International Journal of Applied Research 2025; 11(2): 52-61

ISSN Print: 2394-7500

ISSN Online: 2394-5869
Impact Factor (RJIF): 8.4
Development of a quick and accurate
IJAR 2025; 11(2): 52-61
www.allresearchjournal.com
spectrophotometric technique for oxidative coupling
Received: 15-11-2024 reaction-based cephalexin determination in drug
Accepted: 23-12-2024
formulations
Mustafa M Abd
General Directorate of
Education Anbar, Fallujah,
Iraq
Mustafa M Abd
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.22271/allresearch.2025.v11.i2a.12334

Abstract
This study presents the development of a simple, rapid, cost-effective, and accurate spectrophotometric
method for the determination of Cephalexin (CPX) through anoxidative coupling reaction. The method
involves the reaction of CPX with sodium periodate (SPI) as the oxidizing agent and amino phenazone
(APh) as the coupling reagent, resulting in the formation of an orange chromophore upon completion of
the reaction. This chromophore exhibits maximum absorption at 528 nm and remains stable for at least
35 minutes. The calibration curve follows Beer's law within a concentration range of 10-120 µg/mL,
with a high correlation coefficient (R² =0.9996). The molar absorptivity was calculated to be 4793.982
L/mol.cm, and Sandell's sensitivity index was 0.0725 µg/cm². The limits of detection (LOD) and
quantification (LOQ) were determined to be 0.01609 µg/mL and 0.05362 µg/mL, respectively. A
recovery rate of 99.6865% was achieved, with a relative error of 0.3134% and a relative standard
deviation (RSD) of 0.9373%. This method has been successfully applied to determine CPX in
pharmaceutical formulations, including Cefex capsules and Pharmexin syrup.

Keywords: Cephalexin (CPX), amino phenazone (APh), sodium periodate (SPI), spectrophotometric,
pure forms, pharmaceutical formulations

Introduction
Cephalexin, with the molecular formula C₁₆H₁₇N₃O₄S, is chemically designated by the
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) as [(6R,7R)-7-[(2R)-2-amino-
phenyl-acetyl]-3-methyl-8-oxo-5-thia-1-azabicyclo[4.2.0]oct-2-ene-2-carboxylic acid]. It is
classified as a first-generation cephalosporin, characterized by the presence of a beta-lactam
ring. Cephalexin has a molecular weight of 347.39 g/mol and a melting point of 326.8°C. Its
structural formula is illustrated in Figure 1 [1].

Corresponding Author:
Mustafa M Abd
General Directorate of
Education Anbar, Fallujah, Fig 1: molecular formula of cephalexin
Iraq
~ 52 ~
International Journal of Applied Research https://www.allresearchjournal.com

Cephalosporins are widely employed to treat various Sodium periodate (SPI) (99.4%, Mw=213.892 g.mol-1,
bacterial infections, particularly those affecting the skin, Hopkin and Williams).
owing to their broad-spectrum antibacterial activity. They Cephalexin (CPX) (99.7%, Mw=347.39 g.mol-1, Fluka
are considered first-line treatments for infections of the Chemicals, Sigma-Aldrich Inc.).
genitourinary tract, skin, soft tissues, upper and lower Amino Phenazone (APh) (98.7%, Mw=231.29 g.mol-1
respiratory tracts, bones, joints, and other conditions caused Sigma-Aldrich).
by susceptible microorganisms [2, 3]. Commercial dosage forms of CPX
A significant advantage of cephalosporins is their relative  Cefex capsule (India) 500 mg of CPX.
safety for patients with allergies or hypersensitivity to  Pharmexin Syrup (Jordan) 250 mg of CPX.
penicillin [4, 5]; however, cross-reactivity remains a potential
concern. Cephalexin is also frequently utilized to treat throat Preparation of Solutions
infections, especially those caused by beta-hemolytic Stock Solution of Cefalexin (1000 µg/mL, 2.88 × 10⁻³ M)
streptococci [6, 7]. Its antibacterial mechanism involves The stock solution of cefalexin was prepared by dissolving
inhibiting bacterial cell wall synthesis by binding to 0.1000 g of cefalexin powder in a minimal volume of
penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs), which are essential for distilled water. The mixture was then quantitatively
cell wall assembly [8,9]. The molecule exhibits zwitterionic transferred to a 100 mL volumetric flask, and the final
properties due to the presence of both acidic and basic volume was adjusted to the mark with distilled water,
groups, with an isoelectric point ranging between 4.5 and resulting in a concentration of 1000 µg/mL. To avoid light
5.0 [10]. deterioration, the solution was kept in a dark atmosphere.
Cephalexin is widely used to treat a variety of ailments,
including cellulitis, pneumonia, streptococcal pharyngitis, Standard Solution of Cefalexin (500 µg/mL, 1.44×10⁻³ M)
and otitis media, in addition to its efficacy in treating skin To make a standard cefalexin solution at a concentration of
infections [11]. Adults usually take 250 mg to 1 gram orally 500 µg/mL (1.44 × 10⁻³ M), 50 mL of the 1000 µg/mL stock
every 6 hours (in the form of 250 mg or 500 mg cephalexin solution was diluted with distilled water in a 100 mL
capsules). 6-12 mg per kilogram of body weight every 6 volumetric flask. This was carried out until the volume
hours (oral suspension) is the suggested dosage for attained the necessary concentration for additional
youngsters [12]. Common gastrointestinal side effects of examination.
cephalexin (CPX) include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, joint
pain, an unpleasant taste, insomnia, vaginal itching, and Sodium Periodate (SPI) Oxidizing Agent Solution (2139
abdominal pain [13,14]. According to the World Health µg/mL, 0.0100 M)
Organization (WHO), cephalosporins are among the most The sodium periodate (SPI) solution was made by carefully
widely used antibiotics with problems of bacterial resistance weighing 2.1390 g of the oxidizing agent and diluting it
[14, 15]
. Despite its high efficiency, frequent use of CPX may with purified water. This solution was then transferred to a
have adverse health effects, including acute renal damage [16, 100 mL volumetric flask, and the volume was adjusted to
17]
. Other adverse effects associated with toxicity or the calibration point by adding distilled water. 10 mL of this
overdose include pruritus during pregnancy, oral discomfort, solution was moved to a second 100 mL volumetric flask
and gastrointestinal symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and further diluted with distilled water to reach a final
epigastric pain, diarrhea, and hematuria [18]. Although concentration of 0.0100 M.
antibiotics have been essential in the fight against infectious
diseases, their abuse and overuse have led to the Amino Phenazone Reagent Solution (0.0100 M)
development of antibiotic resistance, which is currently 0.2310 g of the amino phenazone reagent were dissolved in
distilled water and then transferred to a 100 mL volumetric
regarded as one of the biggest threats to world health [19].
flask to create an amino phenazone reagent solution with a
Cephalexin can be determined using a variety of analytical
concentration of 0.0100 M. To guarantee correct
techniques, such as voltammetry [22], reverse-phase high-
concentration, distilled water was used to adjust the volume
performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) [23], to the appropriate level.
HPLC/MS [24, 25], potentiometry [26], and UV-Vis
spectrophotometry [20, 21]. In this study, we describe the Interferent Solution (1000 µg/mL)
creation of a spectrophotometric technique based on The interferent solution was prepared by dissolving 0.1000
oxidative coupling with amino phenazone (APh) that is g of each of the following substances: starch, fructose,
quick, sensitive, and accurate. The solvent used in this glucose, and lactose, in distilled water within a 100 mL
procedure is distilled water. volumetric flask. The final volume was then adjusted to the
mark with distilled water.
Apparatus
A UV-VIS single-beam spectrophotometer (CECIL single Pharmaceutical Preparation Solutions of Cefex and
beam CE1021) with a glass cell with a path length of 1.0 cm Pharmexin (500 µg/mL): Each pharmaceutical preparation
is used for additional measurements. The UV-VIS double was independently formulated by grinding the contents of
beam spectrophotometer UV-2601 (BIOTECH COMPANY ten capsules, where each capsule contained 500 mg of
LTD. UNITED KINGDOM) has 1 cm quartz cells. Water cefalexin. The total mass of Cefex was computed to be
bath and electric heater (LA Bacon LWB-104). This 5.6724 g (individual capsule weight: 0.5672 g). This amount
experiment makes use of a Mettler Toledo AB 204-S digital was dissolved in one liter of distilled water, yielding a final
analytical balance. concentration of 5000 µg/mL. A 10 mL aliquot of this
concentrated solution was subsequently transferred to a 100
Reagents and Materials mL volumetric flask and diluted to the calibration mark with
All chemicals and reagents used are of analytical grade: distilled water, resulting in a final concentration of 500
µg/mL.
~ 53 ~
International Journal of Applied Research https://www.allresearchjournal.com

In the case of Pharmexin syrup, to prepare a solution during the initial testing phase. After that, 1.0 mL of a
containing 500 µg/mL of the active ingredient in a final coupling reagent was added to a 25 mL volumetric flask,
volume of 100 mL, 2 mL of the syrup was accurately likewise at a concentration of 0.01 M. Distilled water was
measured into a 100 mL volumetric flask and subsequently used to get the final volume up to par. Following several
diluted to the mark with distilled water. tests on the mixture's constituent parts that produced a
noticeable orange coloring, these concentrations were
Results and Discussion carefully selected. The wavelength at which the greatest
Preliminary Tests absorbance was measured, 528 nm, was used in all ensuing
1.0 mL of the drug solution at 500 µg/mL was mixed with experimental studies.
1.0 mL of an oxidizing agent at a concentration of 0.01 M

Fig 2: Initial absorption spectrum of cephalexin

Study of Optimal Conditions and Adjustment of agent SPI, with a concentration of 0.01 M, was methodically
Practical Conditions for Complex Formation investigated. Following the incorporation of 1.0 mL of a
A thorough investigation was carried out to look into how drug solution containing 500 µg/mL of cephalexin, 1.0 mL
different chemical and physical factors affected the drug's of the coupling reagent was added. After that, distilled water
oxidative coupling complex formation. To determine the was used to bring the total volume up to the calibration
best experimental settings that would enable the best point. A final concentration of 0.0007 M was obtained by
outcomes was the goal. recording optimal absorbance at a volume of 1.75 mL for
the oxidizing agent. It was found that going over this
Effect of Oxidizing Agent Volume (SPI) volume caused a noticeable drop in absorbance, suggesting
By adding different volumes (0.25-5.0 mL) to 25 mL that this concentration was adequate for the drug's full
volumetric flasks, the effect of the volume of the oxidizing oxidation.

Fig 3: Effect of Oxidizing Agent Volume on the Absorbance Values of the Complex.
~ 54 ~
International Journal of Applied Research https://www.allresearchjournal.com

Effect of Coupling Reagent Volume (APh) blank after the volume was adjusted to the mark using
1 mL of cephalexin solution at 500 µg/mL and 2.5 mL of an distilled water. The peak absorbance was achieved at a
oxidizing agent at the exact same concentration were mixed volume of 1.75 mL, corresponding to a final concentration
in 25 mL volumetric flasks, and incremental amounts (0.25- of 0.0007 M. Further increases in the volume of APh
5.0 mL) of the APh solution at a concentration of 0.01 M resulted in a decrease in absorbance, confirming that 1.75
were added. Absorbance measurements were then mL is the optimal volume for the reagent utilized.
performed at a wavelength of 528 nm against a suitable

Fig 4: Effect of Coupling Reagent Volume on the Absorbance Values of the Complex.

Order of Additions conditions, absorbance values were recorded against a blank

Using various addition sequences, a series of experiments solution, with the highest absorbance observed for the
were carried out to examine the reactivity of a drug solution sequence (Oxidizing Agent + Drug + Reagent), as shown in
at 500 µg/mL, the APh reagent at 0.0100 M, and the Table 1.
oxidizing agent SPI at 0.0100 M. Under optimal reaction

Table 1: Effect of the Order of Additions on the Absorbance Values of the Complex
Experiment Number Addition Sequence Absorbance Values
1 Indicator + Drug + Oxidant 0.386
2 Oxidant + Drug + Indicator 0.412
3 Indicator + Oxidant + Drug 0.401

Effect of Oxidation Time waiting times from 0 to 10 minutes, and the volume was
To determine the necessary time for the completion of the adjusted with distilled water to the desired level. After then,
oxidation process, 1.75 mL of the oxidizing agent was absorbance was measured at 528 nm. The optimal complex
added to 1 mL of the drug solution in 25 mL volumetric formation was achieved after 1 minute, which was selected
flasks. 1.75 mL of the reagent was added after a range of for subsequent experiments, as illustrated in Figure 5.

Fig 5: Effect of Oxidation Time on the Absorbance Values of the Complex

~ 55 ~
International Journal of Applied Research https://www.allresearchjournal.com

Effect of Temperature Variation temperature resulted in decreased absorbance due to the

1.75 mL of the oxidizing agent at a concentration of 0.0100 dissociation of the resulting complex.
M was added to 1 mL of the drug solution at a concentration
of 500 µg/mL in a 25 mL volumetric flask 1.75 mL of the Table 2: Effect of Temperature on the Absorbance Values of the
reagent at a concentration of 0.0100 M was then added to Complex
the mixture after it had been let to react for a minute to Temperature (°C) 15 20 25 30 35 40 50 60
guarantee full oxidation. The volume was then adjusted with Absorbance 0.398 0.41 0.41 0.385 0.316 0.256 0.183 0.113
distilled water to reach the desired level. At a wavelength of
528 nm, absorbance was measured throughout the Effect of Time on Complex Stability
temperature that ranges from 15 to 60 °C. The maximum Figure 6 demonstrates the stability of the reagent-drug
absorbance was observed at temperatures between 20 and 25 complex over time under optimal conditions. The
°C; therefore, subsequent experiments were conducted at 25 absorbance values remained stable for at least 35 minutes,
°C. Results presented in Table 2 indicated that increasing with a formation time of approximately 2 minutes.

Fig 6: How Complex Absorbance Values Are Affected by Time

Organic Solvents' Effect: Under neutral conditions and The results indicated that using water as a solvent yielded
with the previously stated ideal parameters, the impact of the highest absorbance for the resulting solution compared
several solvents with varying polarity on the absorbance to other solvents. Consequently, distilled water was
spectrum of the colorful complex produced by the reaction employed in the subsequent experiments.
of CPX with the APh reagent in the presence of the
oxidizing agent (SPI) was investigated. Solutions were Final Absorbance Spectrum
diluted with different solvents, and absorbance spectra were The volume was adjusted to the mark in a 25 mL volumetric
recorded against their respective blanks. The results are flask with distilled water after the ideal conditions were
detailed in Table 3. established, which included adding 1.75 mL of the oxidizing
agent (SPI) with an initial concentration of 0.0100 M to 1.0
Table 3: Effect of Organic Solvents on Complex Absorbance mL of the cefalexin solution at a concentration of 500
Values µg/mL, waiting a minute for full oxidation, and then adding
Solvent Absorbance 1.75 mL of the APh reagent solution with an initial
Water 0.41 concentration of 0.0100 M. To finish the reaction, the liquid
Ethanol 0.396 was then left to stand at room temperature (25°C) for two
Methanol 0.25 minutes. As shown in Figure 7, the final absorbance of the
Acetone 0.053 colored product was measured against its blank solution,
Ethyl ether Turbid revealing maximum absorbance at a wavelength of 528 nm.
Ethyl acetate 0.084

~ 56 ~
International Journal of Applied Research https://www.allresearchjournal.com

Fig 7: Cefalexin Solution's Final Absorption Spectrum under Optimal Conditions (20 µg/mL) (A) In opposition to distilled water. (B) In
opposition to the blank solution. (C) The blank solution against distilled water.

Methodology and Calibration Curve Construction for showed that Beer-Lambert's Law was followed. in the
CPX Determination concentration range of 10-120 µg/mL for the CPX solution,
1.75 mL of the oxidizing agent (SPI) was added to a series as shown in Table 4 and Figure 8.
of 25 mL volumetric flasks at an initial concentration of
0.0100 M, followed by varying volumes (0.05-8 mL) of Table 4: Optimal Conditions for CPX Drug
CPX solution with an initial concentration of 500 µg/mL, Optimal Conditions Optimal Value
which corresponds to concentrations ranging from 1 to 160 Oxidizing Agent Volume 1.75 ml
µg/mL. Subsequently, 1.75 mL of the APh reagent at an Reagent Volume 1.75 ml
initial concentration of 0.0100 M was added, and the Addition Sequence Oxidizer + Drug + Reagent
volume was adjusted to the mark with distilled water. After Temperature 25 °C
establishing the optimal conditions and following the Stabilization Time 35 min
optimal sequence of addition, at 528 nm, absorbance was Solvent Used Distilled Water
measured in comparison to a blank solution. The outcomes

Fig 8: Calibration curve for the determination of the CPX-APh complex."

Accuracy, Compatibility, and Sensitivity of the Proposed deviation (%RSD) were calculated to evaluate its
Method compatibility. Three distinct CPX concentrations were
The accuracy of the proposed method was evaluated through measured for this assessment under the ideal circumstances
the calculation of percentage recovery (%Recovery), specified in the procedure. Table 5 presents the results,
whereas the standard deviation (SD) and relative standard which show that the procedure is accurate and compatible.

~ 57 ~
International Journal of Applied Research https://www.allresearchjournal.com

Table 5: Accuracy and Compatibility of the Proposed Method

Con. taken of CPX (μg ml-1) Con. found of CPX (μg ml-1) RE% *Recovery % Average Rec % RSD %
30 29.6956 1.0146 98.9853% % 0.9153
50 50.2028 - 0.4056 100.4056% 99.6865% % 1.0686
70 69.7681 0.3313 99.6687% % 0.8281
(All values are the average of 6 readings)

The linear equation y=0.0138x+0.1272 was derived, with the Effect of Interfering Compounds on the Absorption of
slope equal to 0.0138. The molar absorptivity coefficient the CPX-APh Complex: When examining the effect of
was calculated to be 4793.982 L/mol.cm, and the Sandell various excipients (interferents) on the CPX drug, it was
sensitivity was determined to be 0.0725 µg/cm². found that these compounds do not significantly affect the
Additionally, the limits of detection (LOD) and absorbance, even at concentrations up to 150 µg/mL. The
quantification (LOQ) were calculated, yielding values of findings presented in Table 6 confirm that there is no
0.01609 µg/mL and 0.05362 µg/mL, respectively. These significant interference from these materials in the
results indicate that the method demonstrates high precision absorption of the CPX complex with the APh reagent. This
and compatibility. demonstrates the method's high selectivity, making it
applicable for effective drug determination in
pharmaceutical formulations.

Table 6: Effect of Interferents on the Estimation of 10 µg/mL of CPX

Recovery% of 10 µg/ml CPX Foreign Compounds added
Foreign Compounds
40 µg/ml 80 µg/ml 150 µg/ml
Starch 102.10 99.47 99.13
Glucose 99.13 99.56 98.15
Lactose 99.56 100.86 103.91
Sodium benzoate 97.82 98.69 102.10

Determination of the Stoichiometry Job’s Method (Continuous Variation): Volumes of CPX

Of the Complex To ascertain the nature and binding ratio of solution ranging from 1 to 9 mL were combined with
the orange-colored complex formed, Job’s approach complementary volumes (from 9 to 1 mL) of APh reagent
(continuous variation) and the mole ratio method (28) were solution in a 25 mL volumetric flask, It was subsequently
diluted with distilled water to the appropriate level. Under
employed, employing a molar concentration of 1.44 x 10⁻³
ideal circumstances, absorbance was measured at 528 nm in
M for both the drug and the reagent to be used. relation to a blank solution. Figure 9 provides an illustration
of the results.

Fig 9: Continuous Variation Method Curve for CPX-APh Complex

Mole Ratio Method distilled water was added to bring the volume up to par. A
In a series of 25 mL volumetric flasks, 1 mL of CPX 1:1 mole ratio was confirmed by measuring absorbance at
solution was combined with different amounts (ranging 528 nm with the continuous variation method, as shown in
from 0.25 to 3.5 mL) of APh reagent solution, and then Figure 10.

~ 58 ~
International Journal of Applied Research https://www.allresearchjournal.com

Fig 10: Mole Ratio Method Curve for CPX-APh Complex

Applications: The proposed method was applied to the 25, 60, and 90 µg/mL, following the procedures used for
pharmaceutical formulation containing CPX, specifically the calibration curve preparation. At 528 nm, the absorbance
syrup formulation Pharmexin (500 µg/mL) and the capsule was determined compared to a blank solution. The average
formulation Cefex (500 µg/mL), as detailed in the section. of six readings for each concentration was calculated, along
with the recovery rate, average recovery, relative error, and
Direct Method % RSD. The results are presented in Table 7, which
Three different concentrations of Pharmexin solution (500 indicates that the proposed method successfully quantifies
µg/mL) and Cefex solution (500 µg/mL) were prepared at cefalexin in its pharmaceutical forms.

Table 7: Results of CPX Estimation in Its Pharmaceutical Preparations Using the Direct Method
Amount of CPX CPX measured
Drug RE% *Rec% Average Rec% RSD%
taken µg/ml µg/ml
25 24.5507 %1.7972 % 98.2028 %0.2604
Pharmexin
60 60.2028 % -0.338 % 100.338 % 99.5350 %0.1478
Jordan
90 90.0579 % -0.064 % 100.0643 %0.7628
25 25.3478 % -1.3912 % 101.3912 %0.4088
Cefex
60 60.1304 % -0.2173 % 100.2173 % 100.6649 %0.2089
India
90 90.3478 % -0.3864 % 100.3864 %0.9234
(All values are the average of 6 readings)
compared with the official method used by Al-Rafidain
The table above demonstrates the success of the proposed Pharmaceutical Industries, which employs HPLC (USP41)
method in estimating cefalexin in the pharmaceutical over a concentration range from 10−5 to 10−1 M. The T-test
preparations containing it. and F-test [27], among other statistical tests, were used to
look for any notable variations between the outcomes of the
Evaluation of the Proposed Method Results suggested and conventional approaches. Table 8 presents the
To evaluate the efficacy of the proposed method, it was findings.

Table 8: Calculated t and F Values for Each Preparation

Pharmaceutical Preparation t Value F Value
Pharmexin 0.59166 2.14
Cefex - 1.9994 0.37515
Tabulated Values at 95% Confidence Level 2.228 5.05
Standard method (USP41) for Al-Rafidain Pharmaceutical Industries Company using HPLC

The findings demonstrated the effectiveness and precision differences between the two methods' outputs. There was no
of the suggested method since the computed t-value was discernible difference between the standard and suggested
lower than the tabulated t-value at a 95% confidence level. approaches, since the experimental F-value was determined
An F-test was performed using n=6, which represents the to be lower than the calculated F-value at the same
number of readings, to compare the dependability of the confidence level. This suggests that the suggested approach
suggested approach with the conventional HPLC method exhibits good dependability and reproducibility.
and identify any significant

~ 59 ~
International Journal of Applied Research https://www.allresearchjournal.com

Table 9: Comparison the proposed method with literature methods

Analytical Parameter Literature Method [28] literature Method[29] Present Method
Reagent N-Bromosuccinimde methyl orange Amino Phenazone
Beers Law Range µg.ml-1 1-9 0.6 - 20 10-120
λmax (nm) 608 510 528
Molar absorption coefficient (L.mol-1.cm-1) 2.75×104 9.8×104 4793.982
Solvent Distilled wаter Distilled wаter Distilled wаter
Recovery% 98.97% 98.4% 99.6865%
RSD% 3.29 % 4.4 % 0.8281 - 1.0686%
Sandel Index (µg.cm-2) 13.29. 0.00354 0.0725
Pharmaceutical preparation capsule capsule Capsule & Syrup

Evaluation of the Suggested Approach against Well- 11. Al-Sarray AJA. Molecular and electronic properties of
Established Literature Methods Schiff bases derived from different aniline derivatives:
With the results shown in Table, the suggested approach for density functional theory study. Eurasian Chemical
calculating Cephalexin (CPX) was contrasted with other Communications. 2023;5:317-326.
oxidative coupling reaction techniques documented in the 12. Gualerzi CO, Brandi L, Fabbretti A, Pon CI.
literature. Antibiotics: targets, mechanisms and resistance.
Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH; 2013.
References 13. Hitchings A, Lonsdale D, Burrage D, Baker E. The top
1. National Center for Biotechnology Information. 100 drugs: clinical pharmacology and practical
PubChem Compound Summary for CID 27447, prescribing. Elsevier Health Sciences; 2018.
Cephalexin [Internet]. 2024 [cited 2024 Oct 17]. 14. Arias CA, Murray BE. Antibiotic-resistant bugs in the
Available 21st century: a clinical super-challenge. New England
from:https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Cep Journal of Medicine. 2009;360(5):439-443.
halexin 15. El-Shaboury S, Saleh G, Mohamed F, Rageh A.
2. Jacobs MR, Jones RN, Giordano PA. Oral β-lactams Analysis of cephalosporin antibiotics. Journal of
applied to uncomplicated infections of skin and skin Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis. 2007;45(1):1-
structures. Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious 19.
Disease. 2007;57:S55-S65. 16. Wang K, Guan F, Li H, Li M, Feng H, Fan H. One-step
3. Deepak A, Chauhan S, Verma K, Garg S. Preparation, synthesis of carbon nanodots for sensitive detection of
characterization and biological studies on cephalexin. RSC Advances. 2015;5:20511-20515.
pyridoxylidene-cephalexin Schiff base complexes of 17. Benarab N, Fangninou FF. The issues of antibiotics:
aryltellurium (IV). International Journal of Chemical cephalexin antibiotic as emerging environmental
Sciences. 2017;15(4):182. contaminant. International Journal of Scientific
4. Disney FA, Dillon H, Blumer JL, Dudding BA, McLinn Research Publications. 2020;10:306-318.
SE, Nelson DB, Selbst SM. Cephalexin and penicillin 18. Herman TF, Hashmi MF. Cephalexin. Tampa, FL,
in the treatment of group A β-hemolytic streptococcal USA: StatPearls Publishing; 2022. Available from:
throat infections. American Journal of Diseases of www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549780
Children. 1992;146:1324-1327. 19. Stevenson HS, Shetty SS, Thomas NJ, Dhamu VN,
5. Ali AE, El Asala GS, Salem WM, Gaber M. Bhide A, Prasad S. Ultrasensitive and rapid-response
Spectrophotometric determination of Cr (III) and Fe sensor for the electrochemical detection of antibiotic
(III) by cephalexin. Chemical Research Journal. residues within meat samples. ACS Omega.
2021;6(6):60-66. 2019;4:6324-6330.
6. Perry CM, Brogden RN. Cefuroxime axetil. Drugs. 20. Neda IM. Simple two spectrophotometric methods for
1996;52:125-158. estimation of cephalexin in pure and pharmaceutical
7. Iqbal M, Khan A. Pre-formulation study of salicylidine- dosage form. Samarra Journal of Pure and Applied
cephalexin-Zn (II) dihydrate, a new derivative of Sciences. 2021;3(1):37-45.
cefalexin. Drug Research. 2016;66:415-419. https://doi.org/10.54153/sjpas.2021.v3i1.166
8. Kees FK, Lukassek U, Naber K, Grobecker H. 21. Mohamed ThA, Elham SS. Indirect spectrophotometric
Comparative investigations on the bioavailability of determination of cefalexin monohydrate, ceftriaxone
cefuroxime axetil. Arzneimittel-Forschung. sodium and cefotaxime sodium in pharmaceuticals
1991;41:843-846. using N-bromosuccinimide and Evans blue dye. Journal
9. Anacona J, Rincones M. Tridentate hydrazone metal of Educational Sciences. 2020;29(3):11-31.
complexes derived from cephalexin and 2- https://doi.org/10.33899/edusj.2019.125959.1009
hydrazinopyridine: synthesis, characterization and 22. Sabriye P, Besnik U, Gizem Y. Voltammetric analysis
antibacterial activity. Spectrochimica Acta Part A of cephalexin and cefazolin in pharmaceutical
Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy. formulations and biological samples. Journal of the
2015;141:169-175. Turkish Chemical Society. 2019;6(2):217-224.
10. Al-Sarray AJ, Al-Mousawi IMH, Al-Noor TH. Acid https://doi.org/10.18596/jotcsa.469028
activation of Iraqi bentonite clay: its structural, 23. Narsu KK, Rajiya Sd, Bhulakshmi A, Pavan KD,
dielectric and electrical behavior at various Gayathri DK, Prudhvi CP, Kalyani V. Analytical
temperatures. Chemical Methodologies. 2022;6:331- method development and validation of cephalexin by
338.
~ 60 ~
International Journal of Applied Research https://www.allresearchjournal.com

RP-HPLC method. Journal of Emerging Technologies

and Innovative Research. 2019;6(6):696-699.
24. Manal MH, Ahmed MS, Tariq KI. RP-HPLC developed
analytical method for cephalexin determination in pure
and pharmaceutical preparations. College of Education
for Pure Science, University of Diyala. 2020;2(2):1-8.
https://doi.org/13140/RG.2.2.11276.74882
25. Sabrina GC, Rafaela Z, Ytan AS, Bruna C, Daniel K,
Peterson H, Ani CW, Daiane H, Eduardo ME, Clarice
S, Lucélia H. Degradation of micropollutant cephalexin
by ultraviolet (UV) and assessment of residual
antimicrobial activity of transformation products. Water
Science and Technology. 2021;84(2):374-383.
https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2021.170
26. Huda GS, Dalia MJ, Amina MA, Ahmed A. Synthesis
liquid membrane electrodes of cephalexin
hydrochloride. Systematic Reviews in Pharmacy.
2020;11(6):710-716.
https://doi.org/10.31838/srp.2020.6.105
27. Skoog DA, West DM, Hooller FJ, Crouch SR.
Fundamentals of analytical chemistry. 9th ed. Belmont:
Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning; 2014. p. 152-159.
28. Aghwan MT, Elham SS. Indirect spectrophotometric
determination of cefalexin monohydrate, ceftriaxone
sodium and cefotaxime sodium in pharmaceuticals
using N-bromosuccinimide and Evans blue dye. Journal
of Educational Sciences. 2020;29(3):11-31.
29. Khan MN, et al. Development and validation of a new
spectrophotometric method for the determination of
cephalexin monohydrate in pure form and
pharmaceutical formulations. Journal of the Brazilian
Chemical Society. 2016;27(5):912-918.

~ 61 ~