Ports Known in ancient texts as Bharukaccha or
Barygaza.
A historic gateway to the global
PORT CITIES IN ANCIENT marketplace.
AND MEDIEVAL INDIA
A key transshipment hub for goods using
the monsoon winds.
Trade links with Arabia, Greece, Rome,
Africa, China, and Egypt.
Major exports: Cotton textiles, ivory, and
spices.
Bhrigukachha/
Barygaza
Lothal
Guajarat West Bengal
Bhagatrav

Tamrapti
Odisha
Maharashtra khalkattapatna

Sopara
Masulipatnam/
Machalipatnam/Maisolia
Andhra Pradesh

Tamil Nadu Mamallapuram/Mahabalipuram

Kerala Arikamedu/Poduka
Muziris Puhar/Kaveripattinam Korkai

Lothal Port (Gujarat) Barbaricum Port (Near Karachi, Pakistan)

One of the Located in the Indus Delta.
oldest Key trading center for Indo-Roman trade.
dockyards in
Connected India with Mesopotamia and
the world.
the Greco-Roman world.
Oldest
known port
in India,
dating back
to the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 2400 BCE).
Excavations by the Archaeological Survey Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed

of India (ASI) in 1954 uncovered a diam nonummy nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consecte-
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Key trade partners: Mesopotamia, Persia,
Your city Arabian
and the address Peninsula.
Goods traded: Beads, semi-precious Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed diam
stones, and cotton textiles. nonummy nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing

Lorem ipsum dolorsitamet. elit, sed diam nonummy nib.

Sopara Port (Maharashtra) Muziris Port (Kerala)

Mentioned in the Periplus of the Flourished during the Sangam period (300
Erythraean Sea, active in Indo-Roman BCE – 300 CE).
trade. Connected India with the Persians,
Located near modern Nala Sopara, Phoenicians, Assyrians, Greeks, Egyptians,
Mumbai. and Romans.
Major trade hub from 3rd century BCE to Major exports: Black pepper,
9th century CE. semi-precious stones, ivory, pearls.
Traded with Mesopotamia, Egypt, Cochin, Major imports: Textiles, wine, wheat, gold
Arabia, and East Africa. coins.
Ashokan edicts and Buddhist relics found Mentioned in Pliny the Elder’s writings and
here highlight its historical significance. the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.

Calicut Port (Kerala)

Also known as Kozhikode, it flourished
under the Chera dynasty.
A key center for the spice trade especially
black pepper, cloves, and cinnamon.
Became famous after Vasco da Gama’s
arrival in 1498.
Engaged in trade with China, Persia, and
Europe.
Tamralipti Port (West Bengal)
Major eastern seaport at the confluence of Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed

Ganga and the Bay of Bengal.

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tuer adipiscing elit, sed diam nonummy nib.
Mentioned in Ptolemy’s
+57 12 345 667 maps and Chinese
pilgrim Hiuen-Tsang’s travel accounts.
Your city address
Key trade center for South Asia.
Last recorded reference: Dudhpani rock Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed diam

inscription (8th century CE). nonummy nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing

Lorem ipsum dolorsitamet. elit, sed diam nonummy nib.

Poompuhar Port (Tamil Nadu) Korkai Port (Tamil Nadu)

Also known as Kaveripattinam, it was the Located on the Tamraparni River, it was
Chola Empire’s principal port. the Primary port of the Pandyas before
Located at the mouth of the Kaveri River. Tuticorin.

Traded extensively with Southeast Asia Famous for pearl fishing and trade.
and Arabian merchants.
Major exports: Spices, textiles, and
precious gems.

Pulicat Port (Tamil Nadu)

A Vijayanagar-era port facilitating
Indo-European trade.

Tuticorin Port (Tamil Nadu) Later, a trading post for the Portuguese
and Dutch.
Also called
Thoothukudi. Arikamedu Port (Puducherry)
Important Identified as
under Pandya the port of
and Chola Podouke in
rule. Greek and
Renowned for pearl fishing and maritime Roman
trade. records.
Mentioned in
Nirppeyarru Port (Tamil Nadu) Sangam
Identified with modern Mahabalipuram. literature.
A significant port during the Pallava Major exports:
Beads,
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed
period. diam nonummy nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consecte-
infocompanyname.com textiles,
Tondi Port (or Tyndis) tuer adipiscing elit, sed diam nonummy nib.

+57 12 345 667 terracotta

A thriving port for Indo-Roman trade; artifacts, spices, jewelry.
Your
major hub forcitythe
address
Chera Dynasty.
Excavations revealed Roman amphorae,
According to the Periplus of the Arretine pottery,
Lorem ipsum dolor and Roman
sit amet, coins,
consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed diam
Erythraean Sea, it was a satellite feeding indicating
nonummyIndo-Roman
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portLorem
to Muzris
ipsumport.
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Motupalli Port (Andhra Pradesh) Machilipatnam Port (Andhra Pradesh)

Flourished under Known as Masulipatnam or Bandar.
the Kakatiya Flourished during the Satavahana period.
dynasty.
Renowned for muslin trade under the
Mentioned in Golconda rulers.
Marco Polo’s
travel accounts.
Major exports:
Textiles and spices.

Conclusion

Ancient Indian ports played a vital role in global trade, linking the subcontinent with Asia,
Africa, the Middle East, and Europe. These trade networks facilitated the exchange of
goods, culture, and ideas, shaping the economic and cultural history of the region.

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PRAYAGRAJ PUNE RANCHI

The Sangam Period refers to the era spanning from the 3rd century B.C. to the 3rd century
A.D. in South India, particularly the region south of the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers.
This period is named after the Sangam assemblies, where Tamil poets gathered to
compose literature.

Sangam Assemblies (Muchchangam)

According to Tamil legends, three Sangam assemblies were held under the patronage of
the Pandya kings in Madurai:

Sangam Location Attended By Key Literary Works

First Madurai Gods and legendary sages, presided No surviving works
Sangam over by Agastya (Agattiyar)
Second Kapadapuram Kings and poets, presided Tolkappiyam (only
Sangam over by Tolkappiyar surviving text)

Third Poets and scholars, presided Ettutokai (Eight Anthologies),

Madurai
Sangam over by Nakkirar Pattupattu (Ten Idylls)

Political History of the Sangam Period

The Sangam Age saw the rise of three powerful dynasties: Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas.
These kingdoms, known collectively as Muvendar, ruled various regions of South India.

Cheras
Location: Central and northern Kerala, parts of Tamil Nadu.
Capital: Vanji; key ports included Musiri and Tondi.
Emblem: Bow and Arrow.
Famous Ruler: Senguttuvan (the Red Chera), known for his military
exploits, including an expedition to the Himalayas and introducing
the Pattini Cult.
Trade: Significant trade with the Romans.

Cholas
Location: Central and northern Tamil Nadu, especially
the Kaveri Delta.
Capital: Uraiyur (later Puhar).
Emblem: Tiger.
Famous Ruler: Pugalur inscription refers to three
generations of Chera rulers.
Pathitrupathu speaks of eight Chera kings, their
territory and their fame.
Karikala Chola, celebrated for his victory at the Battle of Venni and for building the
Kallanai dam. His reign also saw significant developments in trade and irrigation.
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diam nonummy nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consecte-

Pandyas
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Location: 345 667 Tamil Nadu, including Madurai.

+57 12 Southern
Capital:
Your Madurai.
city address
Emblem: Fish.
Famous Ruler: Neduncheliyan (also referenced Lorem in Silappathikaram),
ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed diam

known for military victories and patronizing Tamil culture.

nonummy nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing

Lorem ipsum dolorsitamet. elit, sed diam nonummy nib.

Administrative Structure of the Sangam Kingdom

The Sangam Territorial Units Description

kingdom had a
Mandalam Kingdom or larger territory
well-organized
administration, Ur Town or urban center
systematically divided Perur Large village
into different
Sirur Small village
territorial units for
efficiency:
The governance was structured into three levels of rulers:
Rulers Role
Kizhar Village leaders or rulers of small territories; later became Nadu chiefs

Velir Regional chieftains governing hilly and forested areas

Vendar Kings ruling expansive and fertile regions with significant influence

The Sangam period witnessed the establishment of a hereditary monarchy. The king ruled
with the help of various officials and councils:

Council Role
Amaichar (Ministers) Advised the king on governance

Anthanar (Priests) Performed religious and ritual duties

Thuthar (Envoys) Handled diplomacy and foreign affairs

Senapathi (Military Commanders) Led the army

Orrar (Spies) Monitored internal affairs

Military and Warfare

The warrior class played a significant role in society. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed
diam nonummy nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consecte-
Military leaders were given the title of Enadi.
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Military
+57officers belonged mainly to the Vellalar class.
12 345 667
Each Your
kingdom had a tutelary tree (Kodimaram) representing its army.
city address
Highways were maintained and guarded day and night to prevent robbery and
smuggling. Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed diam

nonummy nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing

Lorem ipsum dolorsitamet. elit, sed diam nonummy nib.

Sangam Literature
The Sangam literature is the primary source for understanding the culture, society, and
polity of the period. Major texts include:

Literary Work Author Description

Tolkappiyam Toikappiyar Earliest Tamil text on grammar and linguistics; provides insights into
socio-political and economic conditions.

Ettutogai (Eight Various Collection of eight works, including Aingurunooru, Purananooru, and
Anthologies) Kuruntogai, depicting love, warfare, politics, and morality.

Pattupattu Various Ten long poems detailing Tamil kings' lives and achievements,
(Ten Idylls) including Karikala Chola.

Pathinenkilkanakku Various Focuses on ethics, morality, and values; Tirukkural by Thiruvalluvar is

(Eighteen Ethics Texts) the most renowned.

Silappathikaram (Epic) Ilango Adigal Story of Kovalan and Kannagi; provides insights into Sangam society.

Manimekalai Sittalai Story of Manimekalai, a Buddhist nun; highlights religious and cultural
(Epic) Sattanar aspects.

Types of Sangam Poetry

Category Focus Themes

Aham (Agam) Inner experiences Love, romance, emotions, feminine themes, personal relationships.

Puram External, worldly affairs War, heroism, politics, kingship, virtue, male-dominated themes.

Social Structure of sangam period

The society during the Sangam period was marked by a well-defined social structure, with varying
degrees of gender equality. It was organized into distinct divisions based on occupation, land type,
and social roles.
Ecological Divisions The Tolkappiyam describes a five-fold classification of land, each with its
(Panchitanai): own deity and primary occupation:

Land Type Chief Deity Primary Activity Key Inhabitants

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Kurinji (Hilly tracks) Murugan Hunting and honey collection Kuravar,

diam nonummy nibh Lorem Vetar
ipsum dolor sit amet, consecte-
infocompanyname.com tuer adipiscing elit, sed diam nonummy nib.
Mullai
+57(Pastoral)
12 345 667 Mayon (Vishnu) Cattle herding and dairy farming Eyinar, Maravar

Your (Agricultural)
Marudam city address Indira Farming and cultivation Ayar, Idaiyar

Neydal (Coastal) Varunan Fishing and saltLorem

production Ulavar, Vellalar
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nonummy nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing

Palai
Lorem (Desert) Koravai
ipsum dolorsitamet. Looting and raiding Paratavar,
elit, sed Valayar
diam nonummy nib.

Society was further divided into four main classes with specific roles:
Class Role

Arasar Ruling class

Anthanar Priests, scholars, and advisors

Vanigar Traders and merchants

Vellalar Agriculturists

Brahmanas were present in courts, performing yajnas and advising rulers.

Additionally, there were landless laborers such as Kadaisiyar and Adimai, who included slaves,
and Pariyars, who were agricultural laborers.
Tribal groups, like the Parathavar, Panar, Eyinar, Kadambar, Maravar, Pulaiyar, Thodas, Irulas,
Nagas, and Vedars, also formed part of this society.

Position of Women During the Sangam Age

Women enjoyed respect and had greater freedom compared to other
ancient civilizations. They were involved in literature, music, and dance.
Famous Women Poets: Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar
contributed immensely to Tamil literature.
Marriage: Love marriages were common, and women had the autonomy
to choose their life partners.
Virtue: Karpu (chastity) was regarded as the highest virtue for women,
emphasizing purity and loyalty.
Widowhood: Widows faced social ostracism, and the practice of Sati
(Tippayadal) (self-immolation) was prevalent among the higher classes,
though it was not widespread.

Religion in the Sangam Age

Animism and nature worship were prevalent.

Murugan: The primary deity, revered as the Tamil god. His
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed
worship was widespread, and his six abodes were referred to as
diam nonummy nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consecte-
infocompanyname.comArupadai Veedu.
tuer adipiscing elit, sed diam nonummy nib.
Other important Deities: Mayon (Vishnu), Indiran (Vendan), and
+57 12 345 667
Varunan were also worshipped.
Your city address Hero Stones: These were erected in memory of warriors who
displayed bravery on the battlefield, representing the martial
and heroic values of the society.
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed diam
nonummy nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing
Ananku: Concept of sacred power in objects and nature.
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Economy of the Sangam Age

The economy of the Sangam period was primarily agrarian,

supported by a robust handicraft industry and active trade, both
internal and external.

Agriculture:
Agriculture was the chief occupation, with rice being the most
common crop. Paddy was the main crop in the Chola and
Pandya regions, while jackfruit and pepper were famous in the
Chera country.

Handicrafts:
Trade:
The Sangam economy was also
marked by skilled handicraft Uraiyur was Internal Trade:
production: particularly
renowned for Markets operated on a barter
Weaving (of cotton and silk its high-quality system, with places like
fabrics) cotton textiles, Maduraikanchi holding day
Metalworking and carpentry in great and night markets selling craft
Shipbuilding demand in the
goods.
Ornament-making using beads, Western world.
stones, and ivory.

External Trade:
Trade flourished between South India and the
Greek kingdoms, facilitated by major ports
such as Puhar, Tondi, Musiri, Korkai,
Arikkamedu, and Marakkanam.
Exports included:
Cotton fabrics
Spices like pepper, ginger, cardamom,
cinnamon, and turmeric Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed

Ivory products diam nonummy nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consecte-
infocompanyname.com
Pearls and precious stones tuer adipiscing elit, sed diam nonummy nib.

+57 12 345 667

Imports included: Gold, Horses and Sweet
Your city address
wine.
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit, sed diam
Coins issued by Roman Emperors (e.g., Augustus, Tiberius, Nero) found throughout Tamil Nadu
nonummy nibh Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing
indicate the thriving trade relations.
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Trade-Related Terms
Term Meaning

Vanikan Merchant or trader

Chattan, Nigama, Umanar Priests, scholars, and advisors

Chattu Traveling or itinerant merchants

Tax-Related Terms
Revenue and Taxes:
Term Meaning
Land revenue was the primary source
of state income, supplemented by Karai Tax on land
customs duties on foreign trade. The Ulgu Customs duty
Pattinappalai mentions customs
Iravu Compulsory gifts or additional demands
officials in the port city of Puhar.
Additionally, war booty contributed to Irai Tribute paid by vassals
the royal treasury. Variyar Tax collection officer

Decline of the Sangam Age

The Kalabhras invasion marked the

decline of the Sangam Age. Their rule over
the Tamil region for approximately two
and a half centuries disrupted the social
and political stability of South India,
leading to the collapse of Sangam-era
governance.

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GUPTA AND
HARSHA PERIOD
Rise and Growth of Gupta Empire

275 CE 319–20 CE 335–80 CE

The Gupta era
The dynasty of the Samudragupta,
started by the 1st
Guptas gained the son and
important Gupta
power and successor of
emperor
founded Chandragupta I
Chandragupta I
by Sri Gupta.
(319–34).

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 1

550 CE 5th Century 380–412 CE
Guptas lost Huna invasion Chandragupta II
Bihar and UP and end of
Skandagupta’s
reign

KHYBAR PASS

PLATEAU OF
TIBET

DECCAN
PLATEAU
ARABIAN
BAY OF BENGAL
WE

SEA
STE
RN
GHA
TS

Empire of Chandragupta I

Added by SamudraGupta

Added by Chandragupta II

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Background
The Gupta empire arose on the ruins of the The Guptas enjoyed certain material
Kushan empire. The Guptas were possibly advantages. The centre of their opera-
feudatories of the Kushans in UP. The origi- tions lay in the fertile land of Madhyadesh
nal kingdom of the Guptas comprised UP covering Bihar and UP. They were able to
and Bihar at the end of the third century. exploit the iron ores of central India and
south Bihar.
Note: Early Gupta coins and inscriptions Also, they took advantage of their proximi-
are largely found in UP. ty to the areas in north India that conduct-
ed the silk trade with the eastern Roman
empire, also known as the Byzantine
empire.

Chandragupta I (AD 319–34)

He was the first important king of the Gupta dynasty. He married a Lichchhavi princess, in all
probability from Nepal, which strengthened his position.
The Guptas were probably vaishyas, and hence marriage into a
kshatriya family lent them prestige.

Note: He assumed the title of ‘Maharajadhiraja' and started the Gupta Era.

Samudragupta (AD 335–80)

He was Chandragupta’s son and successor. His court poet Harishena wrote a glowing
account of the military exploits of his patron.
The inscription is engraved at Allahabad on the same pillar
that carries the inscriptions of Ashoka.
Meghavarman, the ruler of Sri Lanka, is believed to have sent a missionary to
Samudragupta for permission to build a Buddhist temple at Gaya.

Note: Called ‘Napoleon of India’ by V.A. Smith

Chandragupta II (AD 380–412)

The reign of Chandragupta II saw the high watermark of the Gupta empire. He extended the
limits of the empire by marriage alliance and conquest. He married his daughter Prabhavati to a
Vakataka prince. The prince died, and Prabhavati became the virtual ruler.
Chandragupta II adopted the title of Vikramaditya. During his reign, the Chinese pilgri
Fa-hsien (AD 399–414) visited India and wrote an elaborate account of the life of its people.

Note: The court of Chandragupta II at Ujjain was adorned by numerous

scholars (navratnas) like Kalidasa, Amarsinha, Harisena, Varahmihira, Vararuchi,
Vetalbhatta,Sanku, Dhanvanti and Kahapanaka.

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The successors of Chandragupta II had to face an invasion by
Hunas from Central Asia, which ultimately led to downfall of
the empire.
NOTE
Kumaragupta I founded Nalanda University.

Vishnugupta was last known ruler of Gupta dynasty.

Life in Gupta Age

System of Administration Trends in Trade and Social Developments
the Agrarian Economy

Fa-Hien visited different Large-scale land grants

Kingdom parts of the Gupta to the brahmanas sug-
empire. He found that gest that the brahmana
Magadha was full of supremacy increased in
cities and its rich people Gupta times. The brah-
Provinces/ believed in and support- manas presented the
Bhuktis ed it with charitable Gupta kings as possess-
Governor-uparika offerings. ing god-like attributes.
All this helped to legiti-
In ancient India, the mize the position of the
Vishyas
Guptas issued the larg- Gupta princes, who
vishyapathi est number of gold became great support-
coins, which were called ers of the brahmanical
dinaras in their inscrip- order.
Districts tions. Although in gold
content the Gupta coins The castes proliferated
are not as pure as the into numerous
Kushan ones, they not sub-castes as a result
Village only served to pay the of two factors. First, a
Village head man
officers in the army and large number of foreign-
administration but also ers had been assimilat

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The king maintained a to meet the needs of the ed into Indian society,
standing army, supple- sale and purchase of and each group of
mented by forces sup- land. After the conquest foreigners was consid-
plied by his feudatories. of Gujarat, the Guptas ered a kind of caste.
Horse chariots receded issued a large number Second, the absorption
into the background, and of silver coins mainly for of many tribal people
cavalry came to the fore. local exchange. In con- into brahmanical society
Horse archery became trast to those of the through the process of
an important element Kushans, the Gupta land grants. The tribal
in military tactics. copper coins are very chiefs were assigned a
few in number. respectable origin, but
During the Gupta period most of their ordinary
land taxes increased in In comparison to the kinsmen were assigned
number, and those on earlier period we notice a low origin.
trade and commerce a decline in long-dis-
decreased. In central and tance trade. Till AD 550 The position of shudras
western India, the villag- India carried on some improved during this
ers were also subjected trade with the eastern period. They were now
to forced labour called Roman or Byzantine permitted to listen to
vishti. empire, to which it recitations of the
exported silk. Around Ramayana, the
The judicial system was AD 550, the people of Mahabharata, and the
far more developed under the eastern Roman Puranas.
the Guptas than in earlier empire learnt from the
times; for the first time Chinese the art of grow- The number of untouch-
civil and criminal laws ing silk, which adversely ables increased, espe-
were clearly demarcated. affected India’s export cially the chandalas.
trade.
Note: The guilds of arti- In the Gupta period, like
sans, merchants, and The striking develop- the shudras, women
others were governed by ment of the Gupta were also allowed to
their own laws. period, especially in listen to the Ramayana,
eastern and central MP, the Mahabharata, and
Religious functionaries was the emergence of the Puranas, and were
were granted land, priestly landlords at the advised to worship Krish-
free of tax, for posterity, cost of local peasants. na. However, women of
and they were Land grants made to the the higher orders did not
authorized to collect priests brought many have access to indepen-
from the peasants virgin areas under culti- dent sources of liveli-
all the taxes that once vation, but these benefi- hood in pre-Gupta and
went directly to the ciaries were imposed Gupta times. The first
emperor. The beneficia- from above on local example of the immola-
ries were also empow- tribal peasants who tion of a widow after the
ered to punish were reduced to a death of her husband
criminals. lower status. occurred during the
Gupta period in AD 510.

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Buddhism ceased to be
as important during the
Gupta period as it had
been in the days of
Ashoka and Kanishka.
However, some stupas
and viharas were con-
structed, and Nalanda
became a centre of
Buddhist education.

Bhagavatism originated
in post-Maurya times
and centred around the
worship of Vishnu. It
overshadowed Mahaya-
na Buddhism by Gupta
times. Idol worship in
the temples became a
common feature of
Hinduism from the
Gupta period onwards
and many festivals also
began to be celebrated.
The Gupta kings
followed a policy of
tolerance towards differ-
ent religious sects.

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Art and Science during the Gupta times
Art
Both Samudragupta and Chandragupta II were
patrons of art and literature.
Buddhism gave great impetus to art in Maurya and
post-Maurya times - creation of massive stone
pillars, the raising of high stupas or relic towers etc.
During the Gupta period a life-size copper image of
the Buddha of more than 6 feet was made.
The finest specimens of Buddhist art in Gupta times
are the Ajanta paintings.
As the Guptas supported Brahmanism, images of
Vishnu, Shiva, and some other Hindu gods were
fashioned for the first time during their period.
The Gupta period was poor in terms of architecture.
There were a few temples made of brick in UP and a
stone temple. The Buddhist university at Nalanda was
set up in the fifth century, and its earliest structure,
made of brick, relates to this period.
Literature
Bhasa was an important poet in the early phase of the
Gupta period. He was the author of a drama called
Dradiracharudatta, which was later refashioned as
Mrichchhakatika or the Little Clay Cart by Shudraka.
Kalidasa lived in the 4th-5th century. He was the great-
est poet of classical Sanskrit literature and wrote Abhi-
jnanashakuntalam which is very highly regarded in
world literature.
The two great epics, namely the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata, were almost completed by the fourth
century AD.
The Gupta period also saw the development of Sanskrit
grammar based on the work of Panini and Patanjali.
This period is particularly memorable for the compila-
tion of Amarakosha by Amarasimha, who was a lumi-
nary in the court of Chandragupta II.
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Science and Technology
In mathematics, in the fifth century, a work called
Aryabhatiya was written by Aryabhata who belonged
to Pataliputra.
A Gupta inscription of AD 448 from Allahabad district
suggests that the decimal system was known in India
at the beginning of the fifth century.
In the field of astronomy, a book called Romaka
Sidhanta was compiled, its title indicating that it was
influenced by Greek and Roman ideas.
Bronze images of the Buddha began to be produced
on a considerable scale because of the knowledge the
smiths had of advanced metal technology.
With regard to iron objects, the best example is the
iron pillar found at Mehrauli in Delhi. Manufactured in
the fourth century AD. The pillar has not gathered any
rust over the subsequent fifteen centuries which is a
great tribute to the technological skill of the crafts-
men.

Spread of Civilization in Eastern India

Orissa, and Eastern

Bengal Assam
and Southern MP
Kalinga, or coastal Orissa The area situated Kamarupa, coterminous
south of the Mahanadi, between the Ganges and with the Brahmaputra
rose to importance under the Brahmaputra now basin running from east
Ashoka, though a strong covering Bangladesh to west, shot into promi-
state had been founded in emerged as a settled nence in the seventh
that area in the first and fairly Sanskrit-edu- century. In the fourth
century BC. cated region in the fifth century Samudragupta
and sixth centuries. The received tributes from
In the 4th century Kosala Gupta governors, who Davaka and Kamarupa.
and Mahakantara were seem to have become The rulers who submit-
conquered by independent after about ted to Samudragupta
Samudragupta, and AD 550, occupied north may have been chiefs
covered parts of northern Bengal; some part of it living on the tributes
and western Orissa. From may also have been collected from the tribal
the 2nd half of the 4th seized by the rulers of peasantry.
century to the 6th century, Kamarupa. By AD 600
several states were the area came to be

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 8

formed in Orissa, and at known as Gauda and By the beginning of the
least five of them can be functioned as an inde- sixth century, the use of
clearly identified. The pendent state ruled by Sanskrit and the art of
most important of those Shashanka, Harsha’s writing are clearly in
was the state of the adversary. evidence. The Kamarupa
Matharas, also known kings adopted the title
as Pitribhaktas, who at For a century from AD varman, which obtained
the peak of their power 432 we notice a series not only in northern,
dominated the area of land sale documents central, and western
between the Mahanadi recorded on copper- India but also in Bengal,
and the Krishna. plates. The land sale Orissa, Andhra, Karnata-
documents not only ka, and Tamil Nadu. This
The induction of the indicate the existence of title, which means
brahmanas through land different social groups armour and symbolizes
grants brought new and local functionaries a warrior, was given to
lands under cultivation but also shed valuable the kshatriyas by Manu.
and introduced better light on the expansion of
methods of agriculture. agriculture. In the seventh century
Formerly the year was Bhaskaravarman
divided into three units, A fiscal and administra- emerged as the head of
each of four months, and tive unit called a state which controlled
time was reckoned on Dandabhukti was a substantial part of the
the basis of three sea- formed in the border Brahmaputra basin and
sons. Under the Matha- areas between Bengal some areas beyond it.
ras, in the mid-fifth and Orissa. Danda Buddhism also acquired
century, people began means punishment, and a foothold, and the
the practise of dividing bhukti enjoyment. The Chinese traveller Hieun
the year into twelve unit was apparently to Tsang visited this state.
lunar months. This pacify and suppress the
implied a sound idea of tribal inhabitants of that The decline and fall of
weather conditions region and may have the Gupta empire there-
which was useful for promoted Sanskrit and fore coincided with con-
agricultural operations. other elements of siderable progress in
culture in the tribal the outlying regions.
In coastal Orissa, writ- areas. Many obscure areas,
ing had certainly been which were possibly
known since the third The two centuries from ruled by tribal chiefs and
century BC, and inscrip- about the middle of the were thinly settled,
tions up to the fifth appear to have came into limelight.
mid-fourth century AD been very momentous in
were written in Prakrit, the history of Bengal.
but from about AD 350 They saw the progress
onwards Sanskrit began of Brahmanism and the
to be used. coming of Buddhism.
The statues of the

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 9

Buddha are virtually
non-existent in early
centuries, after which
they are found in
Bodh-Gaya, Sanchi,
Mathura, and Gandhara.
In the fifth century, how-
ever, statues were set
up at several places in
Bengal.

Harsha and His Times

Rise of Harshavardhana Administration Religious Outlook

The Guptas, with their Harshavardhana’s reign Harsha followed a toler-

seat of power in UP and is an example of transi- ant religious policy. A
Bihar, ruled over north tion from ancient to Shaiva in his early
and western India for medieval times. Harsha years, he gradually
about 160 years until the governed his empire on became a great patron
mid-sixth century. Then the same lines as did of Buddhism. As a
north India again split up the Guptas, but his devout Buddhist he con-
into several kingdoms, administration had vened a grand assembly
the Hunas and other become feudal and at Kanauj to widely publi-
feudal dynasties. Gradual- decentralized. cize the doctrines of
ly one of these dynasties Mahayana, and later an
ruling at Thanesar in Every feudatory contrib- assembly at Prayag.
Haryana extended its uted his quota of foot
authority over all the soldiers and horses, and Harsha is remembered
other feudatories. The thus enormously added not only for his patron-
ruler who brought this to the imperial army. age and learning but
about was Harshavardha- also for the authorship
na (AD 606–47). Hsuan Tsang spent of three plays: Priyadar-
many years in Harsha’s shika, Ratnavali, and
Harsha made Kanauj his court and travelled Nagananda.
seat of power, and from widely in India. Under

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 10

there he extended his his influence Harsha
authority in all direc- became a great support-
tions. Kanauj’s emer- er of Buddhism and
gence as a centre of made generous endow-
political power from the ments to it.
reign of Harsha onwards
typifies the coming of the Hiuan Tsang informs us
feudal age in north India that Harsha’s revenues
just as Pataliputra large- were divided into four
ly represents the parts. One part was
pre-feudal order. earmarked for the expen-
diture of the king, a
The early history of second for scholars, a
Harsha’s reign is recon- third for the endowment
structed from a study by of officials and public
Banabhatta, who was his servants, and a fourth
court poet and wrote a for religious purposes.
book called Harshachari- He also tells us that
ta. This can be supple- ministers and high
mented by the account of officers of the state
the Chinese pilgrim were endowed with land.
Hiuan Tsang, who visited The feudal practice of
India in the seventh cen- rewarding and paying
tury and stayed in the officers with grants of
country for about fifteen land seems to have
years. begun under Harsha.
This explains why we do
Rajasthan, Punjab, UP, not have very many
Bihar, and Orissa were coins issued by this
under his direct control, king.
but his sphere of influ-
ence spread over a much In Harsha’s empire, law
wider area. It appears and order was not well
that the peripheral maintained. Hiuan Tsang
states acknowledged his was robbed of his
sovereignty. belongings, although he
reports that according
Harsha’s southward to the laws of the land,
march was stopped at severe punishments
the Narmada river by the were inflicted for crime.
Chalukya king Pulakesh-
in, who ruled over a
great part of modern
Karnataka and Maharash-
tra with his capital at
Badami.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 11

Empire under Harsha, AD 646

Capital city during Harsha’s rule

Purushopura Sin
KASHMRA dh
u

Taksasila
ta
as
UDYANA Vit
ati Sindhu
Inn

Indraprastha
u
dh
Ga

Sin Mathura
ng

Ayodhya Kapilavastu
a

a
ity
La uh
Kanauj
GURJARA Kashi Kusinagam Kamarup
Kosambi
Pataliputra PUNDARA VARDHANA
PRATIHARAS Prayaga
Rajagriha Nalanda
BUNDELKHAND KAIANGALA SUVARNA
VALABHI Bodh gaya KARNA SAMATATA
Ujjayini Vidisha
Dwarka ara
nag Tamralipti
Giri Narma
da
Ma
RASHTRAKUTAS han
adi
Prabhasa Ajanta
(Somnath) Godavari
Kalinganagara
KALINGA

BANGOPASAGAR
Vijayabati
Vatapi

ARAB Kris
hna

SAGAR

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12
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QUICK REVISION MODULE (UPSC PRELIMS
2024) ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY

IMPORTANT KINGDOMS OF
NORTH & SOUTH INDIA
NORTHERN INDIA:
AGE OF THE THREE EMPIRES (800–1000CE)

After the decline of Harsha’s empire in the 7th century, a number of large states arose in
north India, the Deccan and south India.

• Large states arose in north India and the Deccan between 750 and 1000 CE.

• These were the Pala empire, which dominated eastern India till the middle of the ninth
century; the Pratihara empire, which dominated western India and the upper Gangetic
valley till the middle of the tenth century, and the Rashtrakuta empire, which dominated
the Deccan and also controlled territories in north and south India at various times.
PRATIHARAS
PALAS

RASHTRAKUTAS

THE PRATIHARAS THE RASHTRAKUTAS THE PALAS

NAGABHATTA I (730-760 CE) DANTIDURGA (753-756 CE) GOPALA (AROUND 750 CE)
• Defended Western India • Founder, set up capital at • Founder of the dynasty.
from invasion of Arabs. Manyakhet. • Built Odantpuri University
• Defeated by Rashtrakuta (in Bihar).
king Dhruva. KRISHNA I (756- 774 CE)
• Built the Kailasanath temple DHARMAPALA (770-810 CE)
NAGABHATA II (805–833 CE) at Ellora. • The Pratihara ruler was defea-
• He conquered Kannauj and DHRUVA (780-793 CE) ted by the Rashtrakuta ruler
the Indo-Gangetic Plain as Dhruva, and Dhruva then re-
far as Bihar from the Palas. • Kanauj expedition - defeated
Pratihara king Vatsaraja and turned to the Deccan. It allow-
Bhoja I/ Mihir Bhoja (836-885) the Pala king Dharmapala. ed Dharmapala to occupy
• Greatest ruler of Pratiharas. Kanauj.
GOVINDA III (793–814 CE) • Later Nagabhatta II defeated
• Recovered Kanauj (aka
Mahodaya) which remained • Defeated Nagabhata II and Dharmapala.
Dharmapala. • Revived Nalanda University
the capital of the Pratihara
empire for almost a century. • Shattered the union of the and founded the Vikramshila
• Devotee of Vishnu, adopted Ganga, Chera, Pandya, and University.
title ‘Adivaraha’. Pallava rulers in south India. DEVAPALA (810-850 CE)
AMOGHAVARSHA (814-878 CE) • Extended his control over
• Follower of Jainism. Pragjyotishpur (Assam) and
• Wrote ﬁrst Kannada book on parts of Orissa.
poetics Kavirajamarga.
• Called “Ashoka of the South”.
• AL- MASUDI, • According to Al-Masudi who • Arab merchant Sulaiman, who
a native of Baghdad, who visited India at that time, the visited India, refers to the Pala
visited Gujarat in 915–16, Rashtrakuta king, Balhara or kingdom as Ruhma.
refers to the Gurjara-Prati- Vallabharaja, was the greatest • The Pala rulers had close
hara kingdom al-Juzr (a corr- king of India and most of the cultural relations with Tibet.
upt form of Gurjara), and the Indian rulers accepted his The Buddhist scholars, Santa-
king Baura, probably a mispr- suzerainty and respected his rakshita and Dipankara (called
onunciation of Adivaraha. envoys. Atisa), were invited to Tibet.
• Sanskrit Poet & Dramatist • The great apabhramsha poet • The Pala empire had close
Rajasekhara lived in the Svayambhu lived at the Rasht- relations with the Shailendra
court of Mahendrapala I (son rakuta court. dynasty and trade with South-
of Mihir bhoja). His famous • Kannada poet Ponna belon- east Asia was very proﬁtable.
work is Karpurmanjari. ged to the court of Rahstrak-
uta king Krishna III. His famo-
us creation is Shantipurana.

BHUKTI (PROVIENCE)
• Governor of Bhukti was called Uparika.
• Uparika had duty to collect Land Revenue
and maintain law and order.

MANDALA OR VISAYA (DISTRICTS)

• The head of Visaya was Visayapati.
ADMINISTRATION • Visayapati had same duties like Uparika
OF PALA & within their territories.
PRATIHARA
PATTALA
• Smaller unit below the Visaya.

BHOGAPATIS OR SAMANTAS
• They were small chieftain who dominated
villages.
• The directly administered territories were
divided into: Rashtra (provience) and Visaya
Bhukti.

• The head of Rashtra was Rashtrapati, and

similar functions as the Uparaika performed in
Pala and Pratihara.

• Village was the smallest unit. The village head-

man carried out duties with the help of Grama-
Mahajana or Grama-Mahattara (village elders).
ADMINISTRATION
OF
RASHTRAKUTAS
• Village also had committees to manage
schools, tanks, temples etc.

• Law and order in the towns and in areas in

their vicinity was the responsibility of
Koshtapala or Kotwal.

• Nad-gavundas or Desa-Gramakutas were the

hereditary revenue oﬃcers.
THE PALLAVAS

• Before the 7th Century, in South India, we observe, main powers as Satvahanas in Deccan
and Tamil (Sangam) kingdoms Tamil Nadu region. By the beginning of the 7th Century,
the Pallavas of Kanchi, the Chalukyas of Badami and the Pandyas of Madurai emerged to
be the three major states.

• The Pallavas came to power by supplanting the Ikshvakus. The authority of Pallavas
extended over both southern Andhra and northern Tamil Nadu. They setup their capital
at Kanchi (modern Kanchipuram).

Taxila

Lalitapatna
Kapilvastu
Pattala Mathura

Ujjain
Patliputra
Tamralipti

Toshali

Suvarnagiri

Sathyaputra

Madurai Anuradhapura
Polonaruwa
• Pallavas granted numerous villages free of taxes to the brahmanas.

• Land charters found - earlier ones are on stone in Prakrit, later ones on copper plate in
Sanskrit.

• Pallavas and their contemporaries i.e. Kadambas, Chalukyas of Badami were great
champions of Vedic sacriﬁces like asvamedha and vajapeya.

• The main struggle of this time in the peninsular region was between Pallavas and Badami
Chalukyas for the supremacy over the fertile doab between Krishna and Tungbhadra.

IMPORTANT RULERS OF PALLAVAS

• Chalukya King Pulkeshin II defeated him.

• He was a versatile genius.
• He had many titles i.e. Vichitrachitta,
MAHENDRAVARMAN I Gunabhara, Chettakari, Chitrakarapuli etc.
(600-630 CE) • He wrote Mattvilasa Prahsana (a satire in
Sanskrit).

• Defeated Pulkeshin II.

• Captured Badami (or Vatapi), assumed the
title ‘Vatapikonda’.
• Took the title of ‘Mamalla’ and founded city NARASIMHAVARMAN I
of Mamallapuram. (630–668 CE)
• Hieun Tsang visited Kanchi during his reign.

• Also known as Rajsimha.

• His rule is marked by peace and prosperity.
• Constructed temples like Shore temple
(Mahabalipuram) , Kailashnath temple
NARASIMHAVARMAN II (Kanchi).
(700-728 CE)
• Sanskrit scholar Dandin lived in his court.
• Sent ambassadors to China.
ADMINISTRATION DURING PALLAVAS

• Pallava kingdom administrative units - Mandalam (rashtra) > Kottam (district) >
Nadu (group of villages) > Ur (village).
• Land grants were given to Brahmans (Brahmadeya) and to temples Devadhana.
• Land charters found - earlier ones are on stone in Prakrit, later ones on copper
plate in Sanskrit.
• The village administration was run by various local autonomous assemblies i.e.
Sabha, Ur etc.
• Villages had a court of justice, viz. Dharamasasana.
THE CHOLA KINGDOM (850 – 1279 CE)
The Chola empire which arose in the ninth century brought under its control a large part
of the peninsula. It was founded by Vijayalaya in Tanjore. The Cholas developed a powerful
navy which enabled them to conquer Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Its impact was felt even
by the countries of Southeast Asia. The Chola empire may be said to mark a climax in south
Indian history.

RAJARAJA I (985- 1014 CE)

• Rajaraja destroyed the Chera navy at Trivandrum,
and attacked Quilon. He then conquered Madurai
and captured the Pandyan king. He also invaded
Sri Lanka and annexed its northern part to his
empire. These moves were partly motivated by his
desire to bring the trade with the Southeast Asian
countries under his control.
• One of his naval exploits was the conquest of the
Maldives.
• Rajaraja, annexed the northwestern parts of the
Ganga kingdom in Karnataka, and overran Vengi.
• In 1010 CE, he constructed the Rajarajeshwara or
Brihadeswara temple in Tanjore.
RAJENDRA I (1014- 1044 CE)
• He carried forward the annexationist policy of
Rajaraja by completely overrunning the Pandya and
Chera countries and including them in his empire.
• The conquest of Sri Lanka was also completed. Sri
Lanka was not able to free herself from the Chola
control for another 50 years.
• In a remarkable exploit he sent naval expeditions
against the revived Sri Vijaya empire (SE Asia). The
Chola navy was strongest in the area and for
sometime the ‘Bay of Bengal’ was converted into a
‘Chola Lake’.
• He undertook a march across Kalinga to Bengal in
which the Chola armies crossed the river Ganga, and
defeated two local kings. To commemorate this, he
assumed the title of Gangaikondachola.
• He built a new capital near the mouth of the Kaveri
river and called it Gangaikondacholapuram.

CHOLA ADMINISTRATION

DIVISONS KEY TERMS

MANDALAMS
(PROVICE) UR General assembly of village

VALANADUS Gathering of the adult men

(DIVISON) SABHA in the Brahman villages
(agraharams)
NADUS PURAVUVA- Revenue Department
(DISTRICT) NITHINAIK

KURRAM KALAM, Well maintained record of

(VILLAGE) VARIPPOTAGAM land rights and taxes
KAKATIYA KINGDOM

• Established by Rudradeva (PrataparudraI) in 1158 CE.

• Warangal was the capital of Kakatiyas.
• They faced Islamic invasion from 1310 (by Alauddin Khilji) and ultimately came under
control of Delhi Sultanate in 1323 (invasion by Sultan Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq).
• Ganapatideva’s (longest reign, 1199-1262 CE) during which he expanded his kingdom
from the coastal Bay of Bengal in the east to Kanchipuram in the south.
• Rani Rudrama Devi (1262-89 CE) was one of the few queens in Indian history who
belonged to the Kakatiya dynasty.
• Motupalli was the famous trading seaport of the Kakatiyas.
• Marco Polo- the famous Venetian traveler visited Kakatiya kingdom through this port
and wrote about the prosperity and power in Andhras in his travelogue.
• Kakatiya dynasties were famous for the construction of large tanks and used the sluice-
weir device in it to boost crop production.
• The Koh-i-noor diamond was mined during Kakatiya rule from the Golconda mines
• Architecture - Rudreswara Temple (also known as Thousand pillars temple), Rammappa
Temple (Telangana), Warangal Fort - all three have been added to the tentative list of
UNESCO’s World Heritage sites.
THE VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE (1336 -1646 CE)
It was founded in 1336 CE by Harihara and Bukka of the Sangama dynasty (at the instance
of their Guru Vidyaranya).

BAHAMANI
KINGDOM

VIJAYNAGAR
KINGDOM
FOUR DYNASTIES THAT RULED VIJAYANAGAR
HARIHARA I He was the ﬁrst ruler of the Sangam dynasty.
(1336-56)
The struggle between the Vijayanagar and Bahamani
BUKKA I kingdoms started in his reign for control over three
(1356-77) areas-Krishna-Godavari Delta, Tungabhadra doab, and
Marathwada region.
HARIHARA II Assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja.
(1377-1404)

He was defeated by the Bahamani ruler Firoz Shah.

SANGAMA DEVA RAYA I
(1336-1485) (1404-1422) Italian Nicholas Conti (1420) visited Vijayanagar
empire in his region
Greatest ruler of Sangam dynasty
Also know as Immadi Devaraya or Proudha Devaraya.
Took the title of Gajabetekara (elecphant hunter),
DEVA RAYA II Dakshinapathada Chakravarthi.
(1425-1446)
Wrote two Sanskriti books- Sudhanidhi & Comme-
ntary on Brahm Sutras.
Persian ambassador Abdur Razzak (1442) visited
during his reign.
SALUVA SALUVA Only ruler of this dynasty.
(1485-1505) NARSIMHA

Best ruler of Tuluva dynasty.

Babur mentions him as ruler of Vijayanagar in
Baburnama.
Also known as Andhra Bhoja, Abhinav Bhoj.
He captured the whole of Raichur doab and invaded
Gulbarga and Bidar.
He freed Muhammad Shah and installed him on the
throne of Bidar and assumed the title Yavanrajya
TULUVA KRISHNA DEVA Sthapanacharya.
(1505-1570) RAYA (1509-1530)
He was contemporary of Portuguese Governor
Albuquerque.
Portuguese traveller Domingo Paes visited in his reign.
Ashtadiggajas lived in his court.
He wrote Amuktamalyada (Telugu) and Jambavati
Kalyanam (Sanskrit).
ARAVIDU FOUNDED BY
(1570-1650) Founded the city of Nagalapuram.
TIRUMLA
He built Hazara Ramaswamy Temple, Vittalaswami temple.
VIJAYANAGAR ADMINISTRATION

• Administrative units: Mandalams (province), Nadus (district), Sthalas (sub-district) and

finally into Gramas (village).
• Nayankar System - The chiefs known as Nayaks/Poligars were given Amaram (territory
with fixed revenue) in lieu of their services. They had to maintain an army of fixed size.
• Ayagar System - A body of 12 functionaries known as Ayagars in each village, to conduct
village affairs.
• Women occupied a high position and took an active part in the political, social and literary
life of the empire. They even went to battles. It was the only empire in Medieval India
which employed women in state services.
• Gold coins minted were called Varaha. Foreign travellers referred to it as panam or
pardaos.
• Slavery and sale and purchase of human beings existed.

FOREIGN TRAVELLERS TO VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE

Ibn Batuta (Book-Rihla) from Morocco (Visited during Harihara I)

Nicolo de Conti from Italy (Visited during Devaraya II)

Abdur Razzaq from Persia (Visited during Devaraya II)

Athanasius Nikitin from Russia (Visited during Virupaksha Raya II)

Ludvico de Vorthema from Italy (Visited during Krishna Deva raya )

Duarte Barbosa from Portugal (Visited during Krishna Deva Raya)

Dominigo Paes from Portugal (Visited during Krishna Deva Raya)

Fernao Nuniz from Portugal (Visited during Achyuta Deva Raya)

BAHAMANI KINGDOMS (1347-1526 CE)

• Founded the Bahmani kingdom in 1347 CE with Gulbarga as

Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah its capital.
(aka Hasan Gangu)
(1347-58 CE) • Divided the kingdom into 4 Tarafs (provinces) - Gulbarga,
Daulatabad, Berar and Bidar (each under one Tarafdar).

• He was an able general and administrator.

Muhammad Shah I
(1358-71 CE) • He entered into deadly conﬂict with the Hindu rulers of
Warangal and Vijayanagar.

• The most remarkable ﬁgure in the Bahmani kingdom.

• He was well-acquainted with the religious sciences, that is,
commentaries on the Quran, jurisprudence, etc., and was
particularly fond of the natural sciences such as botany,
geometry, logic, etc.
• He inducted Hindus into the administration on a large scale.
Taj ud-Din Firuz Shah • Astronomy - Built an observatory near Daulatabad.
(1397–1422 CE)
• He developed the principal ports of his kingdom, Chaul and
Dabhol, for trade with the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea.
• He founded Firozabad, near Gulbarga.
• In early stages he defeated Vijayanagar but later he was
defeated by Deva Raya I. After this his brother Ahmad Shah
succeeded him.

• Also called a saint (wali) on account of his association with the

Ahmad Shah famous suﬁ saint, Gesu Daraz.
(1422-1435 CE) • He defeated Warangal, and to consolidate new territory, shifted
the capital from Gulbarga to Bidar.

• He was Iranian by birth and was a trader. He was granted the

title of Malik-ut-Tujjar (Chiefs of Merchants) by the Sultan.
• He was an able administrator. His military conquests included
Konkan, Goa and the Krishna-Godavari delta.
• He divided the kingdom into 8 provinces called Tarafs. Each
Taraf was governed by the Tarafdar. The salary was paid in cash
or by assigning a Jagir.
Mahmud Gawan • A tract of land called Khalisa was set apart for expenses of the
Sultan.
• The nobles in Bahmani kingdom were divided into the long-
established Deccanis and the new-comers who were foreigners
(afaqis, also called gharibs).
• Since Gawan was an Afaqi, the Deccanis hatched a conspiracy
against him and he was executed.
Vakil-us-
Vakil-us-
Wasir-i- Saltana
Saltana
Wasir-i- (Lieutenant)
ashraf
ashraf (Lieutenant) Wazir-i-kull
Wazir-i-kull
(Foreign
(Foreign (Prime
(Prime
Aﬀairs
Aﬀairs Minister)
Minister)
Minister)
Minister)

Peshwa
Peshwa 8 Amir-I-jumla
Amir-I-jumla
(attached
(attached to
to Ministers (Finacne
(Finacne
Lieutenant)
Lieutenant) in Bahamani Minister)
Minister)
kingdom

Kotwal
Kotwal Nazir
Nazir,
(chief
(chief of
of police
police (assistant
(assistant
and
and city
city Minister for
Minister for
magistrate)
magistrate) Finance)
Finance)
Sadar-i-
Sadar-i-
jahan
jahan (Chief
(Chief
Justice
Justice and
and
minister
minister of
of
religious
religious
aﬀairs)
aﬀairs)

DECCAN STATES:
AHMADNAGER, BIJAPUR, GOLCONDA, BERAR AND BIDAR

Mahmud Gawan’s execution started the process of disintegration of Bahamani empire.

Kalimullah was the last king of the Bahmani dynasty. He was deposed by his Wazir Amir
Ali Barid in 1526 CE who laid the foundation of the Barid Shahi dynasty of Bidar
Ahmednagar
Nizam Shahi dynasty (1490-1633)
Founder- Malik Ahmed

Berar Bijapur
Imad Shahi dynasty Desinte- Adil Shahi dynasty
(1490-1574) (1480-1686)
Founder- Imad-ul-mulk gration of Founder - Yusuf Adil Shah
Bahamani

Golconda Bidar
Qutub Shahi dynasty Barid Shahi dynasty
(1518-1687) (1528-1619)
Founder - Quli Qutub Shah Founder - Ali Barid
QUICK REVISION MODULE ( UPSC PRELIMS 2024) ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY

Delhi Sultanate
Amir Khusrau
Mifta Ul Futuh (Jalal-ud-din Khalji)
Shahnama: Firdausi
Khazain Ul Futuh (Allauddin Khalji)
Al-Beruni: Tarikh-Al-Hind
Tughlaq Nama (History of Tughlaq
Minhaj us Siraj: Tabaqat-i-Nasiri
dynasty)
Sources for the
Study of Delhi
Ziauddin Barani: Tarikh-i Firuz Shahi Sultanate Ghulam Yahya Bin Ahmad:
Shams-i-Siraj Aﬁf: TarikhI Firuz Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi (Sayyid
Shahi (after Barani’s account of ruler Mubarak Shah)
Delhi Sultanate) Ferishta: History of the Muslim
Rule in India (Persian)

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 1

The Arab Conquest of Sind

1st Islamic invasion 2nd Islamic invasion 3rd Islamic invasion

Muhammad Bin Qasim Mahmud of Ghazni Muhammad Ghori

1st Islamic invasion

Arab governor of Iraq, Hajjaj Bin Yusuf sent Muhammad Bin Qasim
Initiative (Umayyad) against Dahar in 712 AD.

Dahar’s wazir betrayed him.

Causes of Dahar lacked popular support due to biases for Dahar Brahmins.
defeat

Muhammad Qasim captured Brahmanabad and plundered Debal.

Arab conquest of Sind has been described as a “triumph without
Result results”.

2nd Islamic invasion

Alaptigin 963 AD Mahmud

Established independent Title Yamini-ud-Daulah
kingdom in city of Ghazni. (‘Right-hand of the Empire’).

Events led
to invasion
Sabuktigin Defeated the
Shahi ruler of Afghanistan,
Jayapal.

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Mahmud of Ghazni (reign 998–1030 AD)

Defeating the Shahi king Anandapala went beyond Punjab. Raided

Mathura, etc.
Mahmud ruled for thirty-two years, seventeen military campaigns into
India, motive was to loot, demolishing temples and smashing idols.
Invasion of the temple city of Somnath (1025). These plunders were
meant to replenish the treasury to maintain his huge army.

3rd Islamic invasion

Muizzud-din Muhammad (Muhammad Ghori)

1186: Invaded Punjab and seized Lahore.
Ghaznavid invasions: Intended for loot.
Ghurid invasions: Establish garrison towns to ensure the regular ﬂow of plunder and
tribute.

Areas of annexation
Lahore, Sind, Multan, Uchch, etc.
Chalukyas of Gujarat defeated Muhammad Ghori at Mt. Abu (1179).
After this defeat, consolidated his position in Sind and the Punjab.

Prithviraj Chauhan
Ghori attacked the fortress of Tabarhinda (Bhatinda).
Prithviraj Chauhan marched to Tabarhinda.
First Battle of Tarain (1191)-> Won by Prithviraj Chauhan but failed to consolidate.
Second Battle of Tarain(1192)-> Prithviraj was defeated and captured.
Qutb-ud-din Aibak was appointed as his deputy in India.

Battle of Chand war Kanauj ruler Jaya Chanda Defeat of Jaya Chanda
(1193-94) vs Muhammad Ghori's
forces.

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Rajput Kingdoms

Foundation of Delhi Sultanate

Slave Dynasty Tughlaq Dynasty Lodi Dynasty

(1206-1290) (1320-1414) (1451-1526)

Khaljis Sayyid Dynasty

(1290-1320) (1414-1451)

The Slave Dynasty (Mamluk dynasty or Ilbary dynasty)

Sultan Important features

Slave of Muhammad Ghori and founder of Delhi Sultanate.
Muhammad Bin Bhakthiyar Khalji was contemporary.
Known as “Lakh Baksh” due to his generosity.
Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in Delhi.
Qutb-ud-din Aibak Died in 1210 in Lahore while playing Chaugan.
(1206-1210)
Slave of Qutbud-din Aibak and defeated Aram Shah.
Internal rebellions of Rajputs at Gwalior, Ranthambor, Ajmer and
Jalore were set aside.
Saved India by refusing to support the Khwarizmi Shah Jalaluddin
of Central Asia against the Mongol ruler Chengiz Khan.
Credit of consolidating the Delhi Sultanate.
Iltutmish (1210–1236)
Obtained a 'Letter of Investiture' in AD 1229 from the Abbasid
Caliph of Baghdad to gain legitimacy.

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Completion of QutbMinar.
Administrative aspects:
Administrative institution such as iqtas, army and currency system.
Organised his trusted nobles or oﬃcers into a “Group of Forty”
(Turkan-i-Chahalgani).
Silver 'Tanka' and the copper 'Jittal'coins of the Sultanate period.
Elite military slaves (Bandagan).
Iqtas (land assignments in lieu of cash salaries) to his Turkish oﬃcers
(known as “iqtadars”).
Financial and administrative control regions of North India.

Iltutmish nominated Raziya as his successor.

Her Brother Ruknuddin Firoz betrayed and ascended the throne.
Raziya soon ascended the throne.
Attempted to create a counter nobility of non-Turks.
Appointed the Abyssinian, Malik Jamaluddin Yaqut, as the
amir-i-akhur (master of the horses), thus irked nobility.
Reforms:
Gave up her 'Purdah' and started appearing in the court in male
attire wearing a 'Kuva' (Coat) and a 'Kulah' (Cap).
Raziya (1236–40)
Started horse riding, hunting and commanding the army etc.
Led to Multiple revolts:
Most important was revolt by Altunia, the governor of Bhatinda.
Razia and her husband Altunia were defeated and murdered near
Kaithal.

Placed by Ulugh Khan (Balban) as titular ruler and Balban assumed

the position of Naib (deputy).
According to Ibn Battuta and Isami, Balban poisoned his master
Nasiruddin and ascended the throne.
Nasiruddin Mahmud
(1246–66 AD)

Finally ascended the throne in AD 1266.

Faced hostile situation from inside and outside including from
Turkish chiefs, Mongols, Indian rulers, Rajput zamindars, Mewatis, etc.
Balban adopted a stern policy against it.
Punitive Expedition against Tughril Khan, Governor of Bengal.
Nature of rule:
Autocratic rule, did not allow any noble to assume great power,
Balban (AD 1266–87)
formulated the theory of kingship, and redeﬁned the relations
between the Sultan and nobility.
Negative attitude towards the non-Turks.

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To break powers of Chahalgani, appointed spies in every
department.
Organised a strong centralized army.
Re-organised the military department (diwan-i-arz).
Maintained a magniﬁcent court.
Refused to laugh and joke in the court, even gave up drinking wine.
Insisted on the ceremony of sijada (prostration) and paibos
(kissing of the monarch's feet) in the court.
Balban adopted a policy of consolidation rather than expansion.
Firoz (Jalal-ud-din Khalji) was Ariz-i-Mumalik (Minister of War).
Balban was replaced by Kaiquabad, who was soon replaced by his
son, Kaimurs.
In 1290 AD Firoz, murdered Kaimurs and seized the throne.
It brought to an end the slave dynasty and Firoz ascended the
throne under the title of Jalal-ud-din Khalji.

Regional extent
of Slave dynasty

The Khaljis (1290-1320)

Khalji territory
Regional extent of The Khaljis:
Khalji territory (dark green)
Khalji tributaries (light green)
Khalji
tributaries

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Afghanized Turk, laid the foundation of the Khalji dynasty.

Malik Jalal-ud-din Khalji (1290-1296)

Ended the monopoly of nobility of slaves.

First ruler of the Delhi Sultanate to clearly put forward the view
that the state should be based on the willing support of the
governed.

Policy of tolerance.

Ala-ud-din, who was appointed governor of Kara, arranged to get

Jalaluddin Khalji murdered and captured the throne.

Ala-ud-din Khalji (1296–1316)

Background Nephew and son-in-law of Jalaluddin.

Appointed as Amir-i-Tuzuk (Master of Ceremonies).
Victorious expeditions during the reign of Jalaluddin: Bhilsa
(Vidisa) in 1292 and Devagiri in 1294.
Appointed as Arizi-i-Mumalik (Minister of War).
Captured throne in 1296.

Nature of rule Revive Balban's policies of ruthless governance.

Curb the powers of the nobles and interference of Ulema in the
matters of the state.
Rebellions in succession during the early years of his rule.

Ineﬃciency of the General practice of

spy system. the use of wine.

Reasons for the

rebellions as per
Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi
Social intercourse
Excess of wealth in
among the nobles
the possession of
and inter-marriage
certain nobles.
between them.

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Regulations to prevent the reoccurrence of these rebellions

Land tax for the Reorganized Use of liquor Nobles were

holdings to curb the spy and intoxicants ordered not to
the excess of system was prohibited. have social
wealth. gatherings or
inter-marriages
without his
permission.
Central Administration:
Levels of
administration Diwan-i-Riyasat: Duty was to check the smooth running of
market and price control.
Provincial Administration:
The empire was divided into number of provinces.
Each province was administered by a Governor who was the
chief executive and provincial in-charge of revenue collection.
Also the in-charge of provincial army.
Other independent officials as well.
Pargana Level /District Government:
Alauddin appointed officers to collect taxes in Pargana known as
Amils.
Administrative unit at local level was Sadi, which was a group of
100 villages.
Village head (Chaudhari/Muqqadam), a Patwari and revenue
officers.
Army reforms First Sultan to have a permanent army at the centre.
Introduced the system of Daag and Huliya in the army.
Organised his army on the Decimal System.
Started paying the salary of the army in cash.
Also constructed local army.
Daftar-i-fazilat-i-hasan: Records of revenue and salary related to
the army.
Special army for the frontiers.
Financial Charai tax: Number of cattle's was fixed and taxes were collected.
Administration Gharai tax: House tax which the house owner had to pay.
Rate of Kharaj was increased by half the produce (50 per cent).
Paimaish: Assessment of land measurement.
Diwan-i-Mushtakraj: New department to keep an account of the
unpaid taxes and their proper and timely collection.
Mongol Attacks from 1298 to 1308.
Threats Ala-ud-din succeeded in driving them back.
Huge permanent, standing army to satisfy his ambition of
conquest and to protect the country from Mongol invasion.
Army took a large number of Mongols as prisoners and
slaughtered them mercilessly.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 8

Expansion of Territorial conquest with a campaign against Gujarat in 1299.
Delhi Sultanate Temple of Somnath was captured.
Malik Kafur, captured from Gujarat.
Ranthambore was next target in 1301.
In 1303, Alauddin besieged Chittor, another powerful state of
Rajputana.
Episode of Padmini.
In 1305, Khalji army under Ain-ul-Mulk captured Malwa.
Ujjain, Mandu, Dhar and Chanderi were also captured.

Military Large army commanded by Malik Kafur for Deccan victory.

Campaigns to Rai Ramachandra of Devagiri: 1307
Deccan Prataparudradeva, the Kakatiya ruler of Warangal: 1309
Hoysala ruler Vira Ballala III: 1310
Pandyan ruler of Madurai: 1311

Market Regulations of Alauddin Khalji

First Sultan to pay his soldiers in cash rather than give them a share of booty. Thus,
prices had to be monitored and controlled

Three diﬀerent markets

Grain market (Mandi) Cloth market (Sarai Adl) Market for horses, slaves,
cattles, etc.

To ensure implementation appointed

Superintendent (Shahna-i-Mandi) Independent sources, barid (intelligence
assisted by an intelligence oﬃcer. oﬃcer) and munhiyans (secret spies).

Any violation of Sultan’s orders resulted in harsh punishment, including expulsion

from the capital, imposition of ﬁne, imprisonment and mutilation

Ghazi Malik, a veteran of several campaigns against the Mongols, ascending the throne of
Delhi in 1320 as Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq.

Tughlaq Dynasty(1320-1414)

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq Founder of Tughlaq Dynasty.

(1320–1324) Followed a policy of reconciliation with the nobles.
Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq died in AD 1325 and his son Muhammad
Bin Tughlaq ascended the throne.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 9

Learned, cultured and talented prince but gained a reputation
of being merciless, cruel and unjust.
Repulsed the Mongol army.
An innovator, but unlike Ala-ud-din, lacked the will to execute
his plans successfully.
Transfer of Capital (1327 AD)

Muhammad Bin Attempt to shift the capital from Delhi to Devagiri (renamed
Tughlaq (Jauna) Daulatabad) as it was difficult to rule south India form Delhi.
(1324-1351)
The Sultan ordered important officers and leading men
including many Sufi saints to shift to Devagiri.

Plan failed, and soon Muhammad realised that it was

diﬃcult to rule North India from Daulatabad.

Again ordered transfer of capital back to Delhi.

Token Currency (1329 AD)

Bronze
coins Challenges
as token Repercussions
Already been Fake coins were Government had to
experimented minted that could withdraw the
in China and not be prevented by bronze coins and
Iran. the government. replace them with
silver coins.
During that
time coins were Devaluation
based on silver of new coins.
content.

Expedition of Khurasan (1332-1333AD)

Alliance between the Expedition resulted in partial

mongol invader victory of Muhammad Bin
Tarmashirin and Tughlaq, as the ruler of
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq Khurasan accepted the
against the contemporary subordination of Muhammad
ruler of Khurasan Bin Tughlaq and agreed to
Abbu Saiid. pay annual tax.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 10

Karachil Expedition (1333 AD)
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq attacked on Karachil with aim to
annex the KulluKangra area of Himachal Pradesh.
Initially fruitful, but later it turned out to be a failure due to
heavy rain and spread of epidemic.
Taxation in Doab (1334 AD)

Inorder to
compensate the
losses done by Increased rate
reforms of of Khara (land
Muhammad Bin tax) upto 50
Tughlaq. percent.

He encouraged agriculture
by establishing a separate
department named Diwan-
Continuous famines i-Kohi (Diwan-i-Amir Kohi).
caused the farmers
unable to pay such Also provided loans named
high taxes. This Led to Taquabi and Sondhar to
huge dissatisfaction. the farmers at the time of
emergency.

Diﬀerence in approach of Ala-ud-din Khalji and Muhammad Bin Tughlaq

Ala-ud-din Khalji had not annexed distant territories knowing well that they could not
be eﬀectively governed. Establish his suzerainty over them.
Muhammad annexed all the lands he conquered. Hence, he faced a series of
rebellions. His repressive measures further alienated his subjects.

Muhammad bin Tughlaq died without naming his successor.

Firuz ascended the throne in 1351.
Administrative changes:
Firuz Tughlaq
(1351–1388) Conciliatory policy towards the nobles and theologians.
Reintroduced the system of hereditary appointments to
oﬃces, a practice which was not favoured by Ala-ud-din Khalji.
Increased salaries of government oﬃcials.
Reduced multiple taxes.
Abolished many varieties of torture employed by his
predecessor.

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Established a separate government department to ensure
welfare of slaves (Diwan-i-Bandagan).
Firuz Policy of No Wars:
Firuz waged no wars of annexation.
However, successfully put down rebellions and incursions.
Major military campaign of his period was against Sind (1362).
Ruler of Sind agreed to surrender and pay tribute to the
Sultan.
Religious Policy
Favoured orthodox Islam.
Heretics were persecuted, and practices considered un-
Islamic were banned.
Imposed jizya, a head tax on non-Muslims, even Brahmins
were compelled to pay.
Firuz did not prohibit the building of new Hindu temples
and shrines.
Translation of many Sanskrit works relating to religion,
medicine and music.
Credited with establishing several educational institutions
and a number of mosques, palaces and forts.

Public Works
Undertook many irrigation projects.
Canal he dug from Sutlej river to Hansi, canal in Yamuna, etc.

Issues with his set-up:

The principle of heredity permitted for the nobles and
applied to the army weakened the Delhi Sultanate.
The nobility that had regained power got involved in political
intrigues which undermined the stability of the Sultanate.

Nasir-ud-din Muhammad Shah (1394–1412)

Timur's Invasion from Central Asia.

Delhi

Ahmadabad

Territory under Tughlaq dynasty

Bombay when it was on peak.
Daulatabad

Goa

Madras
Calicut
Cochin Tranquebar

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Sayyid Dynasty (1414–1451)

Rulers:
Khizr Khan
Mubarak Shah
The author of the
Muhammad Shah
Tarikh-i-Mubarak
Alam Shah
Shahi, Yahya
Khizr Khan Sirhindi claims
defeated Sultan that the founder
Daulat Khan and of the Sayyid
After defeating occupied Delhi dynasty was a
the army of Delhi and founded descendant of
in 1398 Timur Sayyid dynasty the prophet.
appointed Khizr in 1414.
Khan as the ruler
of Multan.

Lodi Dynasty (1451–1526)

Foundation of Lodi dynasty, 1st to be headed by the Afghans.

Required help and support of Afghan nobles.
Afghan nobles wanted Sultan to treat them as an equal
partner rather than an absolute monarch.
This policy worked well throughout his reign.
Bahlol Lodi Successfully suppressed the revolts in Mewat and Doab, annexed
(AD 1451–1489) Jaunpur, and brought Kalpi and Dholpur under the Suzerainty of
Delhi.
Little tolerance towards the non-mulsims.
Re-imposed jaziya on non-mulsims.
Superior position of the Sultan vis-a-vis the nobles.
Re-annexed Bihar, Dholpur, Narwar and some parts of the
Sikandar Lodi kingdom of Gwalior and Nagor to the Delhi Sultanate.
(AD 1489–1517)

Bihar declared its independence.

Daulat Khan the governor of Punjab also rebelled.
Sultan's behaviour caused much dissatisfaction.
Daulat Khan sent an invitation to Babur at Kabul to invade India.
Babur defeated Sultan Ibrahim Lodi in AD 1526 in the Battle at
Ibrahim Lodi Panipat.
The Sultanate of Delhi, which had its birth on the “battleﬁeld of
(1517-1526)
Tarain” in AD 1192, breathed its last in AD 1526 a few miles away
on the “battleﬁeld of Panipat”.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 13

The administrative departments of the Delhi sultanate

1. State and Society

Nature of state:
Islamic State Balban claimed, An all-India
Ala-ud-din Khalji
Sultans preferred he ruled as the empire, except
claimed absolute
to call themselves representative of Kashmir and
powers.
the lieutenant of god on earth. Kerala.
the Caliph.

2. General administrative system

The Sultan
Central ﬁgure in the administrative set up.
Headed civil administration, Army, Judiciary.
Generally under the inﬂuence of powerful group of nobility and Ulema.

Nobility
Most important functionaries of the state and enjoyed high social status.
The nobility was not a homogeneous class.
Power and status varied under diﬀerent sultans.

Ulema
Religious intellectual group of Muslims.
Inﬂuential group and commanded respect of Sultan and nobility.

3. Diﬀerent departments under Delhi sultanate

Department Key Functions

Chief advisor to the Sultan, to look after ﬁnancial organization of
the State.
Diwan-i-Wizarat Departments under the wizarat:
Department Purpose
Mustauﬁ-i-Mumalik Auditor General

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Mushrif-i-Mumalik Accountant General
Majmuadar Keeper of loans and
balances from treasury

Diwan-i -Waqoof To supervise expenditure

Diwan-i-Mustakharaj Arrears of revenue
payments

Diwan-i-Amir Kohi Department of agriculture

Department for foreign aﬀairs, some considers it to related with

Diwan-i-Risalat
religious matters.

Diwan-i-arz Department of Military,headed by Ariz-i-Mumalik.

Diwan-i-Bandagan Department of slaves

Diwan-i-Qaza-i- Department of justice

Mamalik

Diwan-i-Ishtiaq Department of pensions

Diwan-i-Khairat Department of charity

Diwan-i-insha Department of correspondence, headed by Dabir-i-Khas.

IQTA SYSTEM

Form of reward for services to the state. Holders as iqtadar or muqti.

Meaning Army commanders and nobles were given territories to administer
and collect the revenue.

System of payment to the oﬃcers and maintenance of army.

Purpose
Muqti was given complete charge of the administration of the iqta.

Khwaja: To keep a record of the income of the Iqtas.

Important
Barid: Intelligence oﬃcer.
terms
khalisa: Areas under direct control of Sultan.

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Traveller's chronology and important events

Traveller Reign and Timeline Important aspects associated

Al Masudi Arab traveller Muruj-ul-Zehab or Muruj-adh-dhahab: Extensive
896 - 956 account of India in his work.
Muhammad ibn Mahmud of Ghazni KitabUl Hind
Ahmad Abu 973-1048 He was the inter-civilizational connect between
Raihan“Al-Biruni” India and The rest of the world.
(from Uzbekistan)
Marco Polo (from Venetian Traveller The Travels of Marco Polo
Italy) came during reign of
Rudramma Devi of the
Kakatiyas 1292-1294
Ibn Battuta (from Reign of Muhammad- “ Rehla” (the travelogue)
Morocco) Bin-Tughlaq.
1333-1347
Shihabuddin al-
'Masalikalbsar ﬁ-mamalik al-amsar': His
Umari (From Around 1348.
account of India.
Damascus)
Nicolo Conti During Sangam
Dynasty of Vijayanagar About Vijayanagara Kingdom.
(Venetian
traveller) empire. 1420-1421

AbdurRazzaq During Sangam

About Vijayanagara Kingdom.
(Persian traveller ) Dynasty of Vijayanagar
empire. 1443-1444

Athanasius Nikitin Visited South India

1470- 1474 During Bahmani kingdom.
(From Russia)
Duarte Barbosa Vijayanagar Empire
(From Portugal)
Domingo Paes During Krishnadeva Raya
(From Portugal) of Vijayanagar Empire
FernaoNuniz Tuluv dynasty of
(From Portugal) Vijayanagar Empire

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QUICK REVISION MODULE
(UPSC PRELIMS 2024) ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY

THE GREAT MUGHALS

(Six Major Rulers)

ZAHIRUDDIN MUHAMMAD BABUR

1526–1530

NASIR- UD -DIN MUHAMMAD HUMAYUN

1530–1540 & 1555-1556

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ABU'L-FATH JALAL-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD AKBAR
1556–1605

NUR-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD SALIM JAHANGIR

1605–1627

SHAHAB-UD-DIN
MUHAMMAD KHURRAM SHAH JAHAN
1627-1658

MUHI-UD-DIN MUHAMMAD AURANGZEB

1658–1707

IMPORTANT BATTLES 1526-1556

S. No Name of the Battle Participants Result

1 First Battle of Babur Vs. Ibrahim Lodi Babur won with the help of
Panipat, 21 April strategic positioning of his
1526 forces and the effective use
of artillery.

2 Battle of Babur Vs. Rana Sanga of Babur defeated Rana

Khanwa, 1527 Chittor, Mahmud Lodi, Sanga’s forces. The capture
brother of Ibrahim Lodi, and of forts at Gwalior and
Hasan Khan Mewati, ruler Dholpur which further
of Mewat strengthened Babur’s
position.

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S. No Name of the Battle Participants Result

3 Battle of Babur Vs. Medini Rai Babur won.

Chanderi, 1528

4 Battle of Babur Vs. Sultan Ibrahim Babur defeated the

Ghagra, 1529 Lodi’s brother Mahmud Lodi Afghans. But he died on his
and Sultan Nusrat Shah, way from Agra to Lahore in
son-in-law of Ibrahim Lodi 1530

5 Battle of HUMAYUN Vs. Sher Shah Sher Shah won due to his
Chausa (1539) superior political and
military skills.

6 Battle of Kanauj HUMAYUN Vs. Sher Shah Sher Shah won. Humayun
(1540) became a prince without a
kingdom.

7 Second Battle Akbar Vs. Hemu (the Hindu The Mughal forces won the
of Panipat, 1556 general of Adil Shah war.

AKBAR’S MILITARY CONQUEST

Baz Bahadur, who was later made a mansabdar

Malwa 1562 in Akbar’s court.

Rani Durgavati And Narayan. Central India

Gondwana region 1564 was annexed

Mewar 1567 From Rana Uday Singh.

Gujarat 1573 From Muzaffar Shah

Kabul 1581 From Mirza Hakim

From Raja Ali Khan ruler of Khandesh, accepted Mughul

Khandesh 1591 emperor's suzerainty and agreed to pay an annual tribute.

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Berar 1596 From Chand Bibi

Ahmednagar 1600 From Muzaffar Shah

IMPORTANT WARS/EVENTS UNDER JAHANGIR

Challenging • Prince Khusrau who staged a revolt with the blessings of

Sikh Guru Arjun Dev (5th Sikh Guru).
Jahangir's • Prince Khusrau was defeated, captured and blinded, while
ascension Guru Arjun Dev was executed.

• Tamed the rebel Afghan Usman Khanin in Bengal.

Capturing • Rana Udai Singh and his son Rana Pratap Singh of Mewar
Rebellious Jahangir after a military campaign led by his son Prince
Provinces Khurram.

IMPORTANT WARS/EVENTS UNDER SHAH JAHAN

Consolidation of Deccan in Mughal Empire:

Shah Jahan divided Deccan into four provinces:
Ahmednagar with Daulatabad; Khandesh;
Berar; and Telengana. The viceroyalty of the four provinces
was conferred to Aurangzeb.
Ahmednagar, which offered resistance to the Mughals,
was annexed despite the efforts of Malik Ambar

1638 Shah Jahan annexed Kandahar, conquered by Akbar and lost by Jahangir

Portugese 200 in number were driven out of Hugli area (Bengal)

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IMPORTANT WARS/EVENTS UNDER AURANGZEB

A war of succession broke out between the four sons of Shah Jahan in which
Aurangzeb won

The Jat rebellion (1669), Mathura rose under the leadership of a local
Zamindar Gokul. Mughal army pursued the Jats and the leader Gokul was
captured and executed

The Sikhs rebelled against Aurangzeb. The Sikh (The Punjab) rebellion, 1670
This erupted due to the political intrigues of Ram Rai, a claimant for the
position of Sikh Guru, against the incumbent Guru Tegh Bahadur. This ﬁnally
ended with the execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur (9th Sikh Guru).

The Satnamis Haryana region(1672), the Satnamis — a sect comprising

peasants, artisans and untouchables — rebelled against the mighty Mughal
Empire

Aurangzeb’s Deccan Policy, to contain:

1. growing inﬂuence of the Marathas
2. The rebellious attitude of the Shia kingdoms of Deccan like Golkonda and
Bijapur
3. Curtail the rebellious activities of his son Akbar

THE MUGHAL ADMINISTRATION

Highly Centralised Pan India

Humayun & Babur Did not concentrate on establishing a deﬁnite system

focus was more on military matters.

Akbar Established various offices with assigned functions

Elaborate rules and regulations were placed to guide officers in charge of

administration

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CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION

• Divine origin of monarchy.

Emperor • All officers in Mughal administration over their position in
power to the emperor.

• Enjoyed both military and civil powers till Humayun’s Reign.

Wazir/wakil • Under Akbar Financial powers were transferred to diwan
kul.

Diwan Kul
• Supervise imperial treasury & check all accounts.
(chief Diwan)

• Appointment of Mansabdars.
Mir Bakhshi • Supervision of Dagh (branding of horses) & Chehra
(preparation of muster roll based on facial description).

Mir Saman/
• Officer in charge of royal karkhanas
Khan Saman

• Head of Ecclesiastical department.

Sadr-us-Sudur
• Duty to protect laws of the Shariat.

• Administer Shariat law both in civil and criminal matter.

Qazi-ul quzzat • Head of judiciary (prior to Aurangzeb this office did not
exist.

PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION

Akbar 1580
• Empire was divided into 12 subas(later 3 were added total 15)
• Suba> Sarkar> Parganas> Mahal

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Shah Jahan
• Added another administrative unit Chakla i.e cluster of Parganas.
• Chakla> Pargana> Mahal

• Governor of a province.
Subadar/Sipah • Directly appointed by the emperor.
Salaror Nazim
• Tenure: 3 years
• Head of revenue department.
• Independent officer answerable to the Centre.
Diwan
• Roznamcha (daily register) maintained by him to enter
amounts deposited in royal treasury.
• Performed same functions as performed by Mir Bakhshi
Bakhshi but for provinces.

Darogha- I Dak • Head of Imperial Postal System.

• Part of the postal system.

Waqai navis • Duty was to supply important reports directly to the
& Waqai nigars emperor.

• Supplied conﬁdential reports to the emperor, part of the

Sawanih nigar secret services

LOCAL ADMINISTRATION

Pargana Mauza
Sarkars >
(tehsil)> (village)

At level of Sarkar 2 important officers:

Faujdar: Head of the sarkar, take care of law and order problems.
Also help Amalguzar in matters of revenue collection.
Amalguzar/Amil: Assess and supervise the revenue collection.
Sends receipts and expenditure reports to provincial diwan.
Thanedar: Was the head of thana where army was stationed.
He was placed under fuajdar.

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PARGANA ADMINISTRATION

Pargana
Shiqqdar : executive officer of the paragana, assisted amils in revenue
collection.
Amil : Revenue collection at pargana level.
Qanungos : Kept all records pertaining to land in his area. Take note of different
crops in the pargana.

VILLAGE ADMINISTRATION

Muqaddam/Mandal Village headman

Patwari Took care of village revenue records.

Town, Fort and Port Administration

Kotwal: Duty to safeguard Qiladar: Officer Mutasaddi:

life and property in towns. incharge of forts. Governor of the
Maintain register of people Generally a high port, directly
entering and leaving ranking mansabdar. appointed by the
towns. emperor.

THE MUGHAL ARMY

• Cavalry Infantry Artillery

Consists of Elephants Camels
There was no navy but there was a ﬂotilla of boats.

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• Dagh system (branding of horses) was used to main an
Cavalry efficient and well-equipped force of cavalry.

• Soldiers directly employed by state and sent to high

Dakhili ranking mansabdars.

• A separate category of soldiers called gentlemen

Ahadi troopers, were allowed to keep 5 horses or more.
• Could be appointed in army or can serve as a messenger.

• Developed rapidly in India after Babur.

• Consists of 1 heavy artillery i.e., siege guns and heavy
Artillery guns on forts.
• 2 light artilleries: narnal (mounted on man), gajanal
(mounted on elephants) & shutrnal (mounted on camels)

MANSABDARI SYSTEM

Administrative system of Mughals. The word mansab is of Arabic origin meaning

rank or position.
The system determines rank and status of a government official and military
generals.
Every civil and military officer was given a mansab, which determined their
salaries & allowances

The mansab were in multiples of 10.

Highest Rank under Akbar was 10000 which was increased by him to 12000. Rank
above 7000 was given to princes.

CLASSIFICATION OF MANSABDARS

Amir- I - Azam/Udma: > Rank 2500

Amir: Rank 500 to 2500
Mansabdar: < Rank 500

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• The system was designated by dual representation: 1
Structure of personal rank called zat. 2 Cavalry rank called sawar.
Mansabdari • Sawar rank determined number of armed cavalry men that
System the masabar had to maintain for imperial army.

1st class mansabdar: Number of Sawar = Number of zat

2nd class mansabdar: Number of Sawar = 1/2 Number of zat
3rd class mansabdar: Number of Sawar < 1/2 Number of zat

SALARY AND PAYMENT SYSTEM

Paid in cash (naqdi) or assigning mansabdars with jagirs (land) and allowed to
collect land revenue and all other taxes from the jagirs.
The Jagirdari System was integral part of the Mansabdari system.

Types of Jagirs

Tankha Mashrut
non hereditary non hereditary
Jagirs Given
(transferable)
given in under
lieu of certain
salary conditions.

Watan Given to Given to Muslim Altamagha

hereditary (non Zamindar or Nobels in his non hereditary
transferable) Rajas in places of
their local birth or
Rajputs entitled to
this. dominion hometown

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CHANGES IN MANSABDARI SYSTEM

• Introduced by Jahangir.
Du-aspah
• Selected nobels were allowed to maintan a large quota of
sih-aspah soldiers without changing the zat rank

• Introduced by Shah Jahan. Month ratio

• Salaries of mansabdars were put on the monthly scale i.e. 8 or month-
months, 6 months or even less. scale
system

SOCIO- ECONOMIC LIFE UNDER MUGHALS

Mughal Land Revenue System: Known as mal and mal wajib

Process of land revenue collection:

Assessment called Tashkhis/ Jama
Actual collection called hasil. It was done seprately for kharib and
rabi crop

After assessment the ﬁndings are written on documents called

patta, qual or qualqarar.

METHODS OF LAND REVENUE ASSESSMENT

Ghalla Bakshi/ bhaoii/ batai: Division of crop at threshing ﬂoor after

the grain was extracted.

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Khet batai: Share decided before the harvesting of crops.

Lang batai: crop was cut but assessment was done before threshing.

Nigamama-i Munshi: best method as the peasant and the State

shared the risk of farming equally.

Kankut/ danabandi: System where the revenue demand was ﬁxed

after the grain yield was estimated.

Zabti System: For each crop cash revenue was ﬁxed known as dastur
ul amal/ dastur. It was to be paid in cash.It was based on Sher Shah
rai system.
Adopted only in Delhi, Agra, Awadh, Lahore and Multan.

Revenue Farming or Ijara system

• When peasants lacked the means to cultivate their land or cultivation was
impossible due to a calamity, the lands were farmed out on ijarah to a third
party known as revenue farmers.
• Mughals disapproved of this system but yet it was comman in jagir lands.

PEASANTS

Peasnats/ raiyat/ muzarian/asami

Two kinds of peasants:
1. khud-kashta: residents of the village in which they held their lands.
2. pahi-kashta non-resident cultivators who belonged to some other village, but
cultivated lands on a contractual basis

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TRADE

Wholesale trade carried out by seth/bohra

Retail trade was carried out by beoparis/banik

Banjaras specialised in trasporting goods.

Sarraf/shroff specialised in changing, keeping or lending money.
Hundi was letter of credit payable after certain time.

Religious Ideas and Beliefs

• Tawhid-i-ilahi/ Din-i-ilahi: • Shul-i-kul

• Syncretic religion propounded by • Discussion with various religious
Akbar in 1852. leaders use to take place in ibadat
• The spirit and core elements were khana.
borrowed from Suﬁsm. • Akbar got the idea of shul-i-kul or
• Main elements from Islam, Hinduism Universal peace from participating
& Zoroastrianism. in these discussion. It was one of the
important vision of governance.
• Some elements of Christianity,
Buddhism and Jainism can also be • Jahangir and Shah Jahan too
found. followed this principle.

TRAVELLERS DURING THE GREAT MUGHAL REIGN

Traveller Emperor About/Observations/books

Anthony Monserrate Akbar Portuguese priest
(1578-1582)
Ralph Fitch Akbar A merchant, 1st Englishman to travel
(1585-1591) through India and Southeast Asia.
Described about village life in detail.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 13

Traveller Emperor About/Observations/books
William Hawkins Jahangir English Ambassador of King James I
(1608-1611)

Sir Thomas Roe Jahangir English Diplomat came to India seeking

(1615-1619) for a trade agreement with Mughals.

Francisco Pelasaert Jahangir Dutch merchant, author of “Jahangir’s

(1620-1627) India”.

Pietro Della Valle Jahangir & Italian music composer.

(1622- 1633) Shah Jahan Gave vivid description of Ahmedabad.

Peter Mundy Shah Jahan British merchant.

(1628-1634)

Traveller Emperor About/Observations/books

Jean Baptiste Shah Jahan & French Gem merchant, travelled India 6
Travernier Aurangzeb times.
(1640-1668)

Francois Bernier Shah Jahan & French physician, political philosopher,

(1656-1668) Aurangzeb closely associated with Dara Shukoh.
Author of “Travels in the Mughal Empire”.
Made adverse remarks on efficiency of
Mughal army (no drills or discipline).
Excessive oppression of peasantry.
Gave an account of royal Karkhanas.

Niccolao Manucci Shah Jahan & Venetian writer, stayed back in India did
(1658-1687) Aurangzeb not return to his homeland.
Author of “Storia de Mogor”, a book on
Mughals.

Jean De Thevenot Aurangzeb French botanist and traveller.

(1666-1668)

: 14
QUICK REVISION MODULE ( UPSC PRELIMS 2024) ART & CULTURE

Movement
Early tradition of Bhakti Movement:
The Bhakti movement sought to bring religious reforms by adopting the method of devotion to
achieve salvation.
It was prominent in eighth-century south India and spread northwards.
It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reaching its peak between the
15th and 17th century CE.
The singing and chanting of devotional compositions was often a part of Bhakti.
Expressions of devotion ranged from the routine worship of deities within temples to ecstatic
adoration where devotees attained a trance-like state.

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Bhakti traditions accommodated women and the “lower castes” as well.
Remarkable diversity was a character of Bhakti movement
Two traditions of Bhakti movement: Saguna and Nirguna
Saguna included traditions that focused on the worship of speciﬁc deities such as Shiva, Vishnu
and his avatars (incarnations) and forms of the goddess or Devi, all often conceptualised in
anthropomorphic forms (with attributes)
Nirguna bhakti was worship of an abstract form of god (without attributes).
Two types of Bhakti saints emerged who were Alwars and Nayanars.

Alwars Nayanars
Devotees of Lord Vishnu Devotees of Lord Shiva
Work of Alwar saints: Nalayira Work of Nayanar Saints: Tevarams and
Divyaprabandham (also known as the Tevacrams.
Fourth Veda) Karaikal Ammaiyar was the most famous
Andal was the most famous female Alwar female Nayanar saint.
saint.

Alwar and Nayanar tradition

Alwar and Nayanar saints travelled from place to place singing hymns in Tamil in praise of
their gods.
During their travels the Alvars and Nayanars identiﬁed certain shrines as abodes of their
chosen deities.
Very often large temples were later built at these sacred places.
Women Devotees: One of the most striking features of these traditions was the presence
of women. These women renounced their social obligations, but did not join an
alternative order or become nuns. Their very existence and their compositions posed a
challenge to patriarchal norms. Eg: Andal (Alwar saint) and KaraikkalAmmaiyar (a devotee
of Shiva or follower of Nayanar tradition)
Compilations of devotional literature
By the tenth century the compositions of the 12 Alvars were compiled in an anthology known as
the Nalayira Divyaprabandham (”Four Thousand Sacred Compositions”). The poems of Apper,
Sambandar and Sundarar form the Tevaram, a collection that was compiled and classiﬁed in the
the tenth century on the basis of the music of the songs.

While Buddhism and Jainism had been prevalent in this region for several centuries,
drawing support from merchant and artisan communities, these religious traditions
received occasional royal patronage.
Both Nayanars and Alvars were revered by the peasants.
The powerful Chola rulers (ninth to thirteenth centuries) supported Brahmanical and
bhakti traditions, making land grants and constructing temples for Vishnu and Shiva
These kings also introduced the singing of Tamil Shaiva hymns in the temples and
organised them into a text called Tevaram

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Veershaiva and Lingayat Movement-
The twelfth century witnessed the emergence of a new movement in Karnataka, led by a
Brahmana named Basavanna (1106-68).
Basavannawas initially a Jaina and a minister in the court of a Chalukya king.
His followers were known as Virashaivas (heroes of Shiva) or Lingayats (wearers of the linga).
Lingayats believe that on death the devotee will be united with Shiva and will not return to
this world. Therefore they do not practise funerary rites such as cremation, prescribed in the
Dharmashastras. Instead, they ceremonially bury their dead.
The Lingayats challenged the idea of caste and the “pollution” attributed to certain groups by
Brahmanas.
They also questioned the theory of rebirth. These won them followers amongst those who
were marginalised within the Brahmanical social order.
The Lingayats also encouraged certain practices disapproved in the Dharmashastras, such as
post-puberty marriage and the remarriage of widows.
The understanding of the Virashaiva tradition is derived from Vachanas (literally, sayings)
composed in Kannada by women and men who joined the movement.

Bhakti Movement in North India

The period after the thirteenth century saw a new wave of the bhakti movement in north
India.
A unique feature of most of the saints is that their works were composed in regional
languages and could be sung.
They became immensely popular and were handed down orally from generation to generation.
Usually the poorest, most deprived communities and women transmitted these songs, often
adding their own experiences.
Some of them like Kabir and Baba Guru Nanak rejected all orthodox religions.
Others like Tulsidas and Surdas accepted existing beliefs and practices but wanted to make
these accessible to all. Tulsidas conceived of God in the form of Rama.
Surdas was an ardent devotee of Krishna. His compositions, compiled in the Sursagara,
Surasaravali and Sahitya Lahari, express his devotion.
Also contemporary was Shankaradevaof Assam (late ﬁfteenth century) who emphasised
devotion to Vishnu, and composed poems and plays in Assamese. He began the practice of
setting up namghars or houses of recitation and prayer, a practice that continues to date.
This tradition also included saints like DaduDayal, Ravidas and Mirabai.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 3

Beyond the Rana’s palace
This is a song composed by Mirabai:
Ranaji, I have left your norms of shame,
and false decorum of the princely life.

I have left your town.

And yet Rana why have you kept up

enmity against me?

Rana you gave me a cup of poison.

I drank it laughing.

Rana I will not be des oyed by you.

And yet Rana why have you kept up
enmity against me?

? Why do you think Mirabai left the Rana’s palace?

Some Important Bhakti Saints

The earliest exponent of the Bhakti movement was Ramanuja who was
appointed the successor of his teacher Yamunamuni. He travelled all over India
and ultimately settled down at Srirangam. He established Vaishnavism on a
sound foundation. He founded VisistadvaitaSiddhanta or qualiﬁed monism and
according to him, the way to salvation lies through Karma, Gyan and Bhakti. He
Ramanuja wrote Sribasya and Gitabhasya.

The next leader of the Bhakti movement was Nimbarka, a younger

contemporary of Ramanuja. He was worshipper of Krishna and Radha. He
founded Dvaitadvaita or dualistic monism. He wrote Vedanta Parijatasaurabha,
a commentary on Brahmasutras. He settled in Mathura.
Nimbarka

He ranks with Sankaracharya and Ramanuja as one of the three principal

philosophers of the Vedanta system. He propounded Dvaita or dualism.
According to him, the ﬁnal aim of man is the direct perception of Hari which
leads to Moksha or eternal bliss.
Madhavacharya

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Born in Varanasi, he propounded Suddhadvaita Vedanta (Pure nondualism) and
philosophy called Pustimarga (the path of grace) He founded a school called
Rudra Sampradaya. He identiﬁed Brahman with Sri Krishna, characterised by Sat
(Being), Cit (consciousness) and Ananda (bliss). According to him, salvation is
through Sneha (deep rooted love for God). He was the author of a number of
scholarly works in Sanskrit and Brajbhasa, the important being Subodhini and
Vallabhacharya
Siddhant Rahasya

Born at Prayag, he was the ﬁrst great Bhakti saint of North India. He opened the
door of Bhakti to all without any distinction of birth, caste, creed or sex. He was
a worshipper of Rama and believed in two great principles, namely as perfect
love for god and human brotherhood. His disciples included: (a) Kabir, a Muslim
weaver; (b) Raidasa, a cobbler; (c) Sena, a barber; (d) Dhanna a Jat peasant; (e)
Sadhana, a butcher; (f) Narahari, a goldsmith; and(g) Pipa, a Rajput prince.
Ramananda has been described as “the bridge between the Bhakti movement Ramananda
of the South and the North.”

Namadeva, who ﬂourished in the ﬁrst part of the 14 century, was a

tailor who had taken to banditry before he became a saint. His poetry which
was written in Marathi breathes a spirit of intense love and devotion to God.
Namadeva is said to have travelled far and wide and engaged in discussions
Namadeva with the Suﬁ saints in Delhi.

Chaitanya was the greatest saint of the Bhakti movement. Born at Navadwip in
Bengal, his original name was Vishwambhar Mishra. He was responsible for the
popularity of Vaishnavism in Bengal through his Kirtans. He began the
Achintayabhedabhedavada School of theology. He preached the religion of
intense faith in one Supreme Being whom he called Krishna or Hari. He adored
Krishna and Radha and attempted to spiritualise their lives in Vrindavan. He
settled permanently at Puri where he died. After his death, his followers
systematised his teachings and organised themselves into a sect called Chaitanya
GaudiyaVaishanavism. KrishnadasaKaviraja wrote his biography,
Chaitanyacharitamrita

A great saint of the Bhakti movement, she was the only child of Ratnasingh
Rathor of Merta. She was married to Rana Sanga's eldest son and heir
apparentBhojaraj in 1516. She was highly religious from her childhood and a
follower of the Krishna cult of Vaishanavism. After the death of her husband,
she devoted herself completely too religious pursuits. Mirabai is said to have
Mirabai composed numerous devotional songs.

He was a great poet and a devotee of Rama. He composed the famous.

Ramcharitamanas in Hindi, expounding the various aspects of Hindu dharma.
His other creations are VinayaPatrika and Kavitavali.
Tulsidas

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As a saint and a poet, he preached the religion of love and devotion to a
personal God. Surdas was a devotee of Lord Krishna and Radha. He made use
of Brajbhasa in his works which include Sursagar, Sahitya Ratna and Sur
Sarawali.
Surdas

Other well known Saguna bhakti saints were Sankardev who popularised
Vaishanava bhakti in Assam

Shankar Dev

The original name of Narasi was Narasimha Mehta. He popularised

Vaishnava cult in Gujarat.

Narsari

Born near Benaras, he led the life of a normal householder. A disciple of

Ramananda, his mission was to preach a religion of love which would unite all
castes and creeds. He emphasised the unity of god whom he calls by several
names, such as Rama, Hari, Allah, etc. He strongly denounced Hindu and
Muslim rituals. He strongly denounced the caste system, especially the practice
of untouchability. However, he was not a social reformer, his emphasis being
reform of the individual under the guidance of a true guru. His dohas and sakhi
(poems) are found in the Bijak. After Kabir's death, his Muslim disciples Kabir
organised themselves in Maghar, and the Hindu disciples were organised into
an order by Surat Gopala, with their centre at Banaras

Other Nirguna saints were DaduDayal, who founded the Brahma Sampradaya
or Parabrahma Sampradaya, Malukdasa a follower of Kabir, Sundardasa and
Dharanidasa.
Other
Nirguna saints

The bhakti saints of Maharashtra were the proponents of Maharashtra Dharma.

Jnandeva; Namadeva, Eknatha, Tukaram and Ramdas were some of the great
Bhakti saints in Maharashtra
Bhakti Saints
from
Maharashtra

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Timeline of Major dynasty during Bhakti and
Suﬁ movement:

Delhi Sultanate
1206 -1290 1320 -1413

Slave Dynasty or Tughlaq dynasty

Mamluk Dynasty

1451- 1526 1414-1451

Lodi dynasty Sayyid dynasty

Mughal empire

1526 – 1530 1530 – 1540; 1555 – 1556 1556 – 1605

Babar Humayun Akbar

1658 – 1707 1628 – 1658 1605 – 1627

Aurangzeb Shah Jahan Jahangir

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Major bhakti saints and the regions associated with them

LADAKH
JAMMU &
KASHMIR

Guru Nanak
HIMACHAL
PRADESH

15 -16 C.
th th
PUNJAB

UTTARAKHAND

A
AN
RY
ARUNACHAL PRADESH

HA
DELHI
RAJASTHAN SIKKIM
Shankaradeva
UTTAR
Dadu 16 -17 C.th th
PRADESH 15th-16th C.ASSAM NAGALAD
Mirabai 16th C Surdas 16th C. BIHAR MEGHALAYA
MAINPUR

TRIPURA
Kabir 15 -16 C.
th th
MIZORAM
WEST
Raidas 15 C.
GUJARAT th
MADHYA BENGAL

Narsi Mehta
PRADESH
Vallabhacharya 15 -16 C.
th th
Chaitanyadeva
15 C.
th
Tulsidas 16th-17th C. 15th-16th C.
ORISSA
H

MAHARASHTRA
GAR

Eknath 16 C.
th
Jnaneshwar
IS
ATT

13 C.
th
Tukaram 16th C. BAY OF BENGAL
CHH

Namdev 13th-14th C. TELANGANA

Ramdas 17 C.
th

ARABIAN KARNATAKA ANDHRA

Andhra
PRADESH
SEA Purandaradasa 15 -16 C.
Pradesh
th th

Basavanna
12 C.
th

Manikkavasagar 9 C
th
Tamil Nadu
TAMIL NADU
Ramanuja 11 - 12 C
th th
KER
ALA

Nammalvar 9 C.
th

Suﬁ Tradition

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It is derived from the word Suﬀwhich means a piece of woollen cloth. This is because
woollen clothes were generally associated with ascetics.
Soon after, the establishment of Islam was hijacked by many Islamic theologians who
diluted the original tenants of Islam. They started to give dogmatic and scholastic
explanations to the Quran, the Hadis, and the Sunnah.
In this scenario, by the end of the 10 century AD, Suﬁs emerged to purify Islam spiritually.
th

They claimed a direct spiritual genealogy and unbroken chain between Allah, the prophet,
and them.
Sufis created many Silsila or orders and started visiting different places.
There were two broad Sufi orders:
Bashara – Those who obeyed Islamic laws.
Beshara – Those who were more liberal.
By the 12 century, the Sufis were organised in 12 orders or Silsilas., of which the two most
th

important ones were: Chisti and Suhrawadi Silsila

ChistiSilsila
Chisti Silsila Suhrawadi Silsila Silsila
Suhrawadi
The founder was Shaikh Moinuddin Chisti The founder was Shaikh Bahauddin
and he was based in Ajmer. Zakaria.

Moinuddin Chisti was popularly known as He got an oﬃcial position in Delhi Sultanate
Gharib Nawaz. Iltutmish gave him the title of Shaikh-ul-
He started a community food service Islam meaning Leader of Islam.
whereby in his kitchen food for the poor Unlike the Chistis, the Suhrawardis
was prepared on daily basis. accepted maintenance grants from the
Another important Chiztia saint in India Sultans and took an active part in politics.
was Fariduddin-Ganj-i-Shakar also known They advocated a combination of ilm with
as Baba Farid whose teachings were mysticism.
incorporated in Sikhism.

Major Teachers of The Chishti Silsila

Suﬁ Teachers Year of Death Location on Darga
Shaikh Muinuddin Sijizi 1235 Ajmer (Rajasthan
Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Khaki 1235 Delhi
Shaikh Fariduddin Ganj-i Shakar 1265 Ajodhan (Pakistan)
Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya 1325 Delhi
Shaikh Nasiruddin Chiragh-i Delhi 1356 Delhi

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Some key terms associated with Sufism
Sufi, Pir: Saint
Murshid: Master/Teacher
Murid: Followers
Khanqah: Place where Sufis lived
Hospice: House of rest for travellers, especially one kept by a religious order.
Zikr: Recitation of God's name
Tauba: Repentance
Fanaa: Spiritual merging with the Almighty
Sama: Musical gathering
Ilm: scholarship
Terms related to reconstruction of Sufi tradition:
Malfuzat: conversation of Sufi saints
Maktubat: written letters of Sufi Saints
Tazkiras: biographical account of Sufi Saints

Contribution of Bhakti-Suﬁ movement

Both emphasized a simple form of religion based on love and devotion.
Both were highly critical of the orthodox rigidities and caste rigidities in the society.
Both tried to uplift the position of women and untouchables.
They were also highly critical of the unjust laws of that time.
The bhakti and Suﬁs facilitated the growth and promotion of regional literature of India.
They were one of the greatest representatives of the secular ethos of the country.

Timeline Some Major Religious Teachers In

The Subcontinent
500-800 ce Appar, Sambandar, Sundaramurti in Tamil Nadu

800-900 Nammalvar, Manikkavachakar, Andal, Tondaradippodi in Tamil Nadu

1000-1100 Al Hujwiri, Data Ganj Bakhsh in the Punjab; Ramanujacharya in Tamil Nadu

1100-1200 Basavanna in Karnataka

Jnanadeva, Muktabai in Maharashtra; Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti in

1200-1300 Rajasthan; Bahauddin Zakariyya and Fariduddin Ganj-i Shakar in the
Punjab; Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki in Delhi

Jnanadeva, Muktabai in Maharashtra; Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti in

1200-1300 Rajasthan; Bahauddin Zakariyya and Fariduddin Ganj-i Shakar in the
Punjab; Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki in Delhi

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Lal Ded in Kashmir; Lal Shahbaz Qalandar in Sind; Nizamuddin Auliya in
1300-1400 Delhi; Ramananda in Uttar Pradesh; Chokhamela in Maharashtra;
Sharafuddin Yahya Maneri in Bihar

Kabir, Raidas, Surdas in Uttar Pradesh; Baba Guru Nanak in the Punjab;
Vallabhacharya in Gujarat; Abdullah Shattari in Gwalior; Muhammad Shah
1400-1500
Alam in Gujarat; Mir Sayyid Muhammad Gesu Daraz in Gulbarga,
Shankaradeva in Assam; Tukaram in Maharashtra

Sri Chaitanya in Bengal; Mirabai in Rajasthan; Shaikh Abdul Quddus

1500-1600
Gangohi, Malik Muhammad Jaisi, Tulsidas in Uttar Pradesh

1600-1700 Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi in Haryana; Miyan Mir in the Punjab

Note: These time frames indicate the approximate period during which these teachers lived.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 11

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Vision Ias Revision Ancient and Medieval PDF

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Vision Ias Revision Ancient and Medieval PDF

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Quick Revisi n

It refers to the time in human history before the advent of

Stone Age in India: A Brief Overview

Paleolithic Mesolithic Neolithic

1 Paleolithic (Old Stone Age): It is the earliest and

According to the kind of stone tools people used and

PALEOLITHIC PHASE (2.5 Million years-10,000 BCE)

Hand axes, It mostly Bhimbetka,

Cleavers,Choppers, encompasses the Attirampakkam, Soan

Tools Lifestyle Sites

Tools were largely based Nomadic Belan Valley,Valley of Luni

Tools Lifestyle Sites

2 Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age): Existed between the

Time Period: Around 10,000 BCE to 7,000 BCE

Tools Used: Smaller, more refined tools called

Bone and antler tools are yet another category

Lifestyle: The people of this age lived on

3 Neolithic (New Stone Age): Greek words “neo” for

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Chalcolithic Age The term “Chalcolithic” means Chalco (Copper) + Lithic

Technologically, the Chalcolithic stage is applied to the pre-Harappan phase. However, in

Ganeshwar Jodhpura Culture (2800-2200 BCE) Ganeshwar is a Chalcolithic site in

Kayatha culture (2000-1800 BC BC) with

Malwa Culture (1900–1400BC) with Nagda,

Jorwe culture (1400BC– 700BC) Sites of the

Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) Culture

Chalcolithic Culture: Overview

Livelihood: The people of the Chalcolithic Age relied on

Tools: The use of copper and stone tools (microliths,

Agriculture and Food: Barley and wheat, lentil, bajra,

 Chalcolithic people were unable to completely utilise domestic

Pottery: During the Chalcolithic period, people used a variety of

Art in Chalcolithic Age: During the Chalcolithic Age,

Mostly people buried the dead on the floors

Religious life: Numerous terracotta figurines

Limitations of Chalcolithic Culture in India

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Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)

Early Harrapan- 3300-2600 BCE

In 1924, John Marshall

(North) Manda (Jammu & Kashmir) (Chenab River)

(West)Sutkagen-Dor (East) Alamgirpur (Hindon River)

(South) Daimabad ( Maharashtra)

Administration and Political Organization

The complexity of structures

The sophisticated economy and craftsmanship indicate leadership under a centralized

Town Planning and Structures

Unified Urban Design: Harappan cities followed a

Notable Public Structures

Great Bath (Mohenjo-Daro):

Drainage and Sanitation

Health and Cleanliness:

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Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)

Social Life in the IVC

In Kalibangan, some burials consisted of urns without skeletal remains, indicating

Variations in Burial Sites

Ropar: A man was buried with a dog.

Fire Altars: Found in Kalibangan, these

Undeciphered Writing System

The Harappan script remains

Cosmetics and Fashion

Cinnabar was used as face paint, lipstick, and collyrium (eyeliner).

The Great Bath at Mohenjodaro may have held

The association of the Great Bath with a nearby

No evidence of temples has been found in Harappan

Proto-Shiva: Depictions of a deity with a buffalo-horned

Mother Goddess: Numerous terracotta figurines of a female figure

Other Religious Symbols

Tree Worship: Seals depicting figures worshipping a

Animal Worship: Animals like bulls,

Chalcolithic people were unable to completely utilise domestic