FORENSIC 5: PHOTOGRAPHY

ACTIVITY:
Read the following and prepare for a long quiz next meeting.

What is photography in criminology?

The purpose of crime scene photography is to provide a true and accurate record of the crime scene and
physical evidence present by recording the original scene and related areas.

PHOTOGRAPHY
- Derived from the 2 Greek words
”Phos” which means “light”
“Graphia”whichmeans“write”
The other forgraphy is “grapho” or “graphein” which means“draw”
- Sir John F.W. Hershel in 1839 first used the term photography

- It is an art or science which deals with the reproductive of images through the action of light, upon sensitized
materials, with the aid of a camera and its accessories, and the chemical process.
- It is an excellent aid in the investigation because the investigator could not rely on his memories and therefore
need an artificial recorder for him to remember aside from his notes (because there are things which require
accurate descriptions of subject or object being investigated.)

CAMERA
- It is a medium (device)that is used to record an image of an object on light sensitive surface.
- A light-tight box with an aperture to admit light focused onto a sensitized film or plate.

POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY
- An art or science which deals with the study of the principles of photography, in the preparation of
photographic evidence, and its application to police work.
- Study of the general practices, methods, and steps in taking pictures of the crime scene, physical things that can
be used for law enforcement purposes.

FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY
- It is the art of science of photographically documenting a crime scene and evidence for laboratory examination
and analysis for purposes of court trial.
- Application of photography in criminal jurisprudence and criminal investigation.
- It is considered as the most significant for it can be applied in all allied branches of it, such as:
 Dactyloscopy / fingerprint
 Questioned document examination
 Forensic ballistics
 Polygraphy (lie detection)

Black and White Photography – “monochrome” or black and white

Forensic Science
- is also known as Criminalistics – it is a tool/
instruments with the application of scientific
knowledge.

Visible Light
- It is defined as having a wavelength in the range of
400 – 700 nanometer (nm), or 4.00 x 10’7 to 7.00 x
10’7 m, between the infrared (with longer
wavelengths) and the ultraviolet (with shorter
wavelengths).

Four Main Ingredients or Elements in Photography

(Basic Components of Photography)
1. Light (natural and artificial light)
2. Sensitized materials (film and photographic paper)
3. Mechanical/ Equipment (camera with its accessories and enlarger machine or contact printer)
4. Chemicals (developer, stop bath (acetic acid), and fixer)
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PHOTOGRAPH
- It is the mechanical and chemical result of photography, “to produce a photography, light is needed aside
from sensitized material”.
What is a photograph log?
Every photograph that is taken at the crime scene must be recorded in a photo log. The log should include
the time taken, camera settings used, an indication of distance to subject, the type of photograph taken, and a brief
description of the image.

LIGHT
- It is one of a number known forms of radiant electromagnetic energy which travels in wave motion.
- This form of energy travels at speed of about 186, 000 miles per second in air, but they differ in wavelength
and frequency.
- This word also refers to visible light, which is visible to the human eye and is responsible for the sense of sight.

WAVELENGTH
- It is the distance from the crest (highest point) to the wave to the next succeeding crest.

FREQUENCY
- It is the number of waves passing in a given point in one second.

 The product of the two (wavelength and frequency) is the speed of travel.
 Speed of the various radiant energy is constant at a given medium (air, water) but varies with other media.

Example: the speed of light in ordinary glass is only about 2/3 of its speed in air.
 Wavelength may change – could be determined with accuracy
 Frequency remain constant – much more difficult to measure.

To identify a particular radiation is through its wavelength.

WAVELENGTH
- Is measured by the angstrom unit or in terms of millimicrons (English system of measurement) or nanometer
(metric system) which is equivalent to one over one millionth of a millimeter.

Different Energies in the Electromagnetic Spectrum:

1. Cosmic Rays –a form of high-energy radiation that originate from outside our solar
system.
2. Gamma Rays – is the shortest wavelengths, but highest frequency and energy
3. X-rays
4. Ultra-violet rays
5. Hertzian Waves (known today as radio waves) – radio waves have the longest wavelengths, but shortest in
terms of frequency and energy in all electromagnetic waves
6. Alternating current oscillations(oscillating magnetic field; the other is an oscillating electric field)

TYPES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION

Energies That Are Capable of Being Recorded on
Sensitized Materials.
1. X-rays Referred to as
2. Ultra-violet rays the 4
3. Visible light Photographic
4. Infrared Light rays of modern
photography.
Wavelengths:
 X-rays – 01 – 30 nanometers
 Ultra-violet rays – 30 – 400 nm
 Visible light (white light) – 400 – 700 nm
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 Infrared rays – 700 to 1,000 +nm(its wavelength extends beyond 200 nm but the longest wavelength that the
present sensitized materials (film) could record is only up to this limit.)

Note: The shorter and the longer wavelength are commonly referred asVISIBLE RADIATION.

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Electromagnetic radiation
- is one of the many ways that energy travels through space. The heat from a burning fire, the light from the sun,
the X-rays used by your doctor, as well as the energy used to cook food in a microwave are all forms of
electromagnetic radiation.

Electromagnetic Wave
- Electromagnetic waves or EM waves are waves that are
created as a result of vibrations between an electric
field and a magnetic field.
- It can be classified and arranged according to their
various wavelengths/frequencies;
- Electromagnetic waves are similar, but they are also
distinct in that they actually consist of 2 waves
oscillating perpendicular to one another. One of the
waves is an oscillating magnetic field; the other is an
oscillating electric field.
- This can be visualized as follows:See the image

Electromagnetic Spectrumis the range of all types of

electromagnetic radiation.
- It is composed of the following:
1. Radio waves – longest wavelength and
shortest frequency and energy
2. Microwaves
3. Infrared
4. Visible light
5. Ultraviolet
6. X-rays
7. Gamma rays - are high frequency (or shortest
wavelength) electromagnetic radiation and
carry a lot of energy. Only something hard, like a lead block or a thick concrete block, can stop their
transmission.(it is usually used for in a radiation therapy or radiotherapy)
Uses of Gamma Rays:
o Sterilize medical equipment
o Sterilize food (irradiated food)
o Used as tracers in medicine
o Radio Therapy- In oncology, to kill cancerous cells in medical treatment and diagnosis
o Gamma-Ray Astronomy, Cosmology (scientific observation)

Visible Lights has its own properties

 Reflection  Diffraction
 Refraction  Interference
 Dispersion  Scattering
 Total internal reflection

 Bending of Light – When travelling in an open space, light travels in straight line. If the light comes in contact
with an open object, it may be bended in the following manner.

Reflection of Light – is the deflation or bouncing back of light when it hits a surface.
Transmission of Light - transmission of light occurs when light hits an object that is transparent or translucent
and light can penetrate the material to travel all the way through. (If this happens, it can be scattered or
refracted.)
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Refraction of Light –is the bending of a wave when it passes from one medium to another. The bending is caused
due to the differences in density between the two substances.

See the images below for better understanding:

Types of Reflection
a. Regular or specular reflection – this happens when
light hits a flat, smooth and shiny surface.
b. Irregular or diffused reflection – occurs when light
hits a rough or uneven but glossy object.

1. In refraction – the bending of light when passing from

one medium to another.
2. In Diffraction – the bending of light when it hits a
sharp edge of an opaque (not transparent or
translucent) or through a slit of an object.
(both the behaviors of refraction and diffraction can
result in the separation of white light.)

ABSORPTION
Some objects, such as darker colored objects, absorb more
incident light energy than others.
For example:
black pavement absorbs most visible and UV energy
and reflects very little, while a light-colored concrete sidewalk
reflects more energy than it absorbs.
Note: the black pavement is hotter than the sidewalk
on a hot summer day.

Kinds of Object as to how they behave to light.

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1. Transparent objects – allow sufficient visible light to pass through them that the object on the other side
may be clearly seen.
2. Translucent objects – allows light to pass, however diffuse it sufficiently that objects on the other side may
not be clearly distinguished. In some cases, the objects on the other side may be recognizable but sharp
detail and outline is obscured.
3. Opaque objects – so greatly diffuse the light that recognizing the object on the other side is very difficult if
not possible.

Dispersion of Light - When white lightpassed through a glass prism it

splits into its spectrum of colors (in order violet, indigo, blue, green,
yellow, orange and red) and this process of white light splitting into
its constituent colors is termed as dispersion.

Total Internal Reflection.–The phenomenon which occurs when the

light rays travel from a more optically denser medium to a less optically denser medium.

Scattering of Light–it happens when light moves from one medium to another, such as
air or a glass of water, a portion of the light is absorbed by the medium’s particles,
followed by subsequent radiation in a specific direction.
- Scattering of light occur when light rays deviate from their straight paths. Particles
and molecules suspended in a medium absorb and re-emit light in various
directions. Blue skies, for example, is an application of scattering of light. Shorter
wavelengths (blue and violet) are scattered more by the particles suspended in the
atmosphere, allowing these wavelengths/color to reach human eyes.

VISIBLE SPECTRUM

Light energyhas several effects on an object. It is eitherreflected, absorbed, transmitted or converted.

 The varying combinations of this reflectance and absorption are what give us the wide variety of colors which
we are able to perceive, at times, other light isneither reflected nor absorbedbut it istransmitted through
the object.
 This transmitted light passing through the object and allows a viewer on the other side of the object to
perceive these light waves.

How Do We See Color?

AN INTRODUCTION TO COLOR AND THE HUMAN EYE.

The human eye and brain together translate light into

color. Light receptors within the eye transmit messages to the
brain, which produces the familiar sensations of color.
(Receptors within the eye refers to the following: the
sensory cells that respond to light stimuli and transmit
signals via the nerves to the brain.)
Newton observed that color is not inherent in
objects. Rather, the surface of an object reflects some colors
and absorbs all the others. We perceive only the reflected colors.

Example:
Thus, red is not "in" an apple. Thesurface of the apple is reflecting the wavelengths we see as red and
absorbing all the rest. An object appears white when it reflects all wavelengths and black when it absorbs them all.
Why do objects reflect different colors?
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In every object is made up of different materials, including the atoms and electrons. The makeup of an object
causes it to do different things when light hits it, such as reflecting or absorbing wavelengths that we perceive as
colors. When wavelengths reflect off an object, that's what causes it to appear as a specific color.

White Light
- If a narrow beam of light is allowed to pass through a prism it will
bend the light of shorter wavelength more than those with longer
wavelength thus spreading them out into visible spectrum.
- The prism breaks its white light in its different wavelength
producing the colors of the rainbow (ROYGBIV). – Red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet
- (diamond)
- Prism – refers to a transparent optical element with flat, polished surfaces that refract light.

Additive Primary Color of the color spectrum

 Red
 Green
 Blue
- If we combine the color ofblueand redit will give us a result of a colormagenta
- If we combine the color of red and greenit will give us a result of ayellowcolor
- If we combine the color of green and blue it will give us a result of cyan color

Note:
 Primary colors are – the blue, red and green  Black is the absence of all colors or the absence of
 Secondary colors are – the cyan, yellow and light.
magenta  White is present if the primary colors are
combined.
Subtractive Color Mixture
 Cyan
 Magenta
 Yellow
- If we use thecyan filter, it will transmitblue and green light but absorbs red from white light.
- If we use the yellow filter, it will transmitgreen and red light but absorbs blue from white light.
- If we use the magenta filter, it will transmitred and blue light but absorbs green from white light.
If all three beams of light at the center are merged together it will produce black.

Note:
Cyan is the complementary of red
Yellow is the complementary of blue
Magenta is the complementary of green

o Complementary colors are

simply colors that are directly
opposite each other on the color
wheel. Rather than complimenting
each other (as people often think),
they cancel each other out; a
mixture of them would produce a
greyscale color.

Difference of Black and White and Color Photography

- Black and white photography cannot render the real colors of the object because only 2 colors will appear.
- Color photography can record the same likeness as seen in the actual object that regards to the colors. (blood
stain in clothes)

Difference of Digital and Chemical Photography

- Chemical Photography resist photo manipulation because it involves film and photographic paper,
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- Digital imaging is a highly manipulative medium. This difference allows for a degree of image post processing
that is comparatively difficult in film-based photography and permits different communicative potentials and
applications.

Difference of Picture and Photograph

- PICTURE refers to all kinds of form of images. It can be a product of photography or not.
- PHOTOGRAPH is the only product of photography it’s either conventional or digital.
- PHOTOGRAPH – can be a picture and also a picture.
- But not all PICTURE is a photograph.
Example: Sketch or drawing is merely an example of picture however they are not a photograph by itself.

DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY is a process that uses an electronic device called a digital camera to capture an image .
Instead of film, it uses an electronic digital sensor to translate light into electrical signals.

- Photographers primarily use films with either a plastic (polyester) or paper base.
- Plastic-based films are commonly called “FILMS” Paper-based films are called “PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS.”

A positive image is a normal image.

A negative image is a total inversion, in which light areas appear dark and vice versa.

OPTICS
Optics is the study of light. It is concerned with the nature of light and the way it behaves in optical
instruments.Light is a form of energy and so an object may only produce light when there is energy present. A red-
hot piece of metal receives energy in the form of heat and converts some of it into red light.

SOURCES OF LIGHT:
1. Natural
 Coming from nature like the sun, moon, stars, other heavenly bodies, lightning, etc….
 The intensity of the sunlight falling on open space varies depending on the weather condition, time of the
day, or even time of the year.
 For more accurate exposure at daylight, only one characteristic is considered – the kind of shadow casted by
an object in open space.
 The light that comes from the sun is known as white light.
 Sun (the energy that comes from here is released as light and heat.)
 Some animals can produce their own light, this is known as bioluminescence.
 Sunlight
- The light and energy that comes from the sun. When the energy reaches the earth’s surface, it is called
insolation.

 Daylight maybe classified according to its intensity.

a. Bright sunlight
- In bright sunlight, two sources when the sun is shining bright:a- direct b- reflected: the
subject will produce a strong shadow, because the source of light in not covered and the
objects or subjects appear glossy in open space due to direct sunlight and reflected light
coming from the sky which act as a reflector.
- it is a sun lighting condition where objects in an open spacecast a deep and uniform or distinct shadow.

b. Hazy sunlight
- In Hazy sunlight, the sun is covered by thin cloud and the shadow appears bluish because
of the decrease of light falling on the subject in open space. The shadow cast is
transparent to the eye and more details are visible under this lighting condition than a
bright sunlight.
- this sun lighting condition the objects in open space cast a transparent shadow.
c. Dull sunlight.
- In dull sunlight, the sun is totally covered by thick clouds. No shadow is cast to the
uniform illumination of lights all around the subjects in open space.
- When direct sunlight is completely obscured by heavy clouds- no direct sunlight
reaches the objects in one open space. Objects at far distance appear bluish or
completely dark.
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- it is a lighting condition of the sun that no more shadow to be cast by an object in open space.
a. Cloudy bright – objects in open space cast no shadow but objects at far distance are clearly
visible.
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b. Cloudy dull – objects in open space cast no shadow and visibility of distant objects are already
limited.

 These classifications are modified by the film manufacturers like

a. Open bright sunlight d. Cloudy bright sunlight
b. Under shade bright sunlight e. Cloudy dull sunlight.
c. Hazy sunlight

2. ARTIFICIAL LIGHT
 the earlies form of lighting was with fire such as burning wood, candles, gas or oil. Now the most convenient
source of artificial light is the electrical light.
 Almost all artificial light sources can be used in photographing of objects, as long as the light is capable of
exposing the sensitized materials (film). Artificial light can be divided into continuous and short duration
radiation.

a. CONTINUOUS RADIATION – are those that can give illumination continuously.

Ex. Fluorescent lamp, incandescent lamps, carbon arc lam, photoflood lamp, gas lamp, etc.

b. SHORT DURATION (FLASH UNIT) – this allows the photographer to control the direction, quality and
intensity of light to achieve the desired result.
A flash unit gives brief flash light produced by a:
 burning metallic wire (flash bulb) – no longer available in the market
 electrical discharge through a gas-filled tube (electronic flash) – remains very popular until today
- this offers a great light output in a compact, lightweight and economical form.

FORENSIC LIGHT SOURCES

1. Ultraviolet lamp – is used in forensic work come in variety of shape, sizes, and power. Some units are
portable battery operated and easily carried and can meet the rugged and rigorous demand for field work.
Ultraviolet Radiation is broken down into:
a. Long Wave U.V – is used in wide variety of applications in medical and forensics.
b. Medium Wave U.V – often used in chemical analysis and curing and hardening of different items for
industrial applications.
c. Short Wave U.V – is used for variety purpose such as to sterilize air and place of work.
(It is an effective germicide, destroying many biological contaminants.)

2. LASER – Light Amplication and Stimulation in the Emission of Radiation

- This was significant in locating dried biological stains such as semen, urine and saliva, as well as
stains that had been washed. (They would fluoresce or could be made to stand out in sharp
contrast from their background.) – LASER is expensive and is known as coherent light.

3. Alternative Light Source (ALS)

- It is an inexpensive alternative to forensic LASER.
- It uses a variety of band pass filters to provide high
intensity beam of non-coherent light.
(these multiple band filters allows the operator to
match the LASER frequency available at the crime
scene.)

Alternative light sources are typically used in crime scene investigation and post mortem
examinations to identify many forms of evidence . Utilizing ultraviolet light, investigators can identify
physiological fluids like semen, urine, and saliva through the fluids' natural fluorescent properties.
4. Forensic Light Sources (FLS)
- Is a term being applied to a wide variety of relatively inexpensive light sources which use filtered
white light.
A forensic light source is created using a lamp containing filters for ultra-violet, visible, and infrared
light. The desired wavelengths are then utilized to enhance the visualization of evidence using fluorescence,
absorption, and oblique lighting.

 Fluorescence
- theability of certain chemicals to give off visible light after absorbing radiation which is not
normally visible, such as ultraviolet light.
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 The absorption of light
- makes an object dark or opaque to the wavelengths or colors of the incoming wave:
- Wood is opaque to visible light.
- Some materials are opaque to some wavelengths of light, but transparent to others.
Glass and water are opaque to ultraviolet light, but transparent to visible light.
(Opaque means that the object blocks light so that light cannot travel through the object.)
 Oblique lighting
- uses a light source positioned at a low angle. Oblique lighting is usually used to show detail by
creating shadows on the surface of the evidence. Oblique lighting is commonly used when
photographing impressions, tool marks and certain types of fingerprints.

SENSITIZED MATERIALS
 refers to the film and photographic paper that is basically composed of emulsion containing silver halides
suspended in a gelatin and coated on a transparent or reflective support.

FILM
- a PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM is a strip or sheet of transparent plastic film base coated on one side with
a gelatin emulsion containing microscopically small light sensitive silver halide crystals.

BLACK AND WHITE FILM

- modern black and white films, called panchromatic films, record the entire visible spectrum.
- Some films are orthochromatic,recording visible light wavelengths shorter than 590 nanometers ,
in the blue to green spectrum and are less sensitive to the longer wavelength range of the visible
spectrum.
 The black and white film negative is the actually the inverse of the actual image. (All the areas

Parts of Black and White Film

1. Emulsion – is a light sensitivecolloid used in film-based photography.
- The emulsion is the active component in which the image is formed and consists of many small
silver halide crystals suspended in gelatin. The gelatin supports, separates, and protects the
crystals. The typical emulsion is approximately 10 µm thick.

Why is silver halide used in photography?

- Silver halides are used in photography because they are photosensitive as they react with light to
form the image

2. Base– a type of flexible material used as a foundation or base for the film emulsion.
- (acts as a support medium for the photosensitive emulsion that lies atop it.)

3. Gray or Anti-halation backing –Is the light absorbing layer in raw stock that prevents reflection of light back
into the light-sensitive emulsion. This prevents unwanted fogging or halo like effect around bright points or
edges in the image. The base may be dyed gray.

Characteristics of Black and White Film

1. Emulsion Speed (sensitivity to light)– the measure of a photographic film’s sensitivity to light, determined by
sensitometry and measured on various numerical scales.
 Insensitive film – requires more exposure to light to produce the same image (commonly termed a
slow film)
 Highly sensitive film – termed as fast films

Emulsion Speed Indicators

1.1. ASA (American Standard Association) – expressed in arithmetical value in rating. (12, 15, 50, 100, 200,
400, 800, and 1600 commonly known as plus x for ASA 100, double x for ASA 200, tri-X as for ASA 400.)

1.2. DIN (DeutcheIndustriNormen) – its rating is expressed in logarithmic value. (DIN ratings: 12, 15, 18, 21,
24, 27, 30, 33)
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1.3. ISO (International Standards Organization) – its rating is expressed in combines between arithmetical
and logarithmic values. (DIN ratings are as follows: 12/12, 25/15, 50/18, 100/21, 200/24, 400/27, 800/30,
and 1600/33.)

2. Spectral Sensitivity (wavelength or color)– refers on the sensitivity of the film in the colors of light which
illuminated in the object being photographs.

Classification of Film According to Spectral Sensitivity:

2.1 Blue Sensitive Film – this film is sensitive to ultraviolet rays and blue light only.

2.2 Orthochromatic Film – this film is the same sensitivity in blue sensitive film which is sensitive to
ultraviolet rays, blue and green light only.

2.3 Panchromatic Film – the sensitivity of this film is for ultraviolet radiation blue, green, and red light
or all colors of light.

2.4 Infrared Film – this film is sensitive to ultraviolet rays, to blue, green, red light and infrared rays.

3. Granularity or Graininess – refers to the size of the metallic silver grains that are form after development of an
exposed film.
- The size of the metallic silver grains is dependent on the emulsion speed of the film and the type of
developing solution that is used in processing.
Rule:
1. The lower the emulsion speed rating of the film
o The finer is the grain
2. The higher the emulsion speeds rating of the film
o the bigger are the grains.

Color Film
- A film that carries one or more emulsions which after processing
carries a record of the colors in the original scene.
- The top emulsion is sensitive to blue light color .Since green and
red light passes through it without effect, the blue light alone
makes the exposure.
- A yellow filter layer above the middle emulsion absorbs any
unused blue light and prevents it from reaching the 2 lower
emulsion layers.
- The yellow colors in the filter layer have no permanent effect on the
appearance of the film because it is destroyed during processing.

Two Basic Types of Color Film in general use:

1. color reversal film – commonly called slide film (is a subtractive process) or color
positive film, creates the opposite of color negative film or black and white film.
- produces a positive transparency in which the colors match those of the
original subject.

2. color negative film –

- produces a color negative in which the colors are complementary to
those of the subject. This negative is used to make color prints and
enlargements for viewing with reflected light.

Photographic Paper
- Is a paper coated with a light sensitive chemical formula, used for
making photographic prints.
- When exposed to light it captures a latent image that is then
developed to form a visible image.
- The light sensitive layer of the paper is called the emulsion.

Characteristics of Black and White Photographic Paper:

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1. Emulsion Speed
1.1 Chloride Paper – relatively slow printing paper coated with an emulsion of silver chloride used mostly for
contacts prints.

1.2 Bromide Paper – it is the fast printing paper coated with emulsion of silver bromide used mostly for
enlargements.

1.3 Chlorobromide Paper–it is a photographic paper coated with a sensitive layer of a mixture of silver
bromide and silver chloride, giving a medium emulsion speed, used for contact printing or enlarging.

2. Exposure and Development Latitude

2.1 Latitude – the degree or amount of which you can deviate from the ideal exposure or development
without appreciable loss of print quality.
2.2 Exposure Latitude – the extents to which a light-sensitive material can be overexposed or underexposed
and still achieve an acceptable result.
2.3 Development Latitude – papers that do not change appreciable in contrast and image tone with
reasonable variation in development has good latitude.

3. Contrast – Range or Grade

3.1 Grade 0 and 1 – are used on over-exposed or low contrast
negative.
- a photograph has loss of highlight detail, that is when the
bright parts of an image are “washed out” or all white,
known as “brown-out highlights” or “clipped whites”.

3.2 Grade 2 – is used on normal exposed or normal contrast

negative.
- Known as the correct exposure.

3.3 Grade 3 to 5 – are used in under-exposed or high contrast negative.

- Has loss the shadow detail, that is, when important dark areas are “muddy” or indistinguishable
from black, known as “blocked-up shadows” or sometimes “crushed shadows”, “crushed blacks”,
or “clipped blacks”, especially in video.
4. Physical Characteristics
4.1. Surfaces of Photographic papers vary in surface, texture or degrees, glossy or sheen.
- They are glossy and smooth, semi-matter or silk, and the matte or the rough surface.
4.2.Base weight or thickness
- Light weight, single weight, medium weight and the double weight.
4.3.Color
- Maybe “cold” or white with a very slight blue cast, and the “warm” or “cream” where the white
has a slight yellow-brown line.

CAMERA
- The word camera comes from camera obscura, which means “dark chamber” and is the Latin name of the
original device for projecting an image.
- Camera obscura (Latin word for "dark room")
- Is a light-tight box; with a lens to form an image; with a shutter and diaphragm to control the entry of the
image; a means of holding a film to record the image/and a viewer or viewfinder to show the
photographer what the image is.
- The functioning of a camera is very similar to the functioning of the human eye.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN A CAMERA AND AN EYE

Human Eye Camera
How does light enter? Pupil Aperture
What controls the amount of light? Iris Diaphragm
What interprets the image? Retina Film
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How is the light focused? Lens Lens

Cameras evolved from the camera obscura through many generations of photographic
technology – daguerreotypes, calotypes (also called talbotype, early photographic technique invented by
William Henry Fox Talbot), dry plates, film – to the modern day with digital cameras and camera phones.

Digital Camera– this type of camera digitalizes the image which can then be put into a computer and enhanced
through a software package such as Adobe Photoshop.

Digital photographyis a process that uses an electronic device called a digital camera to capture an image. Instead of
film, it uses an electronic digital sensor to translate light into electrical signals. In the camera, the signals are stored
as tiny bits of data in bitmaps, tiny bits of data that form the image.

2 Types of Digital Cameras

1. Fixed Memory
- This camera has a limited number of images it can capture. The user will then be forced or download it into
a computer.
2. Removable Memory
- This camera allows the user to load and replace a variety of storage cards in much the same fashion as film
is exposed and replaced with a new film. Removable media varies in size, in price, and compatibility with
computers and other cameras.

Other features of a digital camera:

1. Image produced or taken by a digital camera can be viewed in a computer monitor or T.V. set. For hard
copies of such image a computer printer is used.
2. A Liquid Crystal Device (LCD) monitor
- These cameras feature a color LCD screen on the camera back or one that can be swing on the side which
serves multiple duties as a viewfinder, control panel, and instant playback monitor.
3. Flash unit – although generally not necessary but is required for back lighted subjects or in a really low light
level.
4. Zoom lens capability
a. Wide- angle – refers to a lens whose focal length is substantially smaller than the focal length of a
normal lens for a given film plane. This type of lens allows more of the scene to be included in the
photograph.
b. Normal lens – is a lens that reproduces a field of view that appears "natural" to a human observer.
c. Telephoto lens – makes objects appear closer to the camera than they really are. This is especially
helpful if a physical barrier prevents you from getting close to your subject, or in cases when it might
not be safe to do so — like in wildlife photography.
d. Macro lens – A macro lens is a lens that specifically allows you to focus extremely close to a subject so
that it appears large in the viewfinder (and in the final image).
5. Sound recording – where you can record audio chips such as short description of the image taken or noise in
the surrounding area.
6. Removable lens that can see around corners
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In FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY, the most IDEAL CAMERA TYPE to use is the SINGLE-LENS-REFLEX (SLR)
camera. It is a light in weight, compact, and versatile. It has the capability of interchangeability of lenses and
a wide range of accessories can be attached to its body. Like intension rings or tubes, flash units, filters, cable
release, motor drive, remote control, etc., for better photographic efficiency and affectivity.

What is the difference between a SINGLE-LENS REFLEX to a

DIGITAL CAMERA?
- DSLR and SLR cameras both reflect light that enters
through the lens using a mirror so that an image can be
seen in a viewfinder.
- However, an SLR camera uses a film made of plastic,
gelatin and other material to record the image
- A DSLR captures the image digitally, on a memory
card.

A twin-lens reflex camera (TLR)

- is a type of camera with two objective lenses of the same focal length. One of the lenses
is the photographic objective or "taking lens" (the lens that takes the picture), while
the other is used for the viewfinder system, which is usually viewed from above at
waist level.

What’s the difference between an analog (film) camera and a digital camera?
- Analog camera uses film to record a picture. While you won’t have an LCD screen showing you all your
settings, you’ll instead choose your settings using the dials and buttons on your analog camera’s body.

- Digital cameraswill have an LCD screen, where you can see and choose all your camera’s settings. When
you take a picture, you can easily view it, rather than having to wait for it to be developed.

- Digital camera is a piece of hardware that captures images and stores them on a memory card as data. A
digital camera measures the intensity and color of light using optical components.

'Analogue Photography'
- refers to photography using an analogue camera and film. A roll of film is loaded into the camera and the
magic begins once you start clicking: light interacts with the chemicals in the film and an image is
recorded.

Methods of Image Formation

1. Pinhole
- is a small or tiny hole that produces an image entirely free from distortion, but its image is so dim that it
is impractically long even if the fastest film is used. It is also not practical to enlarge the hole to make it
lighter because the larger the hole, the more blurred the image is.
- The image formed by a pinhole camera is real, inverted, and diminished.

Pinhole Camera
- A pinhole camera is the simplest form of camera. The device doesn't have a lens. Instead, it is a light-proof
box that has a small hole with a small aperture. This helps the camera to focus light on the light-sensitive
material. The image formed is inverted, and the phenomenon is known as the camera obscura effect.
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2. Shadow method – image formed by this method is simply the shadow of an object. The chief of application
of this method is in X-ray photography and in making photogram.

- X-ray photography – A photographic technique in which X-rays are used

that may reveal internal detail (e.g. of a fossil) which is not visible
externally.

- (Photograms or Rayographs are camera-less images created by placing objects on a

photo sensitive surface and exposing them to light.)
A photogram is a photographic image made without a camera by placing
objects directly onto the surface of a light-sensitive material such as photographic
paper and then exposing it to light.

3. Lens method – this is the BEST METHOD of image formation

because it is capable of forming a sharp image even with a
large opening so it is suited for a camera.
o Is a PIECE OF TRANSPARENT GLASS which
concentrates or disperses light rays when passes
through them by refraction.
o Due to the magnifying property, lenses are used in
telescopes and other magnifying devices. They are
employed in cameras for gathering the light rays.

Types of lenses according to the type of image they produce:

a. Convex lens
- sometimes called a positive lens; the glass or plastic surfaces bulge
towards in the center giving the classic lentil-like shape.
- Is called a positive lens because it causes light rays to converge, or
concentrate, to form a real image.
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- Is also called a converging lens because it makes parallel light rays passing through it bend inward and
meet (converge) at a spot just beyond the lens known as the focal point.
- The image formed in a convex lens can be small or large in size. The image formed is real and inverted.
- A convex lens is used in objects like magnifying glasses, microscopes and etc.

Types of Convex Lens

1. Biconvex Lens: A biconvex lens is a lens in which both surfaces
are convex. Biconvex lenses are the converging lens.
2. Plano-Convex Lens: A plano-convex lens is a lens wherein one
surface is plane, and the other surface is convex. Plano-convex
lenses are used to focus and collect light beams and converge
them in a parallel direction.

b. Concave lens
- Also known as negative lens.
- Sometimes called diverging lens. Rays of light that pass
through the lens are spread out (they diverge).
- This lens is always thinner at the center and thicker at the
sides.
- Light passing through it are bended away from each other as if
coming from a point. It produces a virtual image on the same
side of the lens or where light is coming from.
- The image formed in a concave lens is virtual, upright, and
small in size.
- It is used in objects like flashlights, cameras, and lasers

Types of Concave Lens

1. Biconcave Lens: The surface having a concave lens on both sides is termed as a biconcave lens.
Biconcave lenses are the diverging lens, i.e., the light beam is reflected in different directions.
2. Plano-Concave Lens: A plano-concave lens is defined as the lens wherein one surface is plane and the
other is concave. These lenses are used for the projection of light, beam expansion, etc.
3. Negative Meniscus: Negative Meniscus is a diverging lens in which one edge is convex, and the other
edge is concave.

Uses of Concave Lens

1. Glasses:
- A concave lens is majorly used by people suffering from myopia or short-sightedness. The image formed
in the retina is relatively small because the light beams spread out.
2. Lasers:
- A concave lens is used in many medical machines, scanners, CD players, etc., that emit laser beams. The
beams are spread in different directions, due to which they work correctly.
3. Camera:
- Concave lenses are used in cameras to get good quality pictures. Basically, both convex and concave
lenses are used in cameras to get a clear image of objects.
4. Flashlights:
- A concave lens is used in flashlights to expand or magnify the light.

Uses of Convex Lens

1. Glasses:
- A convex lens is used to treat hypermetropia or long-sightedness. When the eye-lens is unable to focus
the light, the image is formed behind the retina. That is why convex lenses are used in spectacles.
2. Microscopes:
- Convex lenses are used in microscopes to generated magnified images of small objects.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE USES OF CONCAVE AND CONVEX LENSES

 The reflection of light
a. Concave Lens – spreads the light beam in different directions
b. Convex lens – spread the light in a parallel direction.
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Lens Aberrations
- in optical systems, such as lenses and curved mirrors, the deviation of light rays
through lenses, causing images of objects to be blurred.
- The optical defects (critically sharp and distorted images) are known as
aberrations.

Inherent Lens Defects of Aberrations

1. Spherical Aberration –occurs because curvature in a lens or mirror causes rays
falling on the outer edges to be brought to a focus at a different point than
those falling on the middle. This makes the images formed appear
blurred.

2. Coma – this is another form of spherical aberration but is concerned

with the light rays entering the lens obliquely. The defect is not
noticeable only on the outer edges and not on the central part of the
lens. If a lens has coma, circular objects reproduced at the corners of
the negative are comet-like form. Just like the spherical aberration, it
is reduced by combinations of lenses of different curvatures.

3. Curvature of field –or known as the “Petzval field curvature”, is

commonly optical problem that causes a flat object to appear sharp only
in a certain part of the frame, instead of being uniformly sharp across the
farm.

4. Distortion – the lens is incapable of rendering straight lines correctly;

either horizontal or vertical lines of an object.

5. Chromatic aberrations - also known as color fringing, is a color distortion

that creates an outline of unwanted color along the edges of object s in a
photograph. It is also called as achromatism, chromatic distortion and
spherochromatism.

6. Astigmatism –a single point from a subject falling near the margin of the
negative will be imaged not as a point but as two perpendicular short lines,
one of which is always be out of focus while the other is sharp.

7. Chromatic difference of magnification – this defect is present when

the size of image produced by photographic rays of one wavelength is different from the size produced by
another. The change of image distance with wavelength is known as chromatic aberration, and the variation
of magnification with wavelength is known as chromatic difference of magnification, or lateral color.

Essential Parts of Camera

1. Body – camera body is what houses all the internal
components of the camera to shield the film from exposure to
the light, aside from during the time spent taking the photo.
2. Lens – Is a transparent medium which either converge or
diverge light rays passing through it to form an image.This
consists of several layers of lenses of varying properties
providing zoom, focusing, and distortion correction.
3. Shutter Release Button – this is the “trigger” of the camera. In
most cameras, a half-press activates and locks the auto-focus,
and a full press initiates the image capturing process.
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4. Mode Dial – containing several symbols (slightly different on various camera models), this dial allows you to
select a shooting mode, automatic or manual, or a choice between one of the pre-defined settings.
5. View finder – a small viewing window that shows the image that the camera’s imaging sensor sees. This can
either be an optical view finder, which shows the actual image in front of the camera through a peep hole or
through mirrors. Or an electronic view finder which is simply a small LCD display.
6. Aperture Ring – found around the manual lens of an older SLR camera, this is used to select an aperture
opening. In modern lenses, the aperture is controlled electronically through the body. The aperture is the
opening through which light travels to create an image.
7. Focusing Ring – this can also be found around the manual lens of an older SLR camera, this is turned to
manually focus the lens.
8. LCD Display (stands for Liquid Crystal display) – in some compact cameras this acts as the viewfinder. It can
be used for framing or for reviewing the recorded pictures.
9. Flash – built-in on the body of most compact and some DSLR cameras, the flash can be either fixed or flip
type. It provides an instantaneous burst of bright light to illuminate a poorly lit scene.
10. Control Buttons – usually includes a set of directional keys and a few other buttons to activate certain
functions and menus, this is used to let users interact with the camera’s computer system.
11. Power switch – turns the camera On or Off. This may also contain a record/ play mode selector on some
cameras.
12. Zoom control – usually marked with W and T, which stands for “Wide” and “Tele” respectively, this is used to
control the camera’s lenses to zoom-in or zoom-out.
- For DSLR (digital single-lens reflex) cameras, the zoom is usually controlled by a zoom ring in the lens.
13. Battery Compartment – holds the batteries. Depending on the camera model, this varies in size and shape.
14. Memory Card Slot – this is where expansion memory cards are inserted. A mechanical catch usually holds the
card in place and a spring helps it eject.
15. Flash Mount – standard holder with contact plates for optional flash accessory.
16. Diopter Adjuster – usually available in mid to high end sub- compact cameras and DSLRs, it is located beside
the viewfinder. It varies the focal length of the lens in the viewfinder to enable people who need eyeglasses to
see through it clearly without the eyeglasses.

Police photography mostly involves the documentation of crime scenes and injuries. Hence, it is also
sometimes referred as crime scene photography or forensic photography.
- Study of the general practices, methods, and steps in taking pictures of the crime scene, physical things
that can be used for law enforcement purposes.

Forensic photography more specifically involves the process of recording the crime scene or any
object for court presentation.
- Application of photography in criminal jurisprudence and criminal investigation.

USES OF PHOTOGRRAPHY IN LAW ENFORCEMENT

1. Records – records the physical evidences found in the crime scene
2. Questioned documents – standard documents (original) and questioned documents (altered docs,
counterfeit, erased docs.)
3. Aerial photography – drone shots
4. Surveillance photography – subject for surveillance
5. Detection of gunshot-powder burns, stains and irregularities in cloth.– bullet case and etc.
6. Detection of certain types of secret writings – questioned documents

SPECIAL USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

1. Infrared Photography
- Is used in the recording of images formed by infrared radiation.
- can be done with either infrared film or a digital camera and typically involves
near-infrared light in the 700nm-1200nm range. This is different than thermal
infrared, which images far into the infrared spectrum.
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- By using infrared photography we can see things in the darker areas.

2. Ultraviolet Photography
- The art or process of photographing or recording unseen objects by means of ultraviolet light.
- This is used to check money and bills based on their watermarks

Reflective UV Photography will show bruise or bite marks that are no longer visible.
 Prints made from the use of ultraviolet photography look like regular black and white photos .When
this film is developed, it is treated as any other film, and can be made into slides, prints, or
enlargements.
 The use of ultraviolet photography can greatly enhance an investigation by showing a history of
injuries, or even the specific outline of the weapon used to cause an injury.
 Make sure to take a few rolls of test photos before actually going out and starting to photograph
victims.

3. Photomicrography also called as micrographs

 Photomicrography requires a microscope and camera

- Taking a magnified photography of small object through attaching a camera to the

ocular of compound microscopes as to showMINUTE DETAILSof the physical
evidence.
- is an important tool for examining trace evidence that can connect a suspect to a
crime scene. Photomicrography may be best known in modern times for its use in
processing trace evidence from crime scenes. Trace evidence results from the
microscopic particles produced when two substances make contact

4. Photomacrography or Macro photography / macrography

 Photomacrography requires a camera and special lenses and/or special attachments.

- Taking a magnified (enlarged) photograph of small object by attaching an extended tube

lens (macro lens) to the camera.
- Is extreme close-up photography, usually of very small subjects and living organisms like
insects, in which the size of the subject in the photograph is greater than life size
(though macrophotography also refers to the art of making very large photographs).
- Macro lens is specifically designed for close-up work.

5. Microphotography or photomicrography
- The production of photographs in which the image of an object is reproduced
much smaller than it actually is.

What is the difference between microphotography and photomicrography?

 Whereas photomicrography simply involves taking pictures (photographs) using a microscope,
 Microphotography is the process through which the size of a photograph is reduced so that it can only be
viewed using a microscope.
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Parts ofa Camera & Functions The aperture is a donut-shaped ring that is
Built-In Flash inside the lens. The function of the aperture is to
A built-in flash bursts the light when the control the amount of light that reaches the image
operator triggers the shutter button. It is inbuilt into sensor. It regulates the brightness of the image.
the camera, which opens when we switch on the Aperture helps to blur the background of any
camera. photograph.
This built-in flash fix is in the upper position on the
front or top side of the camera. It helps to get good Camera Body
clarity and quality of the image. It is an assembly of all the internal parts,
which are covered by a plastic cover to protect from
Mode Dial foreign matters. It was available in various sizes,
It is a unique feature for video shooting mode. designs, weights, and shapes per the manufacturer.
We can rotate the dial to select the mode as per the Parts such as lenses and extra flashes are not part of
scene. There are creative and basic zones available. the camera body parts.
In the creative zone, we can set functions as per our
requirements. Whereas, in the basic zone, the default Eyecap
setting gets selected per the scene. It is a protection against external light.
There are modes like Priority, Aperture
Priority, Shutter Priority, and Manual. In Nikon Viewfinder Eyepiece
cameras, the short forms are P, A, S, and M, while in It is a rectangle shape frame on the rear side
canon cameras, the short forms are P, Av, Tv, and M. of the camera. It displays the image which we are
going to capture. We focus on the object through the
Shutter Button viewfinder while clicking the photo.
The shutter button is to release the shutter In modern cameras, we have an LCD that displays the
while capturing the image. It works in 2 stages. When image that we have to capture.
we press the button half, it triggers the AF to activate, Some cameras come with a fully digital viewfinder,
and the complete pressing activates the shutter to which gives various details such as shutter speed, and
release. aperture before clicking the picture.

Red-Eye Reduction Dioptric Adjustment Knob

After activating this function, it illuminates Every person doesn’t have a clear vision to see
this lamp after half-pressing the shutter button. In the the image through the viewfinder. Due to that, this
self-timer, it flutters for a specific time and stops knob helps to adjust the viewfinder clarity.
blinking after the image captures.
Live Shooting Switch
Lens Mount Index We can activate or deactivate the live
It is a red or white dot to align the lens while shooting mode by pressing the movie shooting switch.
fixing it to the camera. By activating this mode, we can record live at any time
with only one click and see it on the LCD.
Lens Release Button
This button helps to attach and detach the Focus Point Selection
lenses to the camera. After pressing this button, we This button helps to activate AF mode, and we
can rotate the lens freely to separate it from the lens can manually focus with controller buttons.
mount.
Quick Control Button
Grip By pressing this button, we can see all the
It is a rubber coating on some parts of a settings and functions on your LCD screen to select as
camera to get a good grip during use. It helps to per requirement.
prevent the slipping of the camera during
photography. Multi-Controller
It is a controller that helps to move the menu
Lens Mount up-down, left-right, to move the magnified display. It
It is an arrangement for the camera to attach helps to select a required function during live shooting
the new lens. To attach a new lens, we have to align or photography.
the lens to the lens mount and rotate it clockwise to
fix it. Erase Button
We can erase/delete unwanted images by
Flash Button pressing this button.
The main function of the flash button is to
force the flash to open before triggered. In some Playback Button
cameras, if we press the flash button, we can adjust It helps to see the earlier images we have
the intensity of the flash. captured on the LCD monitor.

Menu Button
Aperture
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This button helps us to get all the functions of When we switch on the camera & keep it ON for a
the camera. We can select these functions as per our prolonged period, it automatically goes on to standby
needs and requirement. mode to save power.

LCD Display Hot Shoe

The LCD monitor is the screen at the back of It is a U-shaped fixture available on top of the
every camera. It displays all the settings, images, camera. Its function is to connect the extra flash, radio
menu, and performance. We can magnify the triggers, external microphones, and light meters to
captured image to see its clarity on the same LCD the camera.
monitor. Small sensors and connectors help to send the signal
It helps you to check the image quality to take a good from the camera to the flashing. So it flashes at the
shot. It also displays the live video which needs to be right time during photo capturing.
shoot.
In most cameras, the LCD screen fixes at one Speaker
position, but in some cameras, the LCD screen will be Whenever we record a video, we can store
flip-out or swivel. It will help us to capture a picture them in memory. While playing this video, the speaker
that is a very difficult or awkward angle. gives an audio sound. With the main dial, we can
adjust the sound.
Main Dial
The main dial is on the front side of the Strap Mount
camera. Its function is to adjust the shooting setting, It is for connecting straps to the camera. It
such as shutter speed, aperture, etc. makes it easy to handle the camera and protects it
from dropping. So we can balance them while doing
Display Button photography.
It allows you to On/OFF the display of the
camera. Conclusion
Information about the parts of a camera help
Power Switch to use every function to make your photography more
The power switch has 3 modes. ON, OFF, and impressive.
standby. With this, we can power ON/OFF the camera.

“PUPIL AND APERTURE”

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