Sensors

Lecture 5
 Basic Sensors and Principles

2
Transducer, Sensor, and Actuator

Transducer: A device that converts energy from one

form to another. Transducer can act as a sensor or
actuator.
• Sensor:
converts a physical parameter to an electrical
output (a type of transducer, e.g. a microphone)
• Actuator:
converts an electrical signal to a physical output
(opposite of a sensor, e.g. a speaker)
 Transducer Systems

Control
Sensors Interface and
Actuators Circuits Processing
Circuits

Power I/O Channel

Supply /USER

4
 Classification of Transducers

Transducers

On The Basis of
Active/Passive Primary/Secondary Analogue/Digital
principle Used

Capacitive
Transducers may be classified
Inductive according to their application,
method of energy conversion,
Resistive nature of the output signal, and
Piezoelectric
so on.
5
 Type of Sensors

Temperature Sensors:
Thermistors, thermocouples

Displacement Sensors:
resistance, inductance, capacitance,
piezoelectric

Electromagnetic radiation Sensors:

Thermal and photon detectors
 Measurements Techniques
• Before we start….

Something about measurements techniques

 Measurement Techniques: Small fractional changes

• Many sensors vary their electrical characteristic by a small fraction

over the range over which they are used
– thermister - resistance varies by 4%/C
– Temperature varies by 1mA/K (i.e. 290-300 K = 3% change in
current)
Vs
Wheatstone bridge
R3 R1
VG
-
x1
+
-
R3 R1 +

R2
Rx Rx
R2
 Temperature Measurements
There are two main types: contact and
noncontact temperature sensors. Contact
sensors include thermocouples and thermistors
that touch the object they are to measure, and
noncontact sensors measure the thermal
radiation a heat source releases to determine its
temperature. The latter group measures
temperature from a distance and often are used
in hazardous environments.
 Sensor Types: Temperature
Measurement
• The human body temperature is a good indicator of the health
and physiological performance of different parts of the body.
• Temperature indicates:
– Shock by measuring the big-toe temperature
– Infection by measuring skin temperature
– Arthritis by measuring temperature at the joint
– Body temperature during surgery
– Infant body temperature inside incubators
• Temperature sensors type
– RTD (Resistor Temperature Detector )
– Thermocouples
– Thermistors
– Radiation and fiber-optic detectors (non-contact type)
10
 RTD Sensors
• What is an RTD ?
– Resistance Temperature Detector
– Operation depends on inherent characteristic of metal
(Platinum usually): electrical resistance to current flow
changes when a metal undergoes a change in temperature.
– If we can measure the resistance in the metal, we know
the temperature!
Platinum
resistance changes
with temperature

Thin-film sensing element

on ceramic substrate
Wire-wound sensing element

Two common types of RTD elements:

11
 RTD Sensors
Why is Platinum used ?
It is the most stable & near linear resistance versus
temperature function when compared to other metals
like Nickel & Balco

(Nickel-Iron Alloy)

12
Question
the resistance of the sensor at 0 °C
the resistance of the sensor at 100 °C

What does it mean Pt100,  = 0.00385?

Pt = Platinum

 0.00385 = 0 deg C the probe will read 100 ohms.

at 100 deg C, it will read 138.5 ohms.

Each resistance versus temperature relation for an RTD is qualified by a

term known as “alpha”. “Alpha” is the slope of the resistance between 0°C
and 100°C. This is also referred to as the temperature coefficient of
resistance, with the most common being 0.0038

What would be the resistance at 20C?

13
 RTD

1. They have very poor thermal sensitivity, that is a change in

temperature only produces a very small output change for
example, 1Ω/oC or even less.
2. The more common types of RTD’s are made from platinum and
are called Platinum Resistance Thermometer or PRT‘s with the
most commonly available of them all the Pt100 sensor, which has
a standard resistance value of 100Ω at 0oC. The downside is that
Platinum is expensive and one of the main disadvantages of this
type of device is its cost.
3. Because the RTD is a resistive device, we need to pass a current
through them and monitor the resulting voltage. However, any
variation in resistance due to self heat of the resistive wires as the
current flows through it, I2R , causes an error in the readings.
 RTD
– To avoid selfheating the RTD is usually connected into a
Whetstone Bridge network which has additional connecting
wires for lead-compensation and/or connection to a constant
current source. Two types of Whetstone Bridge networks are
follow:

– 2-wire: Lowest cost -- rarely used due to high error from lead
wire resistance
– 3-wire: Good balance of cost and performance. Good lead
wire compensation.

15
 RTD Circuits
• 2 wire;

Because the RTD is a resistive device, you

must drive a current through the device and
monitor the resulting voltage. However, any
resistance in the lead wires that connect
your measurement system to the RTD will
add error to your readings.

Es is the supply voltage; Eo is the output voltage; R1,

R2, and R3 are fixed resistors; and RT is the RTD. In
this uncompensated circuit, lead resistance L1 and L2
add directly to RT.
 RTD Circuits
• 3 wire; In 3 wire configuration you can
compensate for the lead
resistances. In this bridge configuration,
the effects of L1 and L3 cancel each
other out because they are located in
opposite arms of the bridge. Lead
resistance L2 does not add significant
error because little current flows
through it.

In this circuit there are three leads coming from the RTD
instead of two. L1 and L3 carry the measuring current while
L2 acts only as a potential lead. No current flows through it
while the bridge is in balance. Since L1 and L3 are in
separate arms of the bridge, resistance is canceled.
 RTD
Advantages Disadvantages

• Most stable over time • High cost

• Most accurate • Slowest response time
• Most repeatable • Low sensitivity to small
temperature measurement temperature changes
• Very resistant to • Sensitive to vibration (strains
contamination/ corrosion of the platinum element wire)
the RTD element • Decalibration if used beyond
sensor’s temperature ratings
• Somewhat fragile
 Thermocouples
A thermocouple is a device consisting of two dissimilar
conductors or semiconductors that contact each other at
one or more points. A thermocouple produces a voltage
when the temperature of one of the contact points differs
from the temperature of another, in a process known as
the thermoelectric effect.
 Thermocouples
• The conversion of temperature difference to electric
current and vice-versa is termed as thermoelectric
effect.
• When the two junctions of a thermocouple are
maintained at different temperatures, then a current
starts flowing through the loop known as thermo
electric current. The potential difference between the
junctions is called thermo electric emf.

• There are three major effects involved in a thermocouple

circuit: the Seebeck, Peltier, and Thomson effects.
21
 Seebeck Effect
The Seebeck effect describes the
voltage or electromotive force (EMF)
induced by the temperature difference
(gradient) along the wire due to
diffusion. The change in material EMF
with respect to a change in
temperature is called the Seebeck
coefficient .
V- Voltage difference between two dissimilar metals
a- Seebeck coefficient
Th - Tc - Temperature difference between hot and cold junctions
22
 Seebeck Effect

Seebeck observed that when two dissimilar metal wires are formed
into a closed loop and its two junctions are held at different
temperatures, it has the ability to deflect a galvanometer needle.
The operation of a thermocouple is based on the different Seebeck
coefficients of the dissimilar metals. If the two metals of the
thermocouple were alike, or had the same Seebeck coefficient, the
net emf produced at its measuring point would be zero.
 Peltier effect
The reverse of the Seebeck effect is also possible: by
passing a current through two junctions, you can create
a temperature difference. Peltier effect describes the
temperature difference generated by EMF and is the
reverse of Seebeck effect.

24
 Thomson Effect

Thomson effect is related to the emf that develops between

two parts of the single metal when they are at different
temperature.

Thus thomson effect is the absorption or evolution of heat

along a conductor when current passes through it when
one end of the conductor is hot and another is cold. The
heat is proportional to both the electric current and the
temperature gradient.

25
 Thermocouples
Advantages Disadvantages

 Simple, Rugged  Least stable, least repeatable

 High temperature operation  Low sensitivity to small
 Low cost temperature changes
 No resistance lead wire  Extension wire must be of
problems the same thermocouple type
 Point temperature sensing  Wire may pick up radiated
 Fastest response to electrical noise if not
temperature changes shielded
(=1ms)  Lowest accuracy

26
 Thermoelectric Sensitivity 
The three most common thermocouple materials used above for
general temperature measurement are Iron-Constantan (Type
J), Copper-Constantan (Type T), and Nickel-Chromium (Type K). The
output voltage from a thermocouple is very small, only a few
millivolts (mV) for a 10oC change in temperature difference and
because of this small voltage output some form of amplification is
generally required.

27
 Thermistors
• Thermistors are semiconductors made of ceramic materials
whose resistance decreases as temperature increases or vice a
versa.
• Advantages
– Small in size (0.5 mm in diameter)
– Large sensitivity to temperature changes (-3 to -5% /oC)
– Temperature differences in the same organ
– Excellent long-term stability characteristics (R=0.2% /year)
• Disadvantages
– Nonlinear
– Self heating
28
– Limited range
 Thermistors
THERMal resISTORS
Thermistors are made of semiconductor materials (metallic
compounds including oxides such as manganese, copper,
cobalt, and nickel, as well as single-crystal semiconductors
silicon and germanium).

Contrast <<--->> Common carbon resistors, made from carbon

powder mixed with a phenolic binder glue.

Leads, coated Glass encased Surface mount

 Thermistors
Assume a simple linear relationship between resistance and
temperature for the following discussion:

ΔR = k ΔT

where

ΔR = change in resistance
ΔT = change in temperature
k = first-order temperature coefficient of resistance
 Thermistors
Thermistors can be classified into two types depending on the
sign of k.

If k is positive, the resistance increases with increasing

temperature, and the device is called a positive temperature
coefficient (PTC) thermistor, Posistor.

If k is negative, the resistance decreases with increasing

temperature, and the device is called a negative temperature
coefficient (NTC) thermistor.
Thermistors

Thermistor-choice is based on
the nominal resistance you
want at the operating
temperature range, on the
size, and on the time constant.

Time constants are about 5 - 10

seconds.
Thermistors
 A little easier to read
Thermocouple RTD
3.50 135.00
3.00 130.00
2.50

Resistance (Ω)
Voltage (mV)

125.00
2.00
120.00
1.50
115.00
1.00
110.00
0.50

0.00 105.00

-0.50 100.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Temperature (∘C) Temperature (∘C)

Thermistor
120.00

100.00
Resistance (KΩ)

80.00

60.00

40.00

20.00

0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Temperature (∘C)
 Self heating of thermistor
[Link] voltage source is turned on, producing a current
through the series combination of resistors, Rt and Ra.
[Link] current flowing through the thermistor generates
some heat because thermistor dissipates electrical power.
[Link] heat causes a temperature rise in the thermistor.
[Link] temperature rise in the thermistor causes the
resistance of the thermistor to decrease (NTC).
[Link] decrease in resistance causes and increase in current
through the thermistor.
[Link] increased current through the
thermistor generates more heat.
7. The additional heat raises the
temperature even higher.
 Self heating of thermistor
That means that the temperature it measures is not the
surrounding temperature, but one that is higher. This
phenomenon is called self heating.

When using thermistor circuits, you want to minimize self-

heating. You do that by minimizing the current through the
thermistor. Given a choice, choose the situation where the
thermistor has the smallest amount of current flowing
through it.
 Circuit Connections of Thermistors
• Bridge Connection to measure voltage
R3
R1

V vb
va

R2
Rt

• Amplifier Connection to measure currents

37
 Thermistors Resistance
• Relationship between Resistance and Temperature at zero-power
resistance of thermistor.
1000

Rt  R0e[  (T0 T ) / TT0 ] 100

 = material constant for thermistor,
K (2500 to 5000 K) 10

Resistance ratio, R/R25º C

To = standard reference temperature, K
To = 293.15 K = 20C = 68F 1

1 dRt  0.1
  2 (% / K )
Rt dT T 0.01

 is a nonlinear function of temperature 0.001

(a) Typical thermistor zero-power resistance  50 0 50 100 150 200

Temperature, ° C
ratio-temperature characteristics for various materials. (a)
38
 Temperature Sensor Options
• Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
– Platinum, Nickel, Copper metals are typically used
– positive temperature coefficients
• Thermistors (“thermally sensitive resistor”)
– formed from semiconductor materials, not metals
• often composite of ceramic and metallic oxide (Mn, Co, Cu Fe)
– typically have negative temperature coefficients
• Thermocouples
– based on dissimilar metals at diff. temps
 Semiconductors Temperature Sensor
• Are small and result from the fact that
semiconductor diodes have voltage-current
characteristics that are temperature sensitive.
• Temperature measurement ranges that are
small compared to thermocouples and RTDs,
but can be quite accurate and inexpensive.
 Thermal Sensor Vendors
Minco
Pyrotek
Omega
Watlow
Texas Instrument
National Semiconductor
Maxim
 Determining Factors
 Low Power Extras
 Serial Interface  I2C Interface
 Small  Temperature Alarms
 Accurate
 Wide temperature
range
 Texas Instrument Specs
TMP 100/101
 I2C Interface
 -55º to 125ºC range
 ±1º accuracy (±3º max)
 ±0.0625ºC resolution
 2.7 to 5.5 operating voltage
 45 to 75 µA operating current,
0.1 to 1µA shutdown current
 40ms/320ms conversion
rate(9/12 bit)
 25/3 conversions per second
(9/12 bit)
 Online sample request
 6 pin SO23 package
 Needs 400kHz clock for I2C
Interface
 Maxim
MAX6625/MAX6626
 I2C Interface
 -55º to 125ºC range
 ±1º accuracy (±2º max)
 ±5/0.0625ºC
resolution(625/626)
 3.0 to 5.5 operating voltage
 250µA to 1mA operating
current, 1µA shutdown current
 133ms conversion rate
 Online sample request
 6 pin SO23 package
 National Semiconductor
LM75/LM76
 I2C Interface
 -55º to 125ºC range
 ±2/ ±1º accuracy
 9 bits/ 12 bits or ±0.0625ºC
resolution
 3/3.3 to 5.5 operating voltage
 0.25 to 0.5 µA operating current,
4/5µA shutdown current
 100ms/400ms conversion
rate(9/12 bit)
 Online sample request
 8 pin SOP package
 Needs 400kHz clock for I2C
Interface
 Temperature measurement:
An electronic medical thermometer

• Use thermistor to measure temperature in range 35-40 ºC.

• Thermistor changes its resistance on temperature change.
• The change in resistances measured and digitally displayed on
thermometer in terms of temperature.
An electronic medical thermometer:
Block Diagram
 An electronic medical thermometer
• parameters
255
– < 0.1 ºC sensitivity required 0.5

ADC output
– 8-bit ADC/ 12 bit is also in use 0.4

v0 vmax
0.3
– Typical Thermistor RS=10kW at 35 ºC 128
0.2
– Temperature coefficient (suppose )
0.1
• 4% per ºC
0
• At 40 ºC RS=10k x 1.045=12.166kW 35 36 37 38 39 40
temperature

– Approximately linear 35 ºC to 40 ºC
VS
– Voltage at 40 ºC: Vmax=0.549V
10 k Vref
12166 Vo
Vmax   0.549VS
12166  10000 ADC
Vmin  0.5 sensor RS
• Variation is 0.05/0.549=9%
– 9% of ADC dynamic range is used Rs
– 23 counts for 5 ºC Vo  VS
R1  RS
=0.22 ºC/count
 0.549 255


• Or in graphical format

ADC output
250

v0 vmax
– only levels 0-232 are unused:
– Levels 233-255 are in use 245
240
0.5 0.22 235
• For this application
35 36 37 38 39 40
– voltage across thermister is high
temperature
– ADC has high input impedance
– ADC is close to thermister
VS
• Thermister voltage can be 10 k
applied directly to ADC Vo
without amplification ADC
• But the poor use of the ADC sensor R
S
dynamic range means that
the required resolution (0.1
ºC ) is not achieved... Vo 
Rs
VS
R1  RS
• A solution is to subtract the bias voltage with a differential
amplifier.
• The voltage range is unchanged, but the voltage at the ADC
input at the minimum temperature of 35 ºC is now zero volts
• Using a differential amplifier with a gain of 10 with a Vref of 0.5V
is now 0.49V, making good use of the ADC dynamic range

VS
0.5VS
10k 10k  RS T  1 
Vo V’o Vref Vo' 
 10 4  V
+  10  R T  2  S
x10 ADC  S 
-
VS/2 Vmin  0
10k Vmax  0.49VS
RS
 Fiber-Optic Temperature Sensors
• Small and compatible with biological implantation.
• Nonmetallic sensor so it is suitable for temperature
measurements in a strong electromagnetic heating field.

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) semiconductor temperature probe.

The amount of power absorbed increases with temperature

61
 Displacement Measurements
• Used to measure directly and indirectly the
size, shape, and position of the organs.

• Displacement measurements can be made

using sensors designed to exhibit a resistive,
inductive, capacitive or piezoelectric change
as a function of changes in position.

62
 Displacement Measurements
• Examples
– diameter of part under stress (direct)
– movement of a microphone diaphragm to quantify liquid
movement through the heart (indirect)

• Primary Transducer Types (As previous slide)

– Resistive Sensors (Potentiometers & Strain Gages)
– Inductive Sensors
– Capacitive Sensors
– Piezoelectric Sensors

• Secondary Transducers
– Wheatstone Bridge
– Amplifiers
Displacement: Resistive sensors -
potentiometers
Measure linear and angular position
Resolution a function of the wire construction
Measure velocity and acceleration

2 to 500mm From 10o to more than 50o

 Strain Gauges
• Definition: resistive element that changes resistance
proportional to an applied mechanical strain
 Strain Gauges
 Compression = decrease in length by L and an
increase in cross sectional area.

L = length Rest Condition

L - L = length Compression
 Strain Gauges
 Tension = increase in length by L and a decrease
in cross section area.
L = length Rest Condition

L + L = length Tension
Resistance of a metallic bar is given in length
and area

 pL 
R   
A 
– where
• R = Resistance units = ohms (Ώ)
• ρ = resistivity constant unique to type of material
used in bar units = ohm meter (Ώm)
• L = length in meters (m)
• A = Cross sectional area in meters2 (m2 )
 Gauge Factor

Gauge Factor (GF) = a method of

comparing one transducer to a similar
transducer
 Gauge Factor

 R 
GF   R
 L 
 L
• where
– GF = Gauge Factor unitless
– ΔR = change in resistance ohms (Ώ)
– R = unstrained resistance ohms (Ώ)
– ΔL = change in length meters (m)
– L = unstrained length meters (m)
 Gauge Factor
 R 
GF   R
  
 
  L L
• Where ε strain which is unitless
• GF gives relative sensitivity of a strain gauge where the
greater the change in resistance per unit length the greater
the sensitivity of element and the greater the gauge factor.
 Example of Gauge Factor
• Have a 20 mm length of wire used as a string gauge and has
a resistance of 150 Ώ.
• When a force is applied in tension the resistance changes by
2Ώ and the length changes by 0.07 mm.
• Find the gauge factor:

 R   2W 
GF   R    150W   3.71
 L   0.07mm 
 L  20mm 
 Resistance of a metallic bar is given in length
and area
• Example: find the resistance of a copper bar that has
a cross sectional area of 0.5 mm2 and a length = 250
mm note the resistivity of copper is 1.7 x 10-8Ώm

   
 250mm  1m
 
 L   1000mm    0.0085W
R      1.7 *10 8 Wm 2 
 
A

 
 0.5mm 2  1m  

  1000 mm  
 Piezoresistivity
• Piezoresistivity = change in resistance for a given
change in size and shape denoted as h

 L  L 
• Resistance in tension = R  h   
 A  A 

• Resistance increases in tension

L = length; ΔL = change in L; ρ = resistivity
A = Area; ΔA = change in A
  L  L 
• Resistance in compression = R  h   
 A  A 

• Resistance decreases in compression

L = length; ΔL = change in L; ρ = resistivity
A = Area; ΔA = change in A
 Example of Piezoresistivity
• Note: Change in Resistance will be
approximately linear for small changes in L as
long as ΔL<<L.
• If a force is applied where the modulus of
elasticity is exceeded then the wire can
become permanently damaged and then it is
no longer a transducer.
 Example of Piezoresistivity

• Thin wire has a length of 30 mm and a

cross sectional area of 0.01 mm2 and a
resistance of 1.5Ώ.
• A force is applied to the wire that
increases the length by 10 mm and
decreases cross sectional area by 0.0027
mm2
• Find the change in resistance h.
–Note: ρ = resistivity = 5 x 10-7 Ώm
 Example of Piezoresistivity
 L  L 
R  h   
 A  A 
 
 (30  10)mm *
1 m 
7  1000 mm 
R  h  5 *10 Wm 2 
 (0.01  0.0027)mm 2 *  1m  
 
  1000 mm  
1.5W  h  2.74W
h  1.24W
 Application
1: By mounting is suitably on the walls of cardiac muscle,
the force of the contraction of the cardiac muscle can be
measured continuously.
2: To measure blood pressure in the heart, The strain
gauge is mounted on the tip of the catheter which is
inserted in the heart through a vein. In front of the strain
gauge there is diaphragm the deflection of which varies
with blood pressure. And in turn alters the strain gauge
resistance.
 Application: Biomechanics
Force Plates/Dynamometers
A force is a device that measures the ground
reaction forces (GRF) exerted by a subject
standing (or walking) on it. Force plates are
used for gait analysis, diagnosis of foot
impairment, studies of balance, sports
medicine, and design of medical shoes.
Force plates consist of a top plate which is
separated from the bottom frame by force
transducers at each corner. The forces exerted
on the top surface (of the plate) are
transmitted through the force tri‐axial
transducers (operating in transverse (Z),
antero‐posterior (X) and
vertical (Y) directions).
 Application: Weighing

In weighing/scaling machine there is a sensor which converts

force or weight into an electrical signal. This sensor is the load
cell which is classified as a force transducer. The strain gage is
the heart of a load cell.
 Application: Kidney Dialysis
A typical kidney dialysis system may depend on one or several load
cells to ensure that the filtration system has perfect balance and
timing. The dialysis system must remove contaminated blood, clean it,
and recirculate the clean, reoxygenated blood. Load cells used for this
type of system are typically in-line, small, and work by monitoring flow
changes by sensing the weight of a hanging bag to ensure the dialysis
procedure is performed safely every time.
The load cell is attached to the end of a hanging bag. The bag is
connected to the dialysis machine via two flexible tubes. One tube is
used for the flow inlet and the other is for discharge. Each load cell is
connected to a programmable logic controller or computer to monitor
the flow by weight measurement. Using the load cell information, the
system automatically processes and controls the dialysis procedure
while collecting data for further analysis when needed.
 Application: Rehabilitation
A load cell attached to a gripping or tension device can indicate exact
changes in an affected muscle and how much progress is being made
after each therapy session. This allows the therapist to customize the
types of therapy to the needs of the patient. These load cells
vary in size from 1 to 4 in. diameter, with measurement ranges of 50–
1000 lb. There are many system configurations designed for this
purpose, but all have two things in common: the patient exerts force
against some object that is connected to the load cell, and the load cell
sends the resulting measurement to a readout device or computer.
The computer then converts the signal from analog to digital to
produce an accurate, real-time display.
Types of Strain Gauges: Unbonded and
Bonded

• Unbonded Strain Gauge : resistance element

is a thin wire of special alloy stretch taut
between two flexible supports which is
mounted on flexible diaphram or drum head.
 Types of Strain Gauges: Unbonded and
Bonded
• When a Force F1 is applied to diaphram
it will flex in a manner that spreads
support apart causing an increase in
tension and resistance that is
proportional to the force applied.
• When a Force F2 is applied to diaphram
the support ends will more close and
then decrease the tension in taut wire
(compression force) and decrease
resistance will decrease in amount
proportional to applied force
Types of Strain Gauges: Unbonded and
Bonded
• Bonded Strain Gauge: made by cementing a thin
wire or foil to a diaphragm therefore flexing
diaphragm deforms the element causing changes
in electrical resistance in same manner as
unbonded strain gauge
 Types of Strain Gauges: Unbonded and
Bonded
• When a Force F1 is applied to
diaphram it will flex in a manner
that causes an increase in
tension of wire then the increase
in resistance is proportional to
the force applied.
• When a Force F2 is applied to
diaphram that cause a decrease
the tension in taut wire
(compression force) then the
decrease in resistance will
decrease in amount proportional
to applied force
Comparison: Unbonded and Bonded

1. Unbonded strain gauge can be built

where its linear over a wide range of
applied force but they are delicate
2. Bonded strain gauge are linear over a
smaller range but are more rugged
– Bonded strain gauges are typically used
because designers prefer ruggedness.
 Typical Configurations
A
R1 = SG1 R3 = SG3

ES + Vo
C D
-

R4 = SG4
R2 = SG2 B

Electrical Circuit Mechanical Configuration

 4 strain gauges (SG) in Wheatstone Bridge:

 Strain Gauge Example
• Using the configuration in the previous slide where 4
strain gauges are placed in a wheatstone bridge
where the bridge is balanced when no force is
applied,
• Assume a force is applied so that R1 and R4 are in
tension and R2 and R3 are in compression.
+ • Derive the equation to depict the change in voltage
across the bridge and find the output voltage when
each resistor is 200 Ώ, the change of resistance is 10
Ώ and the source voltage is 10 V
 Strain Gauge Example

Circuit Derivation:
A  R 2   R 4 
Eo  Es   
R1 = R +h R3= R-h  R1  R 2   R 3  R 4 

Es 
Eo  Es 
 R  h  
  
 R  h 

C 
Eo   R  h   R  h    R  h   R  h  
+
D
-
 R  h  R  h     2h  h
Eo  Es    Es   Es
 2R 2 R   2R 
  R
R2 = R - h R4 = R +h
B  10W 
Eo  10V    0.5V
 200W 
Piezoelectric Sensors
When a pressure is applied to a polarized crystal, the resulting
mechanical deformation and displacement of charges results in an
electrical charge.

They are sensitive to more than one physical dimension. Therefore, it

sometimes becomes necessary to compensate for unwanted Effects.
For instance, sophisticated pressure sensors often use acceleration
compensation elements. Those compensations are based on the
fact that the measuring elements may experience both, pressure and
acceleration events. A second measuring unit is added to the sensor
assembly that only experiences acceleration events. By carefully
matching those elements, the acceleration signal
Is subtracted from the combined signal of pressure
and acceleration to derive the true pressure information
93
General Applications

• External (body surface) and internal (intracardiac)

phonocardiography
• Detection of Korotkoff sounds in blood-pressure
measurements
• Measurements of physiological accelerations
• Provide an estimate of energy expenditure by
measuring acceleration due to human movement.

94
 As mentioned previously, an external force cause a deformation of
the crystal results in a charge which is a function of the applied force.
In its operating region, a greater force will result in more surface
charge. This charge results in a voltage Vo , where q is the charge
resulting from a force f, and C is the capacitance of the device.
q  kf
Vo k  piezoelectric constant, C/N
(typically pC/N, a material property)

k for Quartz = 2.3 pC/N

k for barium titanate = 140 pC/N

To find Vo, assume system acts like a capacitor (with infinite leak resistance):
Capacitor:
q kf kfx
Vo    C   0 r
A
95 C C  0 r A x
Models of Piezoelectric Sensors

Piezoelectric polymeric films, such as polyvinylidence fluoride (PVDF). Used for uneven
surface
96
and for microphone and loudspeakers.
Transfer Function of Piezoelectric Sensors
View piezoelectric crystal as a charge generator:

q  Kx
K  proportionality constant
x  deflection

Rs: sensor leakage resistance

Cs: sensor capacitance
Cc: cable capacitance
Ca: amplifier input capacitance
Ra: amplifier input resistance
Ra

97
Transfer Function of Piezoelectric Sensors
Convert charge generator to current generator:

q  Kx
dq dx
is  K
dt dt
is  ic  iR
ic  is i R
 dVo  dx Vo
C K  Ra

 dt  dt R

Vo  j  K s j

X  j  j  1
Ra

Ks = K/C, sensitivity, V/m

 = RC, time constant
98
Limitation
is  ic  iR
ic  is i R
 dVo  dx Vo
C K 
 dt  dt R

Consider the equation, it indicates that the steady

state response to a constant deflection is zero. It
means static displacement cant be measured by
piezoelectric material. This can be visualized by
considering step displacement function (next slide)
Voltage-output response of a piezoelectric sensor to a
step displacement x.
Decay due to the finite
internal resistance of the
PZT

When a force is applied to the sensor at t =0, the sensor output (Kx/C)start decaying
with time, due to limited internal resistance. When force is released the restoration
occurs equally and opposite direction. This cause a sudden drop in charge and
undershoot occur. The decay and undershoot can be minimized by increasing the
time constant  =RC.
100
 Piezo Electric Pulse Transducer

Piezo-electric element convert force applied to the active

surface of the transducer from the finger blood pressure
pulse, into an electrical signal.

Detects expansion and

contraction of the finger
circumference, due to
Typical output is 50–200 mV but can
changes in blood pressure reach as high as 500 mV
 Piezo Electric Pulse Transducer

Finger pulse transducer is a very sensitive instrument.

Even slight movements by the volunteer can result in
noisy recordings.
The subjects should keep their hand as still as possible
between stimuli.