Biology

Introduction to Modern
Biology

Engr. Tiffany Jade Medrano

 Branchesof
Branches of Biology
Biology
Branches of Biology
● Molecular biology and biochemistry
●○ Molecular biology
biological processes and biochemistry
at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among
○molecules
biological processes
such as DNA, at the
RNA, and proteins, as wellmolecular
as the way they and chemical
are regulated.
● Microbiology
level, including interactions among molecules such
○ study of microorganisms, is the study of the structure and function of singlecelled organisms.
●
as DNA, RNA, and proteins, as well as the way they
are regulated.
● • Microbiology
○ study of microorganisms, is the study of the
structure and function of singlecelled organisms.
 Branchesof
Branches of Biology
Biology
Branches of Biology
● Molecular biology and biochemistry
●○ Neurobiology
biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among
○ studies
molecules the
such biology
as DNA, RNA, ofand
theproteins,
nervous system
as well different
as the way functions
they are regulated. of the
● Microbiology
nervous system using molecular, cellular, developmental, medical,
○ studyand
of microorganisms,
computational is the study of the structure and function of singlecelled organisms.
approaches.
●
● Paleontology
○ uses fossils to study life’s history
● Zoology and botany
○ study of animals and plants
 Branchesof
Branches of Biology
Biology
Forensic Science
● Molecular biology and biochemistry
❖ application of science to answer questions related to the law.
○ biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among
❖ Biologists as well as chemists and biochemists can be forensic
molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins, as well as the way they are regulated.
scientists.
● Microbiology
○ study of microorganisms, is the study of the structure and function of singlecelled organisms.
Forensic Scientists
●
• provide scientific evidence for use in courts, and their job involves
examining trace materials associated with crimes.
• Their job activities are primarily related to crimes against people such as
murder, rape, and assault.
• analyzing samples such as hair, blood, and other body fluids and also
processing DNA
• analyze other biological evidence left at crime scenes
 Branchesof
Branches of Biology
Biology
Scientific Inquiry
● Molecular biology and biochemistry
●○ best approach we have to understanding the natural world
biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among
and predicting
molecules natural
such as DNA, phenomena.
RNA, and proteins, as well as the way they are regulated.
● ●Microbiology
Evidence for this claim can be found in the successes of
○ study of microorganisms, is the study of the structure and function of singlecelled organisms.
science-based technologies.
●
 Branchesof
Branches of Biology
Biology
Methods of Scientific Inquiry
● Molecular biology and biochemistry
●○ Experiments and Hypotheses
biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among
● Forming a Hypothesis
molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins, as well as the way they are regulated.
● ●Microbiology
Experimental Design
●○ Experimental Variables
study of microorganisms, is the study of the structure and function of singlecelled organisms.
● ● Interpreting Results
○ Gathering Data
 Branchesof
Branches of Biology
Biology
Methods of Logical Thinking
● Molecular biology and biochemistry
● Inductive reasoning
○ biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among
○molecules
formsuch
of logical
as DNA, thinking that analyzes
RNA, and proteins, trends
as well as the or relationships
way they are regulated. in
data to arrive at a general conclusion.
● Microbiology
○ ○studymaking generalizations
of microorganisms, is the study from carefuland
of the structure observation and theorganisms.
function of singlecelled
● analysis of a large amount of individual data points.
○ Generalizations arrived are not always correct.

● Deductive reasoning
○ begins from a general principle or law and applies it to a
specific circumstance to predict specific results
 Branchesof
Branches of Biology
Biology
Methods of Logical Thinking
● Molecular biology and biochemistry
● Inductive reasoning
○ biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among
○ Starts with INdividual pieces of information
molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins, as well as the way they are regulated.
○ Looks for trENds in the information
● Microbiology
○ Makes an INformed guess based on those
○ study of microorganisms, is the study of the structure and function of singlecelled organisms.
trends
●
○ Results may be INcorrect

Example
Last week your best friend discovered a new
restaurant that he really loves. He's eaten there five
times already. In describing the restaurant to you, he
says, "everything on the menu is delicious!”
 Branchesof
Branches of Biology
Biology
Methods of Logical Thinking
● Molecular biology and biochemistry
● Deductive reasoning
○ biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among
○ Starts with broad DEclarations like
molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins, as well as the way they are regulated.
principles or laws
● Microbiology
○ Applies these generalizations to make a
○ study of microorganisms, is the study of the structure and function of singlecelled organisms.
DEcision about a specific case
●
○ Results are DEfinitely correct

Example
● Driving on icy roads is dangerous.
● The roads are icy today.
● Therefore, driving will be dangerous today
 Branchesof
Branches of Biology
Biology
● Molecular biology and biochemistry
1. Police recently investigated a home burglary.
○ biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among
DNA evidence at the crime scene allowed
molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins, as well as the way they are regulated.
them to narrow the list of suspects to two
● Microbiology
brothers. After confirming that the first brother
○ study of microorganisms, is the study of the structure and function of singlecelled organisms.
was out of the country at the time the burglary
●
took place, police arrested the second
brother. Which kind of reasoning did they
use?
 Branchesof
Branches of Biology
Biology
● Molecular biology and biochemistry
2. Three years ago, a city announced a goal of
○ biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among
cutting crime rates in a specific neighborhood by
molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins, as well as the way they are regulated.
50% within five years. The next year, crime in the
● Microbiology
neighborhood was down 15%. In year two, crime
○ study of microorganisms, is the study of the structure and function of singlecelled organisms.
had been cut by 28%. At the end of year three,
●
crime was down 42%. The city just announced
they are "very confident" they will reach the goal.
What kind of reasoning did they use to reach that
conclusion?
 Branchesof
Branches of Biology
Biology
Methods of Scientific Inquiry
● Molecular biology and biochemistry
●○ Experiments and Hypotheses
biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among
○molecules
carefully organized
such as DNA, procedure
RNA, and proteins, in way
as well as the which the scientist
they are regulated.
intervenes in a system to change something, then observes
● Microbiology
○ studythe result of theis change.
of microorganisms, the study of the structure and function of singlecelled organisms.
●
 Branchesof
Branches of Biology
Biology
Methods of Scientific Inquiry
● Molecular biology and biochemistry
●○ Forming a Hypothesis
biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among
○molecules
a suggested explanation
such as DNA, RNA, that
and proteins, as well iswayboth
as the they aretestable
regulated. and
falsifiable.
● Microbiology
○ study of microorganisms, is the study of the structure and function of singlecelled organisms.
○ must be able to test your hypothesis, and it must be
●
possible to prove your hypothesis true or false.
 Branchesof
Branches of Biology
Biology
Methods of Scientific Inquiry
● Molecular biology and biochemistry
●○ Experimental Design
biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among
○molecules
how such
youaswill
DNA,test
RNA,the hypothesis
and proteins, and
as well as findtheythe
the way are answer
regulated. to the
question or problem.
● Microbiology
○ ○studyThe plan should
of microorganisms, include
is the study a description
of the structure and function of, or information
of singlecelled organisms.
● about of each of the following
 Branchesof
Branches of Biology
Biology
Methods of Scientific Inquiry
● Molecular biology and biochemistry
●○ Experimental Variables
biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among
○molecules
identified
such asto make
DNA, sure
RNA, and the results
proteins, as well as are accurate
the way (correct) and
they are regulated.
that the experiment could be repeated in exactly the same
● Microbiology
○ studyway, with the same
of microorganisms, results.
is the study of the structure and function of singlecelled organisms.
●
● Three types of variables:
○ manipulated
○ responding
○ controlled
 Branchesof
Branches of Biology
Biology
Methods of Scientific Inquiry
● ●
Molecular biology and biochemistry
Interpreting Results
○ biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among
○ Gather data and record observations
molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins, as well as the way they are regulated.
■ Quantitative data: observations and facts that can be easily
● Microbiologymeasured.
○ study ■ of microorganisms, is theobservations
Qualitative data: study of the structure and function
that cannot of singlecelled
be easily measured organisms.
•
●
○ Interpret data
■ answering the question and responding to your hypothesis with
information discovered by conducting the experiment
■ drawing conclusions or inferences based on what you learned.
 Branchesof
Branches of Biology
Biology
The Characteristics of Life
● Molecular biology and biochemistry

How do you
○ biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among
molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins, as well as the way they are regulated.
● Microbiology

●
know if
○ study of microorganisms, is the study of the structure and function of singlecelled organisms.

something is
alive?
 Branchesof
Branches of Biology
Biology
The Characteristics of Life
● Molecular biology and biochemistry
○ biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among
molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins, as well as the way they are regulated.
● Microbiology
○ study of microorganisms, is the study of the structure and function of singlecelled organisms.
●
 Branchesof
Branches of Biology
Biology
● Molecular biology and biochemistry
○ biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among
molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins, as well as the way they are regulated.
● Microbiology
○ study of microorganisms, is the study of the structure and function of singlecelled organisms.
●
 Branchesof
Branches of Biology
Biology
The Characteristics of Life
● Molecular biology and biochemistry
1. Adaptation through evolution
○ biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among
●molecules
All forms
such asofDNA,
lifeRNA,
evolve. They as
and proteins, adapt
well astothethe
wayexternal environment,
they are regulated.
change their heritable traits, and prepare future generations for
● Microbiology
○ studymore efficient life
of microorganisms, processes.
is the study of the structure and function of singlecelled organisms.
●
 Branchesof
Branches of Biology
Biology
The Characteristics of Life
● Molecular biology and biochemistry
2. Cellular organization
○ biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among
● The general structures move along a line from cell to tissue to organ
molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins, as well as the way they are regulated.
to being, which gives us the word “organism,” a living thing with
● Microbiology
organ systems. Cellular organization is seen in something as simple
○ study of microorganisms, is the study of the structure and function of singlecelled organisms.
as a fungus cell. From simple bacteria up to mammals, life uses
●
cellular organization.
 Branchesof
Branches of Biology
Biology
The Characteristics of Life
● Molecular biology and biochemistry
3. Growth and development
○ biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among
● Living things grow. To conserve resources, organisms reproduce with
molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins, as well as the way they are regulated.
immature and small copies of themselves. Without straining the parent
● Microbiology
organism, these small copies gather their own resources to grow, enlarge,
○ studymature,
of microorganisms, is the study themselves.
age, and reproduce of the structureHumans
and function
areofexcellent
singlecelled organisms.
examples of
● growth and development. Eventually, organisms die, returning their gathered
resources to the earth for reuse by new organisms.
 Branchesof
Branches of Biology
Biology
The Characteristics of Life
● Molecular biology and biochemistry
4. ○Heredity
biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among
● Life transfers characteristics to offspring via deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins, as well as the way they are regulated.
and ribonucleic acid (RNA); these are the building blocks of life. From
● Microbiology
viruses to humans, traits that benefit the parents are transferred in genes
○ study of microorganisms, is the study of the structure and function of singlecelled organisms.
to the offspring. For humans, this genetic material holds our genetic
● information such as eye color, skin color, and hair type, just to name a
few.
 Branchesof
Branches of Biology
Biology
The Characteristics of Life
● Molecular biology and biochemistry
5.○Homeostasis
biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among
●molecules
Maintaining a stable
such as DNA, RNA, andinternal environment
proteins, as Your
well as the way they are body, like that
regulated.
● of a cat or a cactus, must maintain a stable environment
Microbiology
○ studyinside.
of microorganisms, is the study of the structure and function of singlecelled organisms.
●
 Branchesof
Branches of Biology
Biology
The Characteristics of Life
● Molecular biology and biochemistry
6. Metabolism
○ biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among
● an organism’s chemical reactions
molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins, as well as the way they are regulated.
● Microbiology
● Chemical reactions inside cells, tissues, organs,
○ study of microorganisms, is the study of the structure and function of singlecelled organisms.
and living beings perform various actions that
●
keep the organism alive.
● These reactions break down incoming food, send
nutrients to cells, remove waste products,
transform energy, and synthesize new chemicals.
● Together, these processes lead to growth, system
repair, and excretion.
● Photosynthesis in plants is a metabolic process
 Branchesof
Branches of Biology
Biology
The Characteristics of Life
● Molecular biology and biochemistry
7. Reproduction
○ biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among
● Reproduction can be either asexual, involving a single parent
molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins, as well as the way they are regulated.
organism, or sexual, requiring two parents. Single-celled organisms,
● Microbiology
like the dividing bacterium can reproduce themselves simply by
○ study of microorganisms, is the study of the structure and function of singlecelled organisms.
splitting in two!
●
 Branchesof
Branches of Biology
Biology
The Characteristics of Life
● Molecular biology and biochemistry
8. Response To Stimuli
○ biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among
● Living organisms show “irritability,” meaning that they respond to stimuli
molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins, as well as the way they are regulated.
or changes in their environment. For instance, people pull their hand
● Microbiology
away—fast!—from a flame; many plants turn toward the sun; and
○ study of microorganisms, is the study of the structure and function of singlecelled organisms.
unicellular organisms may migrate toward a source of nutrients or away
● from a noxious chemical.
 Branchesof
Branches of Biology
Biology
The Characteristics of Life
● Molecular biology and biochemistry
○ biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among
molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins, as well as the way they are regulated.
● Microbiology
○ study of microorganisms, is the study of the structure and function of singlecelled organisms.
●
 Branchesof
Branches of Biology
Biology
The Characteristics of Life
● Molecular biology and biochemistry
○ biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among
molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins, as well as the way they are regulated.
● Microbiology
○ study of microorganisms, is the study of the structure and function of singlecelled organisms.
●
 Branchesof
Branches of Biology
Biology
● Molecular biology and biochemistry
○ biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among
molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins, as well as the way they are regulated.
● Microbiology Thank you and God bless!
○ study of microorganisms, is the study of the structure and function of singlecelled organisms.
●

Credits to Engr. Exel De Guzman for the content

of the PPT
CTTO Google for the Photos
Cell Biology
 Cells
It is the fundamental unit of
life.

Molecules and biological

pathways are all present
inside the cell and essential
for living organisms.
 Prokaryotic Cells vs Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic cells are considered simple while

eukaryotic cells are complex.

The main reason is that there are more

organelles present in the eukaryotic cells and the
biological pathways and processes are complex.
Prokaryotic Cells vs Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

Only have nucleoid Has true nucleus in the structure
0.1 to 5.0 micrometers 10 to 100 micrometers
Cell wall (peptidoglycan) Cell Walls (Plant Cells) – Cellulose
Cell Membrane (Animal Cells) –
Phospholipid bilayer
Binary Fission Will involve mitosis and meiosis
Circular single-stranded DNA Multiple double-stranded linear DNA
 Animal Cell vs Plant Cell
Animal Cell Plant Cell

Cell Membrane Cell Wall (Cellulose)

(Phospholipid bilayer)

Small Vacuole Large Central Vacuole

No chloroplast Chloroplast (for

Photosynthesis)
What is Biochemistry?

Biochemistry is the branch of science that

explores the chemical processes within and
related to living organisms.
Biological Molecules

● Building blocks
● Molecules necessary for any living things on
Earth
Biomolecules
Macromolecules
● Carbohydrates
● Proteins
● Lipids
● Nucleic Acids
Monomer
● Building blocks
● A large substance is
made up of a
substance which is
called monomer
Carbohydrates
“Hydrates of Carbon”

● stoichiometric formula (CH2O)n, n is the number of carbons

in the molecule
● formula also explains the origin of the term “carbohydrate”:
the components are carbon (“carbo”) and the components
of water (hence, “hydrate”).
● Most abundant biomolecules in nature.
● they are now defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes and
ketones
Monosaccharides
● Monomer of Carbohydrates (means it makes up
carbohydrates)
● Monosaccharides are the common base unit of all
carbohydrate molecules. (the word “saccharide” is
derived from the Greek sakcharon, meaning
“sugar”).
● They are white, crystalline solids that contain a
single aldehyde or ketone functional group.
Monosaccharides
● They are subdivided into two classes
aldoses and ketoses on the basis of
whether they are aldehydes or ketones.
● also called "simple sugars“
● Most monosaccharide names end with the
suffix –ose.
Monosaccharides
● Most monosaccharide names
end with the suffix –ose.
● If the sugar has an aldehyde
group (the functional group with
the structure R-CHO), it is
known as an aldose
● if it has a ketone group (the
functional group with the
structure RC(=O)R′), it is
known as a ketose.
Characteristics of Monosaccharides
Characteristics:
● Soluble in water
● They are also classified as a triose, tetrose, pentose, hexose, or heptose
on the basis of whether they contain three, four, five, six, or seven
carbon atoms
Triose
● is a monosaccharide, or simple sugar, containing three
carbon atoms

D-Glyceraldehyde Dihydroxyacetone L-Glyceraldehyde

Note: D,L Monosaccharides (Dextro and Levo)

Tetrose
● a monosaccharide with
four carbon atoms. They
have either an aldehyde
functional group in
position 1 (aldotetroses)
or a ketone functional
group in position 2
(ketotetroses)
Pentoses
● monosaccharide molecules with
five carbon atoms.
● pentoses can also be further
divided into two groups as
aldopentoses and ketopentoses.
● Ribose, xylose, arabinose, lyxose,
are aldopentoses.
● Ribulose, xylulose are ketopentose
Pentoses
● Aldopentoses

● Ketopentoses
Hexoses
● A sugar or saccharide containing six carbon
Glucose
● One of the most important monosacharride
● One of the main sources of calories
● Can cross blood -brain barrier which
nourishes the brain
Fructose
● Fruit sugar
● Commonly found in honey, fruits and
vegetables
Galactose
● Known as milk sugar
Isomers
Isomers
● compounds that have same chemical formula but different structures.
Examples
● Fructose
● Glucose
● Mannose
● galactose
Epimers
Epimers
● Define as a carbohydrate isomers that
different in configuration around only one
specific carbon atom (chiral center).
Examples
● Glucose and galactose C-4 Epimer
● Glucose and mannose C-2 Epimer
Glucose and
maltose are the
epimers with
respect to C-2

Glucose and
galactose are the
epimers with
respect to C-4
Disaccharides
● Disaccharides consist of (exactly) TWO (2)
monosaccharides join together.
● sugars composed of 2 monosaccharides
● form when two monosaccharides undergo
a dehydration reaction
Disaccharides
Characteristics:
● Soluble in water
● A glycosidic bond can form between any hydroxyl
group on the monosaccharide.
● a glycosidic bond or glycosidic linkage is a type of
covalent bond that joins a carbohydrate (sugar)
molecule to another group.
Disaccharides
● Sucrose is formed when a monomer
of glucose and a monomer of
fructose are joined in a dehydration
reaction to form a glycosidic bond.
● In the process, a water molecule is
lost. By convention, the carbon
atoms in a monosaccharide are
numbered from the terminal carbon
closest to the carbonyl group. In
sucrose, a glycosidic linkage is
formed between carbon 1 in glucose
and carbon 2 in fructose.
Common Disaccharides
Sucrose (Saccharose)

● glucose + fructose
● table sugar
● Found in fruits and vegetables (sugar
cane and sugar beet having the highest
qualities)
Common Disaccharides
Lactose

● galactose + glucose
● Formed together by 𝛽1-4 glycosidic bond
● Found in milk of mammals (cow and breast milk of human)
● synthetic (man-made) sugar that is not absorbed by the body but is
broken down in the colon into products that absorb water into the
colon, thus softening stools.
● Its primary use is to treat constipation.
● It is also used to reduce blood ammonia levels in persons with liver
disease since lactulose absorbs ammonia into the colon
Common Disaccharides
Maltose

● glucose + glucose
● Malt sugar
● Formed together by 𝛼 1-4 glycosidic bond
● Found in molasses that can be used for the
fermentation of beer
● Found also in some cereals and candies.
● It is a product of starch digestions and may be
purified from barley and other grains.
Simple sugar whether they are natural and added sugars are mixtures
of monossacharide and dissacharides

Example

Fructose
Glucose
Galactose
Maltose
Simple sugar whether they are natural and added sugars are mixtures
of monossacharide and dissacharides

Example

Fructose

Glucose

Sucrose
Trehalose
● glucose + glucose Trehalose is also known
as
● tremalose or mycose.
● It is a natural alpha-linke disaccharide with
extremely high water retention properties.
● In nature, it helps plants and animals reduce
long periods without water
Cellobiose
● glucose + glucose
● Cellobiose is a hydrolysis product of cellulose
or cellulose-rich materials, such as paper or
cotton.
● formed by linking two beta-glucose
molecules by a ß(1→4) bond.
● Amylase
● Lactase
● Sucrase
● Maltase
Polyssacharides
● are sugar polymers containing more than 20 or so
monosaccharide units, and some have hundreds or
thousands of units.
● Most abundant carbohydrate in food
● long chain of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds
● Homopolysaccharides and heteropolysaccharides
Starches
● stored form of sugars in plants
● made up of a mixture of
amylose and amylopectin
● Important source of calories
found in foods (rice, potatoes,
wheat and maize.
● Sugar molecules that human
Intestinal enzyme can
breakdown
● Not sweet (don’t activate the
taste bud unlike simple sugar)
Starches
Amylose
● starch formed by unbranched chains of glucose monomers (only 𝛼 1-
4 linkages)
● it is poorly soluble in water and slowly digestible.
Starches
Amylopectin
● branched polysaccharide (𝛼 1-4
linkages and 𝛼 1-6 linkages at the
branch points).
● it is more soluble in water and
more easily digestible than
amylose.
● Branching occurs every 20-30
glucose residues
Dietary Fibers
Carbohydrates that intestinal
enzymes cannot breakdown
● Non-Digestible
● Have molecules that are
resisting to human enzymes
● Benefits:
○ Critical, slows down the
absorption for simple
sugar
○ Helps blood glucose level
○ Good for bowel
movement
○ Lowers blood Cholesterol
Glycogen
● is the storage form of glucose in humans and other vertebrates and is made
up of monomers of glucose.
● Glycogen is the animal equivalent of starch and is a highly branched
molecule usually stored in liver and muscle cells.
● Whenever blood glucose levels decrease, glycogen is broken down to
release glucose in a process known as glycogenolysis

Branching occur
every 8-12 glucose
residues
Cellulose
● is the most abundant natural
biopolymer.
● The cell wall of plants is mostly
made of cellulose;
● this provides structural support to
the cell.
● Wood and paper are mostly
cellulosic in nature.
● Cellulose is made up of glucose
monomers that are linked by β 1-
4 glycosidic bonds
Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body
● Carbohydrates provides your body with energy. Your
cells convert carbohydrates into the fuel molecule
ATP through a process called cellular respiration.
● They Also Provide Stored Energy
● Carbohydrate (fibers) promotes good digestive health
by reducing constipation and lowering the risk of
digestive tract diseases.
Functions of Carbohydrates in Animals

Insects have a hard outer exoskeleton made of chitin, a type of polysaccharide

Chitin
This is a biological pathway where an organ
molecule (such as glucose) reacts with oxygen gas t
produce carbon dioxide and water. It aims to produc
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules that ar
utilized for the production of energy in the body.

It includes the biological processes:

- Glycolysis
- Citric Acid Cycle
- Electron Transport Chain
ATP MOLECULES
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Multienzyme Complex
LIPIDS
 LIPIDS

-Insoluble to polar solvents like water

-Soluble to organic solvents like hexane and
benzene
-Oily or greasy compounds
-They are considered heterogenous compounds
-Energy-rich compounds (Approx. 2.5 times greater
than the amount of energy of carbohydrates)
 FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS

- Component of some hormones

- Provides energy to the body
- Component of the cell membrane
- Involved in cellular signal and communication
- Help with the regulation of temperature in the body
 STRUCTURE OF LIPIDS

Building Blocks: Fatty Acids

Chemical Bond: Ester linkages
Mainly composed of Carbon and
Hydrogen atoms
FATTY ACIDS
 FATTY ACIDS

Fatty acids can be categorized as

saturated fatty acids or unsaturated fatty
acids. The main difference is the presence
of carbon-carbon double bond(s) for
unsaturated fatty acids.
SATURATED FATTY ACIDS
UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
 Classification of Lipids

Lipids are classified into two three main

classes which are:
- Simple Lipids
- Compound Lipids
- Derived Lipids
 SIMPLE LIPIDS

Simple lipids are formed from different alcohols and

fatty acid molecules. Some define simple lipids are
esters of fatty acids with different alcohols. The
common examples are:
- Fats
- Oils
- Waxes (esters made of an alcohol chain and a fatty
acid chain)
SIMPLE LIPIDS
SIMPLE LIPIDS
 SIMPLE LIPIDS

Simple Triglycerides – a triglyceride molecule

where the three fatty acids involved in the structure
are the same.

Mixed Triglycerides – a triglyceride molecule

where the three fatty acids are different in structure.
SIMPLE LIPIDS
 COMPOUND LIPIDS

Lipid molecules that will contain additional groups. One

example is the phospholipid (a lipid molecule with a
phosphate group).

Lipoprotein is a lipid molecule with a protein structure.

Glycolipid is a sugar molecule with a lipid.

COMPOUND LIPIDS
COMPOUND LIPIDS
 LIPOPROTEINS
There are two common types of
lipoproteins which are:
- High-Density Lipoprotein (HDL) –
Good Cholesterol
- Low-Density Lipoprotein (LDL) – Bad
Cholesterol
 DERIVED LIPIDS

Derivatives of simple and complex lipids that gives an

overall characteristic and feature of a lipid molecule.

Examples of derived lipids are:

- terpenes
- steroids
- carotenoids
- monoglycerides/diglycerides
DERIVED LIPIDS
 Catabolism
Fatty acids can undergo catabolism to provide energy for the
body.

The process is known as beta-oxidation.

There are 4 reactions for beta-oxidation.

- Dehydrogenation
- Hydration
- Oxidation
- Thiolysis
Catabolism
PROTEINS
 PROTEINS
BUILDING BLOCK: AMINO ACID
CHEMICAL BONDING: PEPTIDE BOND
MAINLY COMPOSED OF CARBON, HYDROGEN, OXYGEN, AND
NITROGEN
 PROTEINS
-MAJOR STRUCTURAL COMPONENT OF SOME TISSUES IN THE BODY
-COMPONENT OF MOST ENZYMES IN THE BODY
-COMPONENT OF SOME HORMONES
-BUFFER SYSTEM IN THE BODY
-SERVE DIFFERENT PURPOSES SUCH AS STRUCTURE AND TRANSPORT
-PROVIDE ENERGY
 PROTEINS
PEPTIDES: FEWER THAN 50 AMINO ACIDS
• DIPEPTIDES: 2 AMINO ACIDS
• TRIPEPTIDES: 3 AMINO ACIDS
• POLYPEPTIDES: MORE THAN 10 AMINO ACIDS
PROTEINS: MORE THAN 50 AMINO ACIDS
• TYPICALLY 100 TO 10,000 AMINO ACIDS ARE LINKED TOGETHER
AMINO ACIDS
 AMINO ACIDS
Amino acids have a three-letter code
and a one-letter code.

The nature of the amino acid

depends on the side chain or R-
group.
ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS VS
NON-ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
PROTEIN MOLECULE
 LEVELS OF PROTEIN STRUCTURE

1. Primary Structure

2. Secondary Structure

3. Tertiary Structure

4. Quaternary Structure
 PRIMARY STRUCTURE

It shows the amino acid

composition of the protein structure.

There are no interactions

involved or discussed in the primary
structure. It only gives the amino
acid components of the protein and
the peptide bonds involved.
 SECONDARY
STRUCTURE
Examples are alpha-helix and
beta-pleated sheets

Stabilized by the Hydrogen-

Bonding of the peptide
backbone

Proline and Glycine are not

commonly found for alpha-
helix
 SECONDARY STRUCTURE

Alpha-Helix Structure:
5.4 Angstrom rise per turn
There are 3.6 amino acids per turn

This information helps to calculate the

potential length of the alpha-helix
structure.
 TERTIARY STRUCTURE
It shows the three-dimensional
arrangement (3D) of the protein
structure.

Stabilized by the interactions of the

side chains of the amino acids
involved.
- Hydrophobic Interaction
- Hydrogen-Bonding
- Disulfide Bridge
- Ionic Bonding
TERTIARY STRUCTURE
 QUATERNARY STRUCTURE
Combination of two or more
polypeptide chains or subunits that
are closely packed with each other.

Each subunit has its own distinct

primary, secondary, and tertiary
structure.

Proteins aggregate with each other to

form the quaternary structure. It can
be a heteropolymer, homopolymer, or
dimer.
 DENATURATION OF PROTEINS

THERE ARE FACTORS THAT CAN DENATURE THE PROTEIN STRUCTURE:

- TEMPERATURE
- ACIDITY/BASICITY
- CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENT
- HEAVY METALS
NUCLEIC
ACIDS
NUCLEIC ACIDS

The isolated nuclein in an experiment

has acidic properties which lead to
the term “nucleic acids”.
 NUCLEIC ACIDS
Nucleic acid is an example of a polymer like proteins and carbohydrates which
is composed of the building block known as nucleotides.

They are commonly found in the nucleus of the cell.

These are considered the genetic material and the hereditary determinant of
living organisms.

Mainly composed of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus.

 TYPES OF NUCLEIC ACIDS
There are two types of nucleic acids which are:
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
RNA (ribonucleic acid)

DNA is commonly found in the nucleus of the cell while RNA

molecules are found throughout the cell of the organism.
 NUCLEOTIDES
The nucleotide is the building block of the nucleic acid (polynucleotide) and
these molecules are connected through phosphodiester bonds.

The basic structure of a nucleotide molecule is composed of:

Nitrogenous base
Ribose sugar
Phosphate group
NUCLEOTIDE
NUCLEOTIDES
NUCLEOTIDES
 SUGAR PHOSPHATE BACKBONE

The nucleic acid structure has a sugar-phosphate backbone. The

phosphate group of one nucleotide (bonded at carbon-5 of sugar) is
connected to the carbon-3 of the sugar component of the other nucleotide.
It will be described in the 5’ to 3’ orientation.
SUGAR PHOSPHATE BACKBONE
 NUCLEIC ACID
The sequence of the nitrogenous base is important. One type of nucleic
acid is the DNA which is present in living organisms.

It is the genetic material of inheritance and is present in the nucleus of the

cell.

There are approximately 3.2 billion base pairs in the human body.
 DNA
DNA has a double-stranded helical structure. This is stabilized by the
interaction of the nitrogenous bases in each DNA strand. The interaction is
known as hydrogen bonding.

The specific base pairs are:

Adenine – Thymine
Cytosine – Guanine
 DNA
For the regular DNA structure
we know, every base pair will
increase the DNA length by
0.34 nm.

This is true for B-DNA.

DNA
 DNA
Because of the base pairs that occur in DNA, (ideally) there will be an equal
amount of A and T and an equal amount of C and G.
%A = %T
%C = %G

The equation for the melting point temperature of a DNA molecule is:
𝑇𝑚 = 69.3 + 0.41(%𝐺 + 𝐶)
 TYPES OF RNA
There are 3 common types of RNA which are:
- messenger RNA (mRNA)
- transfer RNA (tRNA)
- ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
 RNA
The RNA will involve ribose sugar as part of the nucleotide structure.

It usually exists in a single-stranded structure.

The nitrogenous bases involved are:

Uracil, Adenine, Cytosine, and Guanine