SEDIMENT TRANSPORT IN RIVERS

I ] Overview of sediment distribution in alluvial channels

Rivers are the authors of their own geometry
- Rivers adjust themselves to prevailing hydrological and
sedimentological conditions.
- Morphology arises from the mobilisation, transport and
deposition of sediment.

Lateral zonation of sediment

- Where velocity is highest, deposition of more coarse material
- Where velocity is lowest, deposition of more fine material

Downstream zonation of sediment

- Downstream zonation of sediment in alluvial channels illustrates
how sediment size decreases from coarse materials in
mountainous regions to finer sediments near river mouths.
- This process is influenced by particle breakdown, sorting, and
hydraulic efficiency, all of which have significant implications for
river dynamics and sediment deposition patterns.
Particle Breakdown and Sorting:
● Weathering and Erosion: Larger particles tend to break down into
smaller pieces during transport due to mechanical weathering and abrasion against each other
and the riverbed. This process leads to smoother and more rounded particles as they travel
downstream.
● Sorting: As the sediment is transported, the particles become better sorted based on their size.
Larger, heavier particles settle out first in areas of lower flow energy, while finer particles remain
suspended and travel further downstream.
Effects channel hydraulic efficiency
The size and distribution of sediment in a river channel affect its hydraulic efficiency. Larger particles can
create rougher channel beds, increasing resistance and decreasing flow velocity. In contrast, smaller,
well-sorted sediments can enhance flow efficiency, allowing for smoother water movement.

II ] Grain size, shape and density

Wentworth size classification
Udden-Wentworth grain size scale
Phi(ɸ)=−log 2(grain diameter ∈mm)

Presentation of grain size data

Sediment sorting interpretation

● Describes the degree of uniformity of grain size
○ Well-sorted = long transport
○ Poorly-sorted = short transport
● Shape - Sphericity and Roundness
○ Angular = short transport
○ Round = long transport

Packing => the more tightly packed grains are, the more difficult they are to transport and move
(eg.marbles)

III ] Movement of sediment in channels (Entrainment, Transport, Deposition)

1. Entrainment
● Lifting of sediment into the water column
● Entrainment of sediment depends on: • Fluid forces • Velocity • Lift • Drag
● Resisting forces
○ Depends on Sediment physical properties: • Grain size • Shape • Structural arrangement •
Density

Setting particles into motion in response to water flow:

Fluid forces: Develop as a result of fluid moving past and object.
● Drag: Exerts a horizontal force.
○ ↑ surface area, ↑ drag force
○ Causes particles to roll
● Lift: Exerts a vertical force.
○ Causes particles to move upward
○ Created by different pressures on opposite side of object
○ Water moving over particle speeds up (lower pressure), water moving under particle
slows down (more pressure)
○ Bernoulli’s Principle: Sum of velocity and pressure on an object must be
constant. ↑ velocity, ↓ pressure
○ Drag and lift increase with velocity & turbulence
Resisting forces:
● Particles weight: Heavier particles require more force to be lifted
● Intergrain processes: i.e., packing
Threshold velocity
Entrainment occurs when fluid forces equal or exceed resisting forces:
- Velocity of a fluid required to entrain a particle.
- Threshold velocity varies depending on particle characteristics
=> Velocity threshold curve is a function of grain diameter and threshold velocity

Shear stress
Is an estimate of force exerted on the bed and banks by the fluid => causes initial movement
τ 0=γ Rs
- τ 0 = mean boundary shear stress ;
- γ = specific weight of water (ratio of the weight of water to the volume occupied by the
water)
- R = hydraulic radius (cross-sectional area divided by wetted perimeter)
- s = slope
Bed shear stress for steady, uniform flow
● Estimate shear stress for:
○ Steady flow: not changing in time
○ Uniform flow: not changing in space
● These conditions never apply exactly to natural flows, but often natural conditions come close
enough that they are useful approximations

Critical shear stress

The moment where shear forces overcome restrictive forces (e.g., friction) …particles become entrained
π
τ cr=η g (ρs −ρ) D tan ϕ
6
- D = grain diameter
- η = degree of packing
- ρ = fluid density
- ρ s = sediment density
- ϕ = angle of repose

Shields equation (1936)

- Dimensionless critical shear stress
- Often plotted against Reynolds number

Shield’s curve => dimensionless critical shear stress often plot against Boundary Reynolds number (ratio
of grain size to thickness of laminar sublayer)

2. Transport
Sediment Transport
- Highly complicated problem
- Strongly correlated with discharge, bed shear stress, and stream power
- Grain size and grain sorting are very important.
- Many engineering formulas in use; all are approximations that are most valid for certain flow &
sediment characteristics

Properties of fluid flow that control transport:

● FLOW COMPETENCY
○ Largest particle moved by flow
○ Velocity dependent
○ 6th Power law
● FLOW CAPACITY:
○ Total amount of sediment that can be moved by flow.
○ Includes dissolved, suspended and bedload.
○ Controlled by length of time a flow threshold is exceeded.
● 6th Power Law:
○ The mass of a particle that can be moved is proportional to the velocity of the river raised
to the 6th power.
○ This means changing the velocity a little has a large impact on weight of particles
transported.

Types of load: (load = all the material carried by a stream)

● Solute or Dissolved Load
○ Consists of ions and molecules.
○ Derived from chemical weathering and sub-surface flow.
○ Includes dissolved organic substances.
○ Highest concentrations in base flow conditions.
○ Short residence time in the channel.
○ > 60% total load in Australian rivers
● Suspended (or Wash) Load
○ Consists of solid particles (mostly silt and clays).
○ Derived from channel bed, bank, and nearby hillslopes (overland flow).
○ Small and light enough to be supported by turbulence.
○ Concentration typically highest closest to bed.
○ Often well correlated with discharge.
○ Most streams carry largest part of their load in suspension
● Bed (or traction) Load
○ Consists of gravel, cobbles and boulders, which roll, slide or saltate along the channel
bed.
○ Derived from channel bed and bank (also landslide)
○ Grain movement characterised by long periods of inactivity punctuated by short bursts of
movement.
○ Many NZ rivers have high bed load.

3. Deposition
 ● Occurs where settling velocity of particles is greater than fluid forces.
● It occurs where:
○ 1. Velocity decreases causing loss of competency.
○ 2. There is an excessive load causing loss of capacity.
● Generally coarsest particles are deposited first causing a downstream decrease in particle size.

Characteristic river deposits

Hjulstrom and Shield Curves

● The Hjulstrom and Shields curves form the basis of
a simple understanding of fluid: sediment
interactions
● In the 1930s Hjulstrom collated data from
experimental studies to relate flow velocity to
sediment transport
● In the 1930s Shields carried out experiments to
relate shear stress and Reynolds number to
sediment entrainment

=> Describes the relationships between flow velocity and

particle size AND the erosion, transportation, and
deposition of sediments.
=> Velocity is measured1 m above the bed

IV ] Bedforms
● Features that develop at the interface of a fluid (water or wind) and a moveable bed.
● E.g., ripples and dunes.
● Often preserved in the sedimentary record.
● Provide information about flow characteristics such as flow depth and velocity.

Bedforms and velocity:

- As flow velocity increases, progress through a series of bedforms.
- Ripples => Dunes => Plane Beds => Antidunes
- Froude Number
 - Manning’s n

● Ripples
○ Asymmetrical ripples are formed as water passes over the sandy bed in one direction.
○ Gently sloping upstream side (Stoss)
○ More steeply dipping downstream side (Lee)
○ Form under subcritical flow condition (F<1)
○ Trough formed at the base of Lee.
○ Progressively migrate downstream.
○ Only form under moderate flow velocities, with a grain size <0.7 mm
○ Typical height: 0.5–3 cm; wavelength: 5–40 cm
● Shear stress and ripples
○ Shear stress increases as water moves up the stoss side.
○ Shear stress suddenly decreases once water moves over the crest.
■ Flow separation - region of rotating fluid detached from flow boundary.
■ Created by pressure differences
■ Causes back eddying (digs out trough)
○ Further along, flow reconnects with bed, shear stress building up again.
● Dunes
○ Distinctly larger than current ripples
○ Wavelength can exceed 100 m and wave height up to 5 m,
○ Usually asymmetric.
○ Form under subcritical flow condition (F<1).
○ Dunes only form in grain sizes >0.2 mm
○ Migrate downstream
○ Low flow velocities yield straight-crested bedforms(valid for both dunes and current
ripples);
○ Higher Flow velocities yield in sinuous to linguoid crest lines
● Plane beds and antidunes
○ Plane beds
■ Form when Froude number ~=1.
■ Ripples and dunes sheared away leaving a relatively flat bed.
○ Antidunes
■ Form in supercritical flow conditions (F>1)
■ Migrate in an upstream direction.
■ Lose sediment from the downstream side faster than gained through deposition.

Relating shear stress and grain size to fluvial bedforms

- Relationships exist among shear stress, grain diameter and bedforms.
- Shear stress = estimate of force exerted on the bed by the fluid
- Relationships exist among stream power, grain diameter and bedforms.
- Stream power is related to the ability of stream to transport material

V ] Concepts relating sediment transport, fluvial geomorphology and management

Application of important geomorphic concepts in fluvial geomorphology and management
- Magnitude (how big something is)
- Frequency (how often something occurs)
- Thresholds (a critical point at which something changes)
Magnitude and frequency
- Many geomorphologically important events have a right skewed
frequency distribution.
- Wolman and Miller (1960) discussed the role of events of different
magnitude and frequency in fluvial erosion
• Lower magnitude events occur at higher frequency than higher magnitude
events
• Bigger events often more well-preserved because Bigger events wipe out
smaller events

Thresholds
Change occurs when a threshold is exceeded
Crossing of thresholds can be due to internal or external factors
- Internal example: Catastrophic floodplain stripping.
- External example: Change in base level

VI ] Fluvial Sediment loads: Global and local perspective

Sediment transport type and flux
- Varies globally depending on climate, vegetation cover, lithology, land use
- Globally 20 billion tonnes of sediment exported out of rivers
- NZ: 400 million tonnes transported annually

Comparing sediment and solute loads for the world’s major river basins
Relating sediment yield to precipitation

Fine sediment export in GBR catchments

- Based on modelled and monitored data.
- Fine sediment export dominated by the Burdekin, Fitzroy and Burnett-Mary.
- Estimated ‘anthropogenic’ loads greatly exceed ‘Predevelopment’ loads in most cases.

Calculating sediment yield/loads

● Measure loads in rivers
○ e.g. – Sampling suspended sediment and multiply concentration and discharge
● Bedload is difficult to measure and is normally calculated by the use of predictive equations.
● Measure sedimentation in lakes and reservoir:
○ Measure thickness of sediment over dated surface
● Cosmogenic isotope dating of surfaces