Chapter-2 10010303(MP)

2
Metal Cutting Lathe
Metal Cutting Lathes: Engine Lathes, construction all arrangement and principal units of
engine lathes, type and size range of engine lathes, Operations carried on engine lathe ,
attachment extending the processing capacities of engine lathes, Types of lathe machines,
Capstan and Turret lathes, Taper turning on lathe, Thread cutting on lathe using gear train
and chasing dial, Alignment tests of lathes

CENTRE/ENGINE LATHE

Introduction
● A centre lathe is one of the oldest and perhaps most important machine tools
ever developed.

Fig-1. - Centre lathe.

● The job to be machined is rotated (turned) and the cutting tool is moved relative to the
job. That is why, the lathes are also called ‘‘Turning machines’’

● If tool moves parallel to the axis of rotation of the workpiece, cylindrical surface is
produced, while if it moves perpendicular to the axis, it produces a flat surface.

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Chapter-2 10010303(MP)

Working Principle
Figure shows the working principle of a lathe.
● In a lathe, the workpiece is held in a chuck or between centres
Job
and rotated about its axis at a uniform speed.
● The cutting tool held in tool post is fed into the workpiece for Tool
desired depth and in desired direction (i.e., in linear, transverse
or lateral direction).

Since their exists a relative motion between the workpiece Job

and the cutting tool, therefore the material is removed in the form Tool
of chips and the desired shape is obtained.
Fig.-2 Working principle of a
lathe.
Parts of Lathe
Fig shows a centre lathe. Its major parts are:
1. Bed.
2. Headstock.
3. Tailstock.
4. Carriage.
5. Feed mechanism.

1. Bed : Refer to Fig.-3

● It is the base or foundation of the lathe.
● It is a heavy rigid casting made in one piece. In majority of cases the
beds are made of grey cast iron-nodular cast iron, or high strength,
wear resistance cast iron. The cast iron offers the following advantages
over other materials :
(i) It is self lubricant : It can be hardened by induction hardening process.
(ii) It has better compressive strength.
(iii) It has excellent shock absorbing capacity.
(iv) It can easily be cast and machined.
●It holds or supports all other parts of the lathe. The top of the bed is planed
to form guideways for the carriage and tailstock.
— The guide ways are of two types : (a) Flat guideways (Fig.-3(a)) or inverted Vee guideways.
Generally, the combination of both the flat and inverted Vee guideways is used (Fig.- 3 (b)).

Fig.-3. Bed

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2. Headstock :
● It is permanently fastened to the inner ways at the left hand end of the bed.
● It serves to support the spindle and driving arrangements.
● All lathes receive their power through the headstock, which may be equipped with a step-
cone pulleys or a gear head drive (the modern lathes are provided with all gearedtype
head stock to get large variations of spindle speeds).
● In order to allow the long bar or work holding devices to pass through, the headstock
spindle is made hollow. A tapered sleeve fits into the tapered spindle hole.
3. Tailstock : Refer to Fig.- 4 .
● It is situated at the right hand end of the bed.
● It is used for supporting the right end of the work.
● It is also used for holding and feeding the tools such as drills, reamers, taps etc.

Fig.-4. Tailstock.

4. Carriage : Refer to Fig.- 5 .

Fig.-5. Carriage.

● The carriage controls and supports the cutting tool.

● The carriage has the following five major parts :
(i) Saddle. It is a H-shaped casting fitted over the bed. It moves along the guideways.
(ii) Cross-slide. It carries the compound slide and tool post ; can be moved by power or by
hand.
(iii) Compound rest. It is marked in degrees ; used during taper turning to set the tool for
angular cuts.
(iv) Tool post. The tool is clamped on the tool post.
(v) Apron. It is attached to the saddle and hangs in front of the bed. It has gears, levers and
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Chapter-2 10010303(MP)

clutches for moving the carriage with the lead screw for thread cutting.

5. Feed mechanism :
● It is employed for imparting various feeds (longitudinal, cross and angular) to the cuttingtool.
● It consists of feed reverse lever, tumbler reversing mechanism, change gears, feed gearbox,
quick change gear box, lead screw, feed rod, apron mechanism and half nut mechanism.
Size and Specifications of Lathe
Size of a lathe is specified in any one of the following ways : Refer to Fig.-6.

Fig.-6. Lathe specifications.

1. The height of the centres measured over the lathe bed.

2. Swing or maximum diameter that can be rotated over the bed ways.
3. Swing or diameter over carriage. This is the largest diameter of work
that will revolveover the lathe saddle.
4. Maximum job length in mm that may be held between the centres
(headstock and tail- stock centres).
5. Bed length in metres which may include the headstock length also.
6. Diameter of the hole through lathe spindle for turning bar material.

In addition to the above, the following specifications are necessary to

provide while ordering a lathe :
(i) The length, width and depth of bed.
(ii) The depth and width of the gap, if it is a gap lathe.
(iii) The swing over gap.
(iv) The number and range of spindle speeds.
(v) The number of feeds.
(vi) The lead screw diameter.
(vii) The number and range of metric threads that can be cut.
(viii) The tailstock spindle travel.
(ix) The tailstock spindle set over.
(x) The back gear ratio.
(xi) The power rating of electric motor.

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Chapter-2 10010303(MP)

Types of Lathe
The following are the types of lathe :
1. Speed lathe :
● In this lathe spindle can rotate at a very high speed with the help of a variable speed
motor built inside the headstock of the lathe.
● It is used mainly for wood working, centering, metal spinning, polishing etc.

2. Engine or centre lathe :

● It is the most common types of lathe and is widely used in workshop.
● The speed of the spindle can be widely varied as desired which is not possible in a speed
lathe.
● The cutting tool may be fed both in cross and longitudinal directions with reference tothe
lathe axis with the help of a carriage.

3. Bench lathe :
● It is usually mounted on a bench.
● It is very similar to speed or centre lathe, the only difference being it is smaller in size
which enables it handle small work (usually requiring considerable accuracy such as inthe
production of gauges, punches and beds for press tools).

4. Tool room lathe :

● It is similar to an engine lathe, designed for obtaining accuracy.
● It is used for manufacturing precision components, dies, tools, jigs etc ; and hence it is
called as tool room lathe.

5. Turret and capstan lathes :

● These lathes have provision to hold a number of tools and can be used for performing
wider range of operations.
● These are particularly suitable for mass production of identical parts in minimumtime.

6. Automatic lathes :
● These lathes are so designed that the tools are automatically fed to the work and
withdrawn after all operations, to finish the work, are complete.
● They require little attention of the operator, since the entire operation is automatic.
● These are used for mass production of identical parts.

7. Special purpose lathes :

These lathes are primarily designed for carrying out a particular operation with utmost
efficiency. The lathes included in this category are :
(i) Gap lathe :
● It is used for machining extra large diameter pieces.

(ii) Special purpose engine lathe :

● These lathes are designed for machining special types of workpieces, e.g. wheel turning
lathes for turning the tread on rail road-car and locomotive and so on.
(iii) Instrument lathe :
● These lathes are of smaller size than ‘Bench lathes’ and are used by instrument makers.
(iv) Facing lathes :
● These lathes are used to machine workpieces of large diameter but short in length in
single piece production and in repair shops.
● Now these lathes have been replaced by more advanced boring and turning machines.
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Chapter-2 10010303(MP)

(v) Flow turning lathes :

● A flow turning lathe is used for roll flowing, as a method of cold-flowing metal. As heavy
pressure is applied spirally with two hardened rollers against a metal block.
(vi) Heavy-duty lathe :
● A lathe, that has a swing of 500 mm or more and is used for roughing and finishing cuts, is
often referred to as a heavy-duty lathe

Lathe Tools
● In a lathe, for a general purpose work, the tool used is a single point tool
(a tool havingone cutting edge), but for special operations multi-point
tools may be used.
● The commonly used materials are high carbon steel, high speed steel,
cemented carbides,diamond tips and ceramics.

Depending upon the nature of operation done by the tool, the lathe tools
are classified as follows :
(i) Turning tool (left hand or right hand)
(ii) Facing tool (left hand or right hand)
(iii) Chamfering tool (left hand or right hand)
(iv) Form or profile tool
(v) Parting or necking tool
(vi) External threading tool
(vii) Internal threading tool
(viii) Boring tool
(ix) Knurling tool.
The above mentioned tools are shown in Fig.- 7 .

Fig.-7 Lathe tools.

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Chapter-2 10010303(MP)

Lathe Operations
Common lathe operations which can be carried out on a lathe are
enumerated and briefly discussed as follows :
1. Facing 2. Plain turning 3. Step turning
4. Taper turning 5. Drilling 6. Reaming
7. Boring 8. Undercutting or grooving 9. Threading
10. Knurling 11. Forming.

1. Facing : Refer to Fig.- 8 .

● “Facing” is an operation of machining the ends of a Chuck
workpiece to produce a flat surface square with the
axis. It is also used to cut the work to the required
length.
Work
● The operation involves feeding the tool perpendicular
to the axis of rotation of the workpiece.
● A properly ground facing tool is mounted in the tool
post. A regular turning tool may also be used for facing Tool
a large workpiece. The cutting edge should be set at the
same heightas the centre of the workpiece. Fig.-8. Facing.
● The facing operation is usually performed in two
steps. Chuck

In the first step a rough facing operation is done Work

by using a heavy cross feed of the order of 0.5 to 0.7
mm and a deeper cut upto 5 mm (maximum). It is
followed by a finer cross feed of 0.1 to 0.3 mm and a
Tool
smaller depth of cut of about 0.5 mm.
2. Plain turning : Refer to Fig.- 9. Fig. -9. Plain turning
● It is an operation of removing excess material from the
surface of the cylindrical workpiece. Chuck
● In this operation, the work is held either in the chuck
Work
or between centres and the longitudinal feed is given to
the tool either by hand or power.

3. Step turning : Refer to Fig.- 1 0 .

● In this type of lathe operation various steps of Tool
different diameters in the workpiece are produced.
Fig.-10. Step turning.
● It is carried out in the similar way as plain turning.

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Chapter-2 10010303(MP)

4. Taper turning :
Taper. A taper may be defined as an uniform increase ordecrease in diameter of a
piece of work measured along its length.
Refer to Fig.-11. The taper angle (a) can be found by using the following relationship

Fig.-11.
The conicity K of a taper is defined as :

Taper turning. Taper turning means to produce a conical surface by gradual reductionin
diameter from a cylindrical workpiece.
— The tapering of a part has wide applications in the construction of
machines. Almost all machine spindles have taper holes which receive
taper shanks of various tools and work holding devices.
Taper turning methods. Taper turning can be carried out on lathes by the following
methods :
(i) By setting over the tailstock centre.
(ii) By swivelling the compound rest.
(iii) By using a taper turning attachment.
(iv) By manipulating the transverse and longitudinal feeds of the slide tool simultaneously.
(v) By using a broad nose form tool.

(i) By setting over the tailstock centre :

— This method is used for small tapers only (the amount of setover being limited).
— It is based upon the principle of shifting the axis of rotation of the workpiece, at an
angle to the axis, and feeding the tool parallel to the lathe axis. The angle at which
the axis of rotation of the workpiece is shifted is equal to half angle of taper. This is
done when the body of the tailstock is made to slide on its base towards or away from
the operator by a setover screw as shown in Fig.-12.

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Fig.-12. Turnining taper by tailstock set-over method.

— By setting tailstock centre to the back (away from the operator) the taper will have
bigger diameter towards the tailstock. If the tailstock centre is taken in the front, bigger
diameter will be on the headstock side. The reduction in diameter will be twice the
offset of tailstock centre if entire length is turned.
— The major disadvantage of this method is that the live and dead centres are not equally
stressed and the wear is non-uniform. Also, the lathe carrier being set at an angle, the
angular velocity of the work is not constant.
● It is useful for turning very long tapers up to about 5°. This method should
be avoided ifpossible.

Calculation of setover (S) :

The amount of setover required may be calculated
as follows :From the right angled triangle MNP
(Fig.- 1 2 ), we have
NP = (setover), S = MN sin (a) = Lj sin a
For a very small angle, (a) it can be safely considered that :
sin a = tan a
i.e., setover, S = Lj tan a
(D - d)
or, S = Lj × in mm
2L
Total taper
or, S = Total length of job/work × 2 ´ taper length

where, S = The required setover in mm,

D = Large diameter in mm,
d = Small diameter in mm,
Lj = Total length of job/work in mm, and
L = Length of tapered portion in mm.

In case the job is to be tapered over its full length, L will be equal to Lj. Therefore, the setover
will be given by:
D - d = Total taper
S=
2 2
— The amount of the offset required may be quite accurately set by allowing the tool post to touch

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Chapter-2 10010303(MP)

the tailstock barrel in the normal and in the offset position. This is accomplished by turning the
cross-slide screw when the offset is measured directlyby the difference of readings on the
micrometer dial. A more accurate reading is obtained by using a dial indicator in conjunction
with cross-slide.
— For accurately setting of the tailstock, slip gauges are sometimes used.

(ii) By swivelling the compound rest :

— It is the best method as it does not affect the centering of the job or centres.
— In this method of taper turning the workpiece is rotated on the lathe axis and the
tool is fed at an angle to the axis of rotation of the workpiece. The tool mounted on
the compound rest is attached to the circular base, graduated in degrees, which may
be swivelled and clamped at any desired angle as shown in Fig.-13. After the
compound rest is set at the desired half taper angle, rotation of the compound slide
screw will cause the tool to be fed at that angle and generate a corresponding taper.
— The setting of compound rest is done by swivelling the rest at the half taper angle, if this
is already known. However, if the diameters of large (D) and small (d) ends are known,
the half taper angle can be calculated as follows :

Chuck Centre held

Head- in tailstock
Stock Work
L
Compound
D 2a d slide

Tool

Fig.-13. Taper turning by swivelling the compound rest.

— Owing to the limited movement of the cross-slide, this method is limited to turn a
short taper ; a small taper may also be turned.
● Short lengths of tapers not exceeding 45° included angle are usually turned by this
method.
• This method gives a low production capacity and poor surface finish because the movement
of the tool is completely controlled by hand. This method is tiring if the traverse is
lengthy.

(iii) By using a taper turning attachment :

— This method provides a very wide range of taper.
— In this method of taper turning a tool is guided in a straight path set at an angle to
the axis of rotation of the workpiece, while the work is being revolved between
centres or by a chuck aligned to the lathe axis.
— As shown in Fig.14, a taper turning attachment essentially consists of a bracketor
frame which is attached to the rear end of the lathe bed and supports a guide bar
pivoted at the centre. The bar is provided with graduations and may be swivelled on
either side of the zero graduation and is set at the desired angle with the lathe axis.

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Fig.-14. Use of taper turning attachment

The taper turning attachment is used as follows :

● The cross-slide is first made free of the lead screw by removing the binder screw. The
rear end of the cross-slide is then tightened with the guide block by means of a bolt.
● On the engagement of the longitudinal feed, the tool mounted on the cross-slide will
follow the angular path, as the guide block slides on the guide bar set at an angle to the
both axes.
● The required depth of cut is given by the compound slide which is placed at right
angles to the axis of the lathe.
● The guide bar must be set at half taper angle and the taper on the work must be
converted in degrees. The maximum angle through which the guide bar may be
swivelled is 10° to12° on either side of the centre line.
● After every cut, the feed to the tool is given by moving the compound rest which is
positioned parallel to the cross-slide (i.e., at 90° to the axis of the job).
● The required angle (i.e., angle of swivelling the guide bar) can be found out from the
following relation :

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Chapter-2 10010303(MP)

where, D = Larger dia. in mm,

d = Smaller dia. in mm, and
L = Length of taper in mm.

Advantages of using a taper turning attachment :

1. Easy and quick setting.
2. The operator may not be highly skilled.
3. Accurate tapers can be easily obtained in a single setting.
4. Very steep taper on a long workpiece may be turned which is not possible with any other
method
5. It is quite suitable for internal taper as well.
6. It provides a better finish.
7. It ensures an increased rate of production because it is possible to employ longitudinal
power feeds easily.
8. During the operation, normal set-up and alignment of the lathe and main parts are not
disturbed (as is the case with the other methods).

(iv) By manipulating the transverse and longitudinal feeds of the slide tool
simultaneously :
● Taper turning by manipulation of both feeds is
inaccurate and requires skill on the part of the
operator.
● It is used for sharp tapers only.

(v) By using a broad nose form tool :

● In this method of taper turning (Fig.-15) a broadnose
tool having straight cutting edge is set on tothe work
at half taper angle and is fed straight
into the work to generate a tapered surface. Fig.-15 Taper turning by a form tool.
● With this method, tapers of short length only
can be turned.

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Chuck
5. Drilling : Refer to Fig.- 1 6 .
● It is an operation of producing a cylindrical hole in a Work
workpiece by the rotating cutting edge of a cutter known as
the drill.
● For this operation, the work is held in a suitable device, such
as chuck or face plate, as usual, and the drill isheld in the Drill
sleeve or barrel of the tailstock. The drill is fed by hand by
rotating the handwheel of the tailstock.
Fig.-16. Drilling.

6. Reaming : Refer to Fig.-17.

● Reaming is the operation which usually follows the earlier
operation of drilling and boring in case of thoseholes in
which a very high grade of surface finish and dimensional
accuracy is needed.
● The tool used is called the reamer, which has multiple
cutting edges. The reamer is held on the tailstock spindle,
either direct or through a drill chuck and is held stationary
while the work is revolved at very slow speed. The feed
varies from 0.5 to 2 mm per revolution. Fig.-17. Reaming.
● For reaming tapered holes, taper reamers are used.

7. Boring : Refer to Fig.-18.

● It is the operation of enlarging and turning a hole produced
by drilling, punching, casting or forging.
● In this operation, as shown in Fig. 9.19, a boring toolor a
bit mounted on a rigid bar is held in the tool post and fed
into the work by hand or power in the similar way as for
turning.
● Boring cannot originate a hole.
Fig.-18. Boring.
8. Undercutting/grooving : Refer to Fig.- 1 9 .
● It is the process of reducing the diameter of a workpiece
over a very narrow surface. It is often done at the end of a
thread or adjacent to a shoulder to leave a small margin.
● The work is revolved at half the speed of turning and a
grooving tool of required shape is fed straight into the work
by rotating the cross-slide screw.

9. Threading : Refer to Fig.-20. Fig.-19. Undercutting

● Threading is an operation of cutting helical grooves on
the external cylindrical surface of the workpiece.
● In this operation, as shown in Fig.-20, the work is held in
a chuck or between centres and the threading tool is fed
longitudinally to the revolving work. The lon-gitudinal
feed is equal in the pitch of the thread to be cut.

Fig.-20. Threading.
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10. Knurling : Refer to Fig.- 2 1 .

● It is an operation of embossing a diamond shaped pattern
on the surface of a workpiece.
● The purpose of knurling is to provide an effective gripping
surface on a workpiece to prevent it from slipping when
operated by hand.
● The operation is performed by a special knurling tool
which consists of 1 set of hardened steel rollers in a
holder with the teeth cut on their surface in a definite
pattern. The tool is held rigidly on the tool post and the Fig.-21. Knurling
rollers are pressed against the revolving workpiece to squeeze
the metal against the multiple cutting edges, producing depressions in a regular pattern on
the surface of the workpiece.
● The knurling is done at the slowest speed available in a lathe. Usually the speed is
reduced to 1/4th of that of turning, and plenty of oil is flowed on the tool and workpiece.
11. Forming : Refer to Fig.-22.
● It is an operation of turning a convex, concave or any irregular shape.
● Form-turning may be accomplished by the following methods : (i) Using a forming tool,
(ii) Combining cross and longitudinal feed, (iii) Tracing or copying a template.

Fig.-22. Forming.

Lathe Accessories

The devices employed for handling and supporting the work and the
tool on the lathe arecalled its accessories. The various accessories are
enumerated below:
1. Chucks
2. Face plate
3. Angle plate
4. Driving plate
5. Lathe carriers or dogs
6. Lathe centres
7. Lathe mandrels
8. Rests
9. Jigs and fixtures.
The figures of some accessories are given below:

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Fig.-23. Three jaw chuck. Fig.-24. Four jaw chuck.

Fig.-25. Face plate. Fig.-26. Drive plate.

Fig.-27 Lathe dog or carrier.

Fig.-28. Mandrel.

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Fig.-29. Rests.

1. Chucks :
● The chucks provide a very efficient and true device of holding work on the lathe during
the operation.
● Some of the commonly used chucks are :
(i) Three jaw universal chucks (Fig.-23)
(ii) Four jaw independent chuck (Fig.- 2 4 )
(iii) Combination chuck
(iv) Magnetic chuck
(v) Air or hydraulic chucks
(vi) Collet.
2. Face plate : Refer to Fig.- 2 5 .
● It is usually a circular cast iron disc, having a threaded hole at its centre so that it can
be screwed to the threaded nose of the spindle.
● It consists of a number of holes and slots by means of which the work can be secured toit.
A number of other things like bolts, nuts, washers, clamping plates and metallic packing
pieces, etc., are required for holding the work properly on a face plate.
3. Angle plate :
● It is used for holding work in conjunction with a face plate.
● When the size or shape of the work is such that it is not possible to mount the work
directly on the face plate the angle plate is secured to the face plate and the work mounted
on it.
4. Driving plate : Refer to Fig.- 2 6 .
● It is a cast circular disc having a projected boss at its rear. The boss carries internal
threads, so that it can be secrewed on to the spindle work. It also carries a hole to
accommodate a pin which engages with the tail of a lathe dog or carrier when the job is
held in the latter. When a bent tail dog is used, thin pin is taken out and bent portion of
the tail inserted in the hole which serves the same purpose, or else the bent tail can be
engaged in the slot made in the plate opposite to the pin hole :
5. Lathe carriers or dogs : Refer to Fig.- 2 7 .
● These are used in conjunction with the driving plate.
● The two common forms are straight tail and bent tail.
● The work to be held is inserted in the ‘V’ shaped hole of the carrier and
then finally secured in position by means of set screw.

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6. Lathe centres : Refer to Fig.-1.

● They act as solid bearings to support the work during the operation.
● Cast steel or high grade tool steel is the common material used for their manufacture.
They are then hardened and ground to correct angle. Sometimes, when very high speeds
are to be employed, tips made of some other materials like cemented carbide or high
speed steel are used which are fitted into usual types of shanks.
● The centre which is used in the headstock spindle revolves with it and it is known as live
centre, whereas one fitted in tailstock remains stationary and is called dead centre.
7. Lathe mandrels :
● A “mandrel” can be described as a solid steel shaft or spindle which is used for holding
bored parts for machining their outside surfaces on lathe. They are also known as arbors.
● Mandrels are usually employed for those jobs (relatively small) which have a finished
hole which is concentric with the outer surface that is to be machined.
● The common types of mandrels are : Solid or plain (Fig.-28) : collar, stepped, expanding
and double cone mandrels.

8. Rests :
● When a very long job is to be turned between centres on a lathe, due to its own weight it
provides a springing action and carries a lot of bending moment. The result is that the
turning tool is spoiled very soon and may even break sometimes. To avoid this, such jobs
are always supported on an attachment known as ‘steady rest or centre rest’ (Fig.-29a)
● Sometimes, when the job is too flexible, it becomes necessary to support the job very
close to the cutting edge of the tool throughout the operation. In such cases a ‘follower
rest’ (Fig.- 2 9 b), is used instead of the steady rest. It is attached to the saddle of the
lathe carriage and thus travels along with the tool throughout the operation.
9. Jigs and fixtures :
● Jigs and fixtures are used in conjunction with the face plate on a lathe for supporting
and holding odd shaped and eccentric jobs during the operation.
● This specific use is in the mass production of identical parts otherwise, if only a single
item is to be made, the cost of production of the jigs or fixtures itself will be too high,
preventing their use.

Cutting Speed, Feed and Depth of Cut

Refer to Fig-30.
1. Cutting speed :
The cutting speed (in a lathe for turning operation) is the peripheral speed of the
workpiece past the cutting tool.

where, V = Cutting/peripheral speed, m/min,

D = Diameter of the job, mm, and
N = Job or spindle speed, r.p.m

Fig.-30. Concept of cutting speed, feed

and depth of cut.

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● The main factors which influence the selection of a proper cutting speed are :
(i) Material of the cutting tool.
(ii) Hardness and machinability of the metal to be machined.
(iii) Quality of heat treatment, if it is a H.S.S. steel tool.
(iv) Whether machining is to be done with or without the use of a coolant.
(v) Rigidity of the tool and the work.
(vi) Tool shape.
(vii) Depth of cut.
(viii) Feed to be given to the tool.
(ix) Rigidity of the machine.

2. Feed (f) :
Feed may be defined as the distance that a tool advances into the work
during onerevolution of the headstock spindle.
● Feed is expressed in mm/revolution.

● The smaller the feed, the better the finish although a great deal depends
on the type oflathe tool used, and a well sharpened tool is necessary.
● Larger feeds reduce machining time, but the tool life is reduced.

● Feed f may calculate as follows

L
f=
N ´T

where, L = Length of cut, mm,

N = r.p.m, and
Tm = Machining/cutting time, min.

3. Depth of cut (d) :

The depth of cut ‘d’ is the perpendicular distance measured from the machined surface tothe
uncut (or previous cut) surface of the workpiece. For turning operations, the depth of cut is expressed
as :
Di - Df mm
d=
2
where, Di = Initial/original diameter of the workpiece, mm, and
Df = Final diameter of the workpiece, mm.

● For rough cutting, the depth of cut should be as large as possible,

consistent with the size or capacity of the centre lathe and the material
being turned.
The values of speed, feed and depth of cut, in general, depend upon the following factors :
— Type of workpiece material ;
— Type of tool material ;
— Type of surface finish required.

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Chapter-2 10010303(MP)

Thread cutting
Cutting screws is another important task carried out in lathes. Fig.- 3 1 shows internaland
external threads.

Fig.-31. Internal and external threads.

Thread cutting is the operation of producing a helical groove of specific shape ; say V or square
on a cylindrical surface.
Threads can be cut on a cylindrical surface by forming or machining process. Thread
production by forming operation is explained in chapter 10. Thread cutting by the machining process
is done using a lathe. Threads of any pitch, shape and size can be cut on a lathe.

Fig.-32 shows the set-up of a lathe for thread cutting.

Fig.-32. Lathe set-up for thread cutting operation.

— Thread cutting operation is done on a lathe using a single-point tool called thread cut-
ting tool.
— The workpiece is held between centres or in a chuck and the tool is held in tool post. For
producing threads of pitch p mm, the tool must travel a distance equal to p mm as the
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Chapter-2 10010303(MP)

workpiece makes one complete rotation.

— The definite relative rotary and linear motion between the workpiece and tool is achieved
by locking or engaging the carriage with the lead screw through a screw and nut mecha-
nism and fixing a gear ratio between the headstock spindle and lead screw. This is doneby
using change gear mechanism or gear box between the spindle and lead screw.
— To cut the threads, the tool is brought to the start of the workpiece and a small depth ofcut
is given to the tool using cross-slide. The carriage is engaged with the lead screw, thecut is
made on the entire surface and at the end of the workpiece, carriage is disengaged.The tool is
pulled out of the job and brought back to the starting position. The process isrepeated until
the full depth threads are obtained.
● To following relationship is used to determine the gears/wheels required to generate
threads of definite pitch :
Pitch of screw to be cut
Gearing ratio =
Pitch of lead screw
Lead of screw to be cut
=
Lead of lead screw threads
(This result holds good for multiple start threads also)
No. of teeth of driver
=
(stud gear) No. of teeth of
driven (lead screw gear)

or, simply = Driver

Driven

All the lathes are provided with a set of change gears, usually having 20 to 120 teeth, with
a variation of 5 teeth. In addition, a gear of 127 teeth is also provided which is known as
translating gear. It is used in cutting metric threads.
After the determination of above gearing ratio, the next step to follow is to multiply the
numerator and denominator of the fraction by the same number in order to find out the number
of teeth of the change gears. The following two types of gear trains are employed in cutting
threads :
1. Simple gear train 2. Compound gear train.

1. Simple gear train : Refer to Fig.-33.

● A simple gear train consists of a driving gear (mounted on the stud), a driven gear
(mounted on the lead screw) and one or two intermediate gears.

Fig.-33. Simple gear train.

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Chapter-2 10010303(MP)

● The intermediate gears are known as idle gears, have no effect on the speed ratio but are
used only to fill up the gap between the driver and driven gears, and to obtain a desired
direction of rotation of the lead screw.

2. Compound gear train : Refer to Fig.- 3 4 .

● A compound gear train consists of two studs instead of one. The second stud is suitably
mounted on the bracket or quadrant carrying the change gears. Evidently there are two
drivers and two driven gears.

Fig.-34. Compound gear train.

● The first driver ‘1’ is mounted on the first stud, which meshes with the first driver ‘2’ on
the second stud. The second driver ‘3’ is also mounted on the second stud and it meshes
with the second driven ‘4’ mounted on the lead screw.
Such a gear train is employed when the desired gear ratio is such that it is not possible to
arrange a simple gear train out of the given set of change gears.
Note. Try to use as small number of idle gears as possible.

Eccentric Turning
Although lathe does normal concentric turning, if some parts are required eccentric
they can be turned so, on the lathe, as discussed below :
● One of the methods used, is to have two centres on the job faces countersunk. The central
centre will turn out concentric turning. Eccentric centre will produce eccentric turning. The
distance of the centres must be half the eccentricity required for the job.
● Another method is if the part is to be turned cylindrical around an axis other than
central axis, the job can be turned centrally if it can be held in independent jaw chucks
so the part to be turned remains central.

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Chapter-2 10010303(MP)

TURRET AND CAPSTAN LATHES

Introduction
Although centre/engine lathe is very useful and versatile yet it is not suitable for batch and
mass production since the time taken for changing and setting the tools and time required for
making measurements on the workpiece is quite large. Moreover, a skilled machinist is required
to run to the centre lathe. Consequently. Turret, Capstan and Automatic lathes which reduce or
eliminate the amount of skilled labour and reduce production time were developed and are widely
used in producing the goods in large quantities.
Limitations of a Centre Lathe
The main limitations of a centre lathe are :
1. Only one tool can be used in the normal course (sometimes the
conventional tool post can be replaced by a square tool post with four
tools).
2. Large setting time of the job (in terms of holding the job)
3. The idle times involved in setting and movement of tools between the cuts is large.
4. If proper care is not taken by the operator, it is difficult to achieve
precise movement of the tools to destined places.
The above limitations are taken care of in the various modified lathes such as
turret and capstan lathes and semi-automatic and automatic machines by achieving
improvements basicallyin the following areas :
(i) Multiple tool availability.
(ii) Work holding methods.
(iii) Automatic feeding of the tools.
(iv) Automatic stopping of the tools at precise locations.
(v) Automatic control of the proper sequence of operations.

Differences Between a Turret Lathe and a Centre Lathe

The differences between a turret lathe and a centre lathe are given in Table.
Table 9.1. Differences between turret lathe and centre lathe.

S. No. Aspects Turret lathe Centre lathe

1. Nature of production Adapted to quantity Primarily used for
work production work ; classed as miscellane- ous jobbing,
a production machine tool. tool room or single
operation work.
2. Constructional Hexagonal turret (no It has a tailstock
difference (Turret tailstock), upon which are
head or tailstock) bolted various tool holders
for knee turning, roller box
turning, drilling, boring and
reces- sing.
3. No. of tools that can be Can hold a number of cutting One tool cuts at a time.
handled at a time tools at a time ; the tools can
operate on the job
simultaneously.

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Chapter-2 10010303(MP)

4. Set-up of tools Tools may be permanently No such provision is

set-up in the turret in the available in a centre lathe.
sequence in which they
need be used.
5. Provision of rigidity in the Extreme rigidity to permit No special provision
hold- ing of work and multiple and combined cuts. available.
tools
6. Machining time and Use of a turret lathe can Consumes more time
handling time. often cut machining time by com- paratively.
25 to 75% and handling time
by 25% to 50%.
7. Lead screw Thread cutting is generally Always provided on a
per- formed by tops and die centre lathe to enable
heads. Hence no lead screw is thread cutting by a single
provided for thread cutting. point tool.
8. Degree of automation Semi-automatic. Very normal.
9. Rate of production Higher. Lower.
10. Labour cost Lower, because after tools Higher, because of the re-
and ma- chine setting the quirement of highly
operations can be skilled workers.
performed by unskilled or
semi- skilled operators only.
11. Overhead charges Higher than the centre lathe Lower comparatively.
be- cause of higher initial
investment, more
consumption of power and
higher maintenance cost.
● Summarily, the turret and capstan lathes differ from a general purpose
centre lathe inthe following aspects :
1. The headstock has more and heavier range of speeds due to which
higher production rate is possible.
2. The tool post is indexable (four tools ; any one tool can be brought into
the cutting position).
3. The tailstock is replaced by a tool turret with six tool position.
4. Feed of each tool can be regulated by means of feed stops.
5. Two or more tools mounted on a single tool face can cut simultaneously.
6. These lathes are used for production operations involving better repeatability.
7. Semi-skilled operators are required.
Comparison of Turret lathe and Capstan Lathe
Turret lathe : Refer to Fig.- 35.
Turret lathe is a machine generally larger than a capstan lathe, but using similar tools.The
main difference between them is that the turret saddle has longitudinal movement on the guides of the
bed. This feature ensures a longer traverse than is available on a similar sized capstan lathe, where
the turret saddle is clamped to the bed and the turret slide moves in the saddle.
Turret lathes are available in wide range of sizes, the largest accommodating bars around
200 mm dia. through the spindle, so that very heavy work can be machined. In general, the
tooling equipment is arranged for either bar or clutch work, high production being obtainable by
use of multiple tooling on both the hexagon turret and square turret : Machines fitted with two
traversing saddles are known as combination turret lathe.

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Chapter-2 10010303(MP)

The main tools for bar work are roller steady-turning tool-holders on the main hexagon turret
and cutting-off tools on the square turret, these being supplemented by screwing drillingor forming
tools to suit the work in hand. For chuck work it is necessary to provide equipment to cover
comparatively large diameters.

Headstock
10
22
11
21
20
13
12
14
Rack
19 15

18

17 16
23
24

1. Chuck 2. Splash guard 3. Overarm support 4. Coolant pipe 5. Main driving clutch level
6. Lever for operating air chuck 7. Point for connecting air supply 8. Feed gear box 9. Knee
tool holder 10. Turret head 11. Turret clamp 12. Turret lock and release lever 13. Star
traversing wheel 14. Turret saddle 15. Feed engage lever 16. Engage lever for screw cutting
17. Stop bars 18. Chaser saddle 19. Handwheel for longitudinal feed 20. Carriage clamp 21.
Cross slide handwheel 22. Turret tool post 23. Coolant pump assembly 24. Adjustable
stops.
Fig.-35. Turret lathe.

● Features of turret lathe that make it a quantity production machine :

1. Rigidity in holding work and tools is built into the machine to permit
multiple and combined cuts.
2. Tools may be set-up in the turret in the proper sequence for the operation.
3. Each station is provided with a feed stop or feed trip so that each cut of a
tool is the same as its previous cut.
4. Multiple cuts can be taken from the same station at the same time, such as
two or moreturning and/or boring cuts.
5. Combined cuts can be made ; that is, tools on the cross slide can be
used at the same time that tools on the turret are cutting.
6. Turret lathes may be fitted with attachments for taper turning, thread
chasing, andduplicating, and can be tape controlled.

Capstan lathe : Refer to Fig.- 3 6 .

A capstan lathe is a lathe designed to use a number of cutting tools mounted in a rotating
turret or capstan and arranged to perform turning operations successively.
● This machine is similar both in appearance and operation to a turret lathe, but is used on
smaller work.
● The main difference between the two types of machines is that on a capstan lathe the turret
saddle is clamped to the bed, and the turret slide has a limited amount of movement in the
saddle, whereas the saddle on a turret lathe has movement on theslides of the bed. A
longitudinal power feed is provided in both cases as well as hand movement by a pilot
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Chapter-2 10010303(MP)

wheel. In addition, a separate saddle is fitted at the front and a cut-off rest at the back, so
that further operations can be performed either separately or simultaneously with the
tools in the turret.

16 2
14
1 12
5 10

13

15
11
8

9
3

7
4

1. Chuck 2. Overarm support 3. Gear box 4. Push button starter 5. Tool post
6. Handwheel for cross feed 7. Handwheel for longitudinal feed to the carriage
8. Carriage 9. Feed bar 10. Star handwheel for slide 11. Saddle 12. Lever for locking
the slide 13. Lever for free indexing of capstan head 14. Capstan head 15. Location for
stop bars or screws.
Fig.-36. Capstan lathe.

●To ensure accurate length of work being obtained, a set of six adjustable stops is fitted,
each one corresponding to a face of the turret and coming into the correct position as the
turret indexes trip the feed motion at any predetermined length.
● The tooling equipment varies not only on the type of work to be produced, but also on the
material to be machined.
The differences between a turret lathe and a capstan lathe are given in Table below.
Table- Differences between a turret lathe and a capstan lathe

S. No. Aspects Turret lathe Capstan lathe

1. Turret position Turret (head) is mounted Turret is mounted on an
directly on the saddle. auxiliary slide, which moves on the
guideways provided on the saddle.
2. Feeding of tools For feeding the tools entire The saddle is fixed at a conven-
saddle is moved. ient distance from the work and
the tools are fed by moving the
slide.
3. Extent of rigidity Very high rigidity because all the Because of the overhung of the
cutting forces are transferred to slide or ram, the tool support unit
the lathe bed. is subjected to bending and
deflection, resulting in

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Chapter-2 10010303(MP)

vibrations.

4. Capability to handle Can handle heavier jobs (as a Since this type of lathe cannot
jobs con- sequence of No. 3) involving withstand heavy cutting loads,
heavy cutting forces and severe therefore its use is confined to
cutting conditions. relatively lighter and smaller jobs
and precision work.
5. Maximum bar size Upto 200 mm diameter. Upto 60 mm diameter.
that can be handled
6. Tool travel Almost full length of the bed Limited tool travel (since the tool
(since the turret saddle directly feeding is done by the traverse of
rides over the bed way). the slide).
7. Rate of tool feeding Relatively slower and as such The tool traverse is faster and
provides more fatigue to the offers less fatigue to the opera-
operator’s hands. tor’s hands.
8. Type of carriage Reach-over type or side hung Usually equipped with the reach-
type. over type only since it is
employed for relatively smaller
jobs and therefore, does not
require a large swing over bed ;
moreover this type of carriage
provides better rigidity.
9. Other provisions ● Heavier designs are usually These lathes do not have such
provided with pneumatic or provisions.
hy- draulic chucks to ensure a
firmer grip over heavy jobs
● Provision for cross feeding of
the hexagonal turret (in some
designs) to enable cross feed-
ing of turret head tools.

Main Parts of a Turret or Capstan Lathe

Refer to Figs.-37 and 38. The main parts of a Turret or Capstan lathe are :
1. Headstock 4. Bed
2. Carriage or chaser saddle 5. Legs.
3. Turret saddle

Fig.-37. Main parts of Turret lathe (Top view)

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Chapter-2 10010303(MP)

Fig.-38. Main parts of a capstan lathe (Front view).

1. Headstock. The headstock of a turret and capstan lathes houses a speed gear box similar
in construction to the same unit as in a centre lathe but providing a narrower range of spindle
speed variation and fewer speed steps.
The following types of headstocks are commonly used :
(i) Cone pulley type
(ii) Direct motor driven headstock
(iii) All geared headstock
(iv) Preoptive type headstock.
● One of the chief characteristics of turret headstock is the provision for rapid stopping,
starting and speed changing in order that the maximum advantage is taken by the operator
of the most advantageous cutting speed for any job and at the same time to minimise the
loss of time in speed changing, stopping and starting.
2. Carriage or chaser saddle. It carries a cross-slide over it, on which are mounted two tool
posts, one at the front and the other at the rear. Both these tool posts are usually square tool posts in
which each is capable of holding four tools at a time. Tools in the rear tool post are mounted in an
inverted position.
Both hand and power feeds can be employed to the saddle as well as the cross-slide, but the
common practice is to use hand feed for the cross-slide until and unless a very heavy job is to be
machined. When power feeds are in operation, stops and trip dogs are used for controlling the
longitudinal and cross feeds of the saddle and cross-slide respectively. These stops and trip dogs
make the power feed to disengage as soon as the required tool travel is complete.

The cross-slide carriage is of following two types ;

(i) Reach over (or bridge) type : Its construction is more rigid and allows a second tool
holder to be mounted at the rear.
(ii) Side hung type : This type of carriage is generally fitted with heavy duty turret lathe
where the saddle rides on the top and bottom guideways on the front of the lathe bed.

3. Turret saddle. It is mounted directly on the lathe bed on the same side as a tailstock inthe
centre lathe.
The turret head mounted on the slide or the saddle, as the case may be, is usually hexagonalin
turret lathes and circular or hexagonal in capstan lathes, having six holes, one each on each flat
face or equifaced along the periphery of the circular head.

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Chapter-2 10010303(MP)

The indexing of the tools is in a clockwise direction. After indexing, the automatic feed can
be engaged.

4. Bed. The bed is a box shaped grey iron casting with a system of well developed internal
stiffening ribs. The turret saddle and cross-slide travel along the ways on the top of the bed.
5. Legs. In each lathe there are two legs, one below each end of the bed. These legs are
hollow castings which bear entire load of the bed, of the sliding and stationary parts mounted
over the bed and also of the tooling and workholding devices or mechanisms.
Types of Turret Lathes
Turret lathes may be classified as follows :
1. Horizontal turret lathe
(i) Ram type
(ii) Saddle type
2. Vertical turret lathes
3. Numerically-Controlled (NC) turret lathes.
1. Horizontal turret lathe. These lathes are made in two general designs and are knownas
ram and saddle.
(i) Ram-type turret lathe : Refer to Fig.- 3 9 .
— It is so named because of the way the turret is
mounted. The turret is placed on a slide or ram, which
moves back and forth on a saddle clamped to the lathe
bed. This arrangement permits quick movement of the
turret.
— Speeds may be from 50 to 4000 r.p.m. depend- ing on
the size of lathe. Larger lathes have lower speeds.
— Trip stops are there to stop the feeding motion of the
turret at any predetermined point.
— Ram type machines do not require the rigidityof
chucking machines, because bar tools can be made to
support the work.
Fig.-39. Ram type turret lathe.
● It is recommended for bar and light-duty chucking
work.

(ii) Saddle-type turret lathe : Refer to Fig.-40

— Here the turret is mounted directly on a saddle that
moves back and forth with the turret. Since Headstock
chucking tools overhang and are unconnected with
Workpiece
the work through some sort of support ; greater
strain on both work and tool support results. Cross slide
Chucking tools must have rigidity.
Turret
— The stroke is longer, which is an advantagein long
turning and boring cuts, and saddle mounts assist
the rigidity.
Saddle
— Speed may be from 20 to 1500 r.p.m. depend-ing
upon the size of the machine.
● It is used for chucking work.
Fig.-40. Saddle type turret lathe.

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Chapter-2 10010303(MP)

2. Vertical turret lathe. Vertical turret lathe

resembles vertical boring mill, but it has the characteristic
turret arrangement for holding the tools.
It consists of a rotating chuck or table in the horizontal
position with the turret mounted above on a cross rail. In
addition, there is at least one side head provided with a
square turret for holding tools.
All tools mounted on the turret or side head have their
respective stops set so that the length of cuts can be the
same in successive machining cycles.
A vertical lathe, shown in Fig.-41, is pro- vided with
two cutter heads : The swivelling main turret head and the
side head. Another side head is possible. The turret and side
heads function in the same manner as the hexagonal and Fig.-41. Vertical turret lathe.
square turrets on a horizontal lathe.
— To provide for angle cuts both the ram and turret heads may be swiveled 30° right or left
of centre.
— The side head has rapid traverse and feed independent of the turret and, without inter-
ference, provides for simultaneous machining adjacent to operations performed by the
turret.
— The ram provides another tool station on the machine, which can be operated separately
or in conjunction with the other two.
● Vertical lathes are utilised solely for complex chucking work, particularly for boring
operations, and are not adapted to bar work.

3. Numerically-controlled (NC) turret lathes. A numerically controlled lathe is de- signed

especially for heavy-duty production. Such lathes are now available in considerable vari- ety and
have proven to be for more productive than manually operated machines.
● The control in this type of lathe provides automatic functioning of spindle speed, slide
movement, feeds, turret indexing, and other auxiliary functions. The slant bed, inclined
rearward from the vertical, provides maximum rigidity and operator accessibility to the
work area
● This machine can be set up quickly for small-lot jobs, normally changing
only jaw chucks, control tape, and possibly one or two cutters.

Size and Specifications of Turret Lathe

The size of a turret lathe can be specified by :
1. Maximum diameter of the bar that can be passed through the machine spindle.
2. Swing diameter of the workpiece.
3. Spindle speeds.
4. Feeds.
5. Chuck size.
6. Capacity of the drive motor.
7. Cost etc.

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Chapter-2 10010303(MP)

Specifications

S.No. Item Turret lathe

Ram type Saddle type
1. Bar stock capacity 25–64 mm 60–230 mm
2. Chuck size 250–350 mm up to 900 mm
3. Swing over ways 550 mm upto 900 mm
4. Speed 50–4000 r.p.m. 20–1500 r.p.m.
5. Capacity of drive motor 11–18.6 kW 15–56 kW
(15–25 H.P.) (20–75 H.P.)

● Specifications of capastan lathe :

— Either, the total length of the bed, and height of the spindle centre above the bed.
Or
— The working length of bed, and the swing.
9.1.1. Common Tools and Attachments used on Turret and Capstan Lathes
Following tools are common to both the turret as well as capstan lathe :
1. Work stops or bar stops.
2. Centring and chamferring tools.
3. Drill and reamer holders.
4. Turning tools.
5. Tap and die holders.
6. Box tools.
7. Boring tools.
8. Reaming tools.
9. Knurling tools.
10. Centres and supports.
11. Attachments used on cross-slide.

● Following special attachments are mainly used on turret lathes :

1. Pilot bar
2. Multiple turning head
3. Cutter holders
4. Adjustable slide tool
5. Taper attachment
6. Screw cutting self-opening die head.

● Commonly used work holding devices are :

1. Collet chucks.
2. Jaw chucks.
(i) Three jaw self-centring chuck
(ii) Four jaw independent chuck
(iii) Two jaw box chuck
(iv) Power chucks.
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Chapter-2 10010303(MP)

3. Arbors.
4. Fixtures.

9.1.2. Turret Lathe Operations

Various operations performed on turret lathe are :
1. Cylindrical turning 7. Reaming
2. Taper turning 8. Threading
3. Form turning 9. Recessing
4. Facing 10. Chamferring
5. Boring 11. Knurling
6. Drilling 12. Parting off.
● Operations performed on a capstan lathe are similar to those carried out on a turret
lathe.
9.1.3. Turret Lathe Tooling Layout
The following factors should be considered while deciding turret lathe tooling layout.
1. Number of components to be made.
2. Set-up time.
3. Work handling time.
4. Machine controlling time.
5. Machining time.
6. Tool cost.
7. Set-up labour rate
8. Lathe operator labour rate.
● To illustrate the method of tooling and sequence of operations for a given job, a hexagonal
turret set up for making necessary internal cuts on a threaded adaptor is shown in
Fig.-42. This shows the details of the internal cuts required to machine the adaptor.

The sequence of operations for the hexagonal turret is as follows :

(i) The bar stock is advanced against the combination stock stop and start drill and clampedin
the collet. The start drill is then advanced in the combination tool, and the end of the work
is centred.
(ii) The hole through the solid stock is drilled to the required length.
(iii) The thread diameter is bored to correct size for the threads specified. A stub boring bar in a
slide tool is used
(iv) The drilled hole is reamed to size with the reamer supported in floating holder.

(v) A groove for thread clearance is recessed. For this preparation a quick-acting slide tool is
used with a recessing cutter mounted in a boring bar.
(vi) The thread is cut with a tap held in a clutch tap and die holder. This operation is followed
by a cutting off operation (not shown in Fig-42). Cut off uses the square turreton the
carriage.

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Chapter-2 10010303(MP)

Fig.-42. Hexagonal turret set up illustrating the sequence of operations

to handle required internal cuts on thread adaptor.

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