INTERMEDIATE FLUID

MECHANICS
INTERMEDIATE FLillD
MECHANICS

Robert H. Nunn
Naval Postgraduate School
Monterey, California

GS ~~~~~~~n~s ~,:~~nee
New York London

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This book is dedicated to my wife,
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and to my three sons.
 CONTENTS

Preface xiii

1 Background and Introductory Material

1.1 Review of Some Important Mathematical Tools 3
Derivatives of Vectors 3
Vector Differential Operations 5
Integration of Functions of More than One Variable 6
1.2 The Notion of a Continuum 7
1.3 Bibliography 8
References 9

Part 1 Ideal Fluid Flows

2 Forces and Motions in Ideal Flows 13

2.1 Derivative Moving with the Flow 14
2.2 Vector Expressions for Forces on a Fluid Particle 15
2.3 Euler Equation 17
Description in Streamline Coordinates 19
2.4 Bernoulli Equation 21
Problems 22
vii
viii CONTENTS

3 Tools for Use in Ideal Fluid Flows 25

3.1 Flows with and without Rotational Motion 25
Vorticity 27
Circulation 27
Irrotational Motion and Velocity Potential 29
3.2 Bernoulli Equation Revisited 30
Special Cases 31
3.3 Stream Function 32
Physical Construction of Stream Function 35
3.4 Irrotational Continuous Flows 37
Stream Function in Irrotational Flows 37
Velocity Potential in Continuous Flows 37
Functions That Satisfy the Laplace Equation 37
Orthogonality of Stream Function and Velocity Potential 38
3.5 Summary 38
References 41
Problems 41

4 Analysis of Ideal Fluid Flows 43

4.1 Some Extremely Useful Flows 43
Uniform Flow 43
Source (or Sink) at the Origin 44
Vortex at the Origin 45
Doublet at the Origin Facing in the + x Direction 47
4.2 Circular Cylinder in Uniform Flow 51
Velocities 52
Pressures 54
Forces 54
Cylinder in Uniform Flow with Circulation 56
Problems 58

5 Some Extensions to the Methods of Analysis of Ideal

Flows 61
5.1 Applications of the Theory of Complex Variables 61
Properties of the Complex Variable 63
Two Important Theorems 64
5.2 Back to Fluid Mechanics 65
Complex Velocity Potential 65
Some Basic Two-Dimensional Flows 66
5.3 Distributed Singularities 76
Indirect Method 76
Direct Methods Using Distributed Singularities 78
Some Results of Extended Applications 82
References 88
Problems 88
CONTENTS ix

Part 2 One-Dimensional Compressible Flow

6 Background 93
6.1 Ground Rules 93
6.2 Fundamentals and Governing Relationships 94
Flow Energy Equation 95
Mass Flow Effects with Variable Density 96
6.3 Speed of Propagation of a Small Disturbance 97
6.4 Stagnation State 99
6.5 Further Implications of the Second Law 101
Entropy Connection to Vorticity 102
References 105
Problems 105

7 Isentropic One-Dimensional Flows 107

7.1 Mach Number Relationships 107
Relating Conditions at Two Points in Isentropic Flow 108
7.2 Differential Expressions of Change 108
Flow-Area Relationships in Isentropic Flows 110
7.3 Nozzle Flow and Back-Pressure Effects 113
Establishment of Supersonic Internal Flows 115
Reference 118
Problems 118

8 Wave Processes in Supersonic Flows 121

8.1 Changes across Normal Shocks 123
C-D Nozzle with Normal Shocks 126
8.2 Oblique Shock Waves 128
8.3 Very Weak Waves (Mach Waves) 134
Prandtl-Meyer Flow 137
References 140
Problems 140

9 Continuous Flows with Entropy Changes 143

9.1 Governing Differential Expressions 143
Constant-Area Adiabatic Flow (Fanno Flow) 144
Constant-Area Reversible Flow with Heat Transfer (Rayleigh Flow) 145
9.2 Analysis of Fanno Flows 147
Accounting for Friction 148
Illustrative Examples, Subsonic Fanno Flow 150
Illustrative Examples, Supersonic Fanno Flow 153
9.3 Analysis of Rayleigh Flows 157
Illustrative Examples 158
Back-Pressure Considerations 159
9.4 Isothermal Constant-Area Flows 162
X CONTENTS

References 163
Problems 163

Part 3 Simple Viscous Flows

10 Fundamental Concepts and Governing Relationships 167

10.1 The Nature of Viscosity 168
Momentum Transport Due to Molecular Activity 169
10.2 Surface Forces Acting on a Fluid Element 172
10.3 Development of Constitutive Equations for an Isotropic Fluid 173
Deformation of a Solid 174
Fluid-Solid Analogy 176
Velocity Gradient Tensor 178
10.4 Navier-Stokes Equations 181
Various Forms 182
10.5 Other Forms of Navier-Stokes Equations 183
Vorticity Transport Form of N-S Equations 184
Expression in Terms of Stream Function 185
Slow Flow 186
10.6 Summary 187
References 188
Problems 188

11 Exact Solutions to the Navier-Stokes Equations 191

11.1 No-Slip Boundary Condition 191
11.2 Steady Fully Developed Flows 192
Case 1. Flow between Infinite Flat Plates 192
Case 2. Flow in a Pipe: Hagen-Poiseuille Flow 194
Case 3. Couette Flow 196
Case 4. Annular Flow along a Rod 197
11.3 Suddenly Accelerated Flat Plate: Stokes's First Problem 198
Region of Viscous Action 201
11.4 Summary 204
Problems 204

12 The Boundary Layer 207

12.1 Reduction of Navier-Stokes Equations 208
Boundary Layer Equation 211
Remarks on the Mathematical Nature of the Boundary Layer
Equations 212
Boundary Layer Separation in Steady Flow 213
12.2 Laminar Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate 215
Solution Using a Similarity Variable 216
12.3 Approximate Methods of Evaluating Integrals of Boundary Layer
CONTENTS xi

Equations 223
Formal Integration across the Boundary Layer 223
Momentum Considerations 225
Semiempirical Models for Flat Plate Skin Friction 230
12.4 Summary 232
References 233
Problems 233

13 Turbulent Flows 235

Note on Transition and Stability 235
13.1 Average Values and Fluctuating Quantities 239
Some Rules Governing Averaging 240
13.2 Momentum Transport via Thrbulence 243
Physical Influence of Velocity Fluctuations 243
Equations of Motion for Thrbulent Flow 244
13.3 Models for Apparent Stresses 247
Prandtl's Mixing Length Theory 248
Universal Velocity Distribution Laws 249
13.4 Thrbulent Flow in Pipes 250
13.5 Flat Plate Boundary Layer Flows 255
Initial Laminar Boundary Layer 259
13.6 Flows with Pressure Gradients 261
Form Drag 265
13.7 Summary 268
References 270
Problems 270

Appendixes
A Mach Number Functions for Isentropic Flow 273
B Mach Number Functions for Normal Shock Flow 283
c Prandtl-Meyer Function and Mach Angle 289
D Mach Number Functions for Fanno Flow 295
E Mach Number Functions for Rayleigh Flow 305
F Introduction to Index Notation 315

Epilogue: Computer Applications and Computational

Fluid Dynamics 319

Index 339
 PREFACE

Programs in engineering education have expanded considerably in the last few de-
cades, and a master's degree is now considered by many to represent the nominal
level for practicing engineers. Whereas a single introductory course in fluid mechan-
ics was once considered to be adequate for first-degree engineers, many institutions
now include a second course in the upper-division undergraduate curriculum. This is
particularly true in universities that expect a significant portion of their students to
continue their formal education into the graduate level.
At the Naval Postgraduate School this midrange course has been viewed as a
"terminal" course for some and, for others, as a "transition" course. For those who
do not plan to pursue a greater depth of study in fluid mechanics, I have sought to
provide an overview. For students whose interests are likely to require further study
in the area, the goal has been to provide a preview of coming attractions. These
course characteristics are not inherently compatible, and the corresponding course
objectives present a number of challenges to the teacher as well as to the students (the
distinction between a "challenge" and a "pain in the neck" being somewhat ob-
scure).
One of these challenges has been the designation of a suitable textbook. Introduc-
tory texts, by their nature, provide careful development of fundamental concepts,
such as fluid properties, fluid statics, the notion of conserved entities, the control
volume approach, and energy and momentum methods. Because of the necessity of

xiii
xiv PREFACE

providing practical working tools, these texts often emphasize integral formulations,
based upon steady, incompressible, one-dimensional hypotheses and backed by em-
piricism. Beyond fluid statics, the focus is usually upon internal flows, with viscous
effects and turbulence treated in an overall sense. From a practical point of view, in
an introductory text it is not possible (and perhaps undesirable) to go to any great
lengths concerning such subjects as potential flow and the effects of compressibility.
At the other end of the spectrum are a number of excellent works that are most
useful as reference texts for in-depth but separate studies of viscous flows, compress-
ible flows, or ideal flows. The result, I feel (and it is my experience), is that these
important subareas of fluid mechanics appear to the student as independent and dis-
tinct, and somehow out of balance in their contribution to an overall view of fluid
mechanics. This situation has made it difficult to accomplish the objective of provid-
ing a second course that serves as an overview. From the preview point of view, I
have found it necessary to extend the treatments of these subareas, especially poten-
tial flows and compressible flows.
In short, texts that have been evaluated are either too basic, too advanced, or too
something or other. For this reason the growth of the course has been accompanied by
the generation of rather copious amounts of handout material, relying less and less
upon existing texts and more and more upon the instructor's notes.
Turning to a discussion of the scope and organization of this text, I begin with an
acknowledgment of its limitations. By its very nature, this book begins at the end of
an introductory level of fluid mechanics and ends at a juncture with advanced treat-
ment of the subject. Some may feel that the coverage starts too far into the subject (or
not far enough) and/or that there is not enough (or too much) of an extension to first-
course material.
From the point of view of limiting the material up front, readers will not find the
usual preliminaries involving such important matters as units and fluid properties. By
the same token, the appendixes do not include tabular material on such items as
properties and unit conversions. This is because it is assumed that readers will have at
hand a good introductory text with which they are familiar.
Other than shear exhaustion, the stopping point has again been determined by the
nature of the text. This material is more than enough to provide the overview and
preview aspects of the objectives previously discussed. To go further would be to
infringe too deeply upon the territory of the many advanced texts now in print. I must
also emphasize that this book is not meant to stand by itself in the absence of an
instructor. There are many points, not just at the beginning and end of the coverage,
that invite the insertion of extensions to the theory and applications, as well as presen-
tations of other points of view.
The presentation is organized into three parts: ideal fluid flow (potential flow),
compressible flow, and viscous flow. The categorization is more or less standard, but
the best order of presentation is by no means obvious. In deciding which to teach
first, one should keep in mind the makeup of the curriculum, as well as the goals of
the course. For instance, compressible flow should probably not be left until last
unless there is additional course work on the subject available in the curriculum-
material planned for presentation near the end of a course often receives short shrift.
PREFACE XV

On the other hand, the principles of ideal fluid motion form mathematical and con-
ceptual foundations that are quite useful for development of the relationships govern-
ing viscous flow. (It seems better to add shear stresses to the Euler equation than
delete them from the Navier-Stokes equation-the commonality of the expressions for
fluid acceleration provides a useful link between ideal flow and viscous flow.) For
these and other reasons, there does seem to be some logic to support the presentation
of this material in the order given above: ideal, compressible, and viscous. In any
case either viscous flow or compressible flow can follow ideal flow, according to the
preference of the teacher.
In my use of this material, giving about equal time to each of the three parts, I
have found that in an 11-week quarter there is little difficulty in covering Chapters
1-4, 6-8, and 10-12. Chapters 5, 9, and 13 provide extensions to material in each
of the three parts and are often treated in a descriptive way. The treatment of
turbulent flows (Chapter 13) is given priority for whatever "extra" time is avail-
able.
Following some introductory remarks, Part One of the text develops the Euler
equation as the governing differential equation of motion for ideal flows. Both
kinetic and kinematic aspects of ideal flow are emphasized, and the Bernoulli equa-
tion is derived in extended form to show the various special cases to which it is
applicable. The notions of vorticity, circulation, and irrotational motion are de-
scribed, and formulations of the velocity potential and stream function lead to the
Laplace equation. In Chapter 4 the usual hydrodynamic singularities are defined,
and some examples of the use of superposition are explored. (Only planar two-
dimensional flows are treated in any detail-axisymmetric geometries are men-
tioned as simple alternatives employing the same methods) At the end of Part One,
Chapter 5 provides an introduction to applications of the theory of complex variables,
and methods of distributed singularities are demonstrated. Some recent results in
these areas are presented to give the reader an appreciation of the power of these
methods.
The procedure adopted in this text is to replace one complication with another so
that the level of sophistication remains somewhat even. Accordingly, in Part Two the
treatment of compressible flows is restricted to one-dimensional cases. The introduc-
tory material establishes the ground rules for Part Two and provides a link to the fluid
kinematics of Part One by showing the connection betv:een vorticity and entropy
change in a flow. Following some definitions (stagnation state, speed of sound, and
so on), the working relationships for isentropic flow are developed and applied.
Application of the theory to converging-diverging nozzles leads to the implementation
of pressure boundary conditions and the concomitant necessity for discontinuities
(shock waves) under certain circumstances. This leads into Chapter 8, where normal
and oblique shock-wave theories are presented along with the formulas for expansion
processes (Prandtl-Meyer flows).
By way of extension to the theory of compressible flows, Chapter 9 presents
methods for treating flows with other sources of entropy change-irreversibilities due
to friction (Fanno flows), flows with heat transfer (Rayleigh flows), and isothermal
flows. The assumption of constant area is common to these developments, and the
xvi PREFACE

combination of these effects with those due to area change is left as a problem that is
best solved with the computer.
Finally, in Part Three viscous effects are treated. Chapter 10 begins with a pre-
sentation on fluid viscosity that is meant to instill an appreciation for the meaning and
impact of momentum transport. Following a general discussion of the state of stress
of a fluid element (including the use of index notation), the Navier-Stokes equations
are developed in the most primitive way-these relationships are formidable enough
without the generalities that accompany an approach via tensor calculus. Such an
approach may be the choice of the instructor, but in this text only the fluid-solid
analogy method will be found. A few exact solutions to the Navier-Stokes equations
are presented next; they are exercises in interpreting the various terms, specifying
boundary conditions, and showing that the Navier-Stokes equations contain within
them the solutions to the elementary problems treated in an introductory course. The
presentation of Stokes's first problem then leads directly to the concept of the bound-
ary layer.
The boundary layer simplification begins Chapter 12 and leads to the boundary
layer equation. Following a discussion of boundary layer separation, both the similar-
ity and integral methods of solution are developed for laminar flat plate flows.
Boundary layer characteristics and frictional resistance are calculated, and, finally, it
becomes necessary to broach the subject of turbulence.
I have already spoken of challenges, and foremost among these has been the
presentation of the subject of turbulent flows in a single chapter. It was something of a
temptation to "solve" this problem by leaving it to the authors of more-advanced
texts. To do so, however, would have led to a premature departure from the treatment
of viscous flows. In Chapter 13, therefore, I have tried to provide enough information
on this subject to serve the goals of overview and preview. Neither fluids nor authors
can get from laminar to turbulent without passing through transition, so I have at-
tempted a qualitative presentation of some of the more important aspects of this
extremely complex process. This is followed by an elementary explanation of the
rules of averaging and their application to the equations of motion for turbulent flows.
Some of the more common constitutive laws for turbulent flows are also discussed,
and these are applied in calculations for pipe flows and the flat plate boundary layer.
Combined laminar-turbulent boundary layers are also discussed, and, near the end of
the chapter, there is included some preliminary insights into the analysis of separated
flows and form drag.
In closing, I wish to acknowledge my great debt to all those who have contrib-
uted to the literature in fluid mechanics in the form of introductory texts and advanced
reference works. What I have done is to try to work the middle ground of this vast
field of information. In doing so, I have borrowed heavily from "above" and from
"below." I can make no particular claim to creativity in this effort, but I do hope to
have performed a useful service in broadening the perspective from which students of
fluid mechanics will view their subject.

Robert H. Nunn
 CHAPTER
ONE
BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTORY
MATERIAL

This text is meant to serve as an extension to the many introductory books on

fluid mechanics. For this reason the level and nature of the material presented
presuppose some understanding on the reader's part of the fundamental aspects
of fluid mechanics. It is the author's intention to build on this understanding; for
those who may feel a bit "rusty" in this regard, a review of one or more of the
many excellent texts on the subject is highly recommended. The bibliography at
the end of this chapter lists several texts suggested for purposes of review.
Without dwelling on the definition of a fluid, which is assumed to be one of
those concepts retained from a first course in fluid mechanics, it may be useful
to review what is meant by "mechanics." Figure 1.1 illustrates this and points
out the breadth implied by the general use of the term "mechanics." In this text
we shall not treat the subject of fluid statics except as it comes under discussion
as a special case of fluid dynamics, as shown in Fig. 1.1.
To further explain the nature and scope of what follows, Table 1.1 shows
some of the major categories into which fluid mechanics has been subdivided over
the years.
Whether a particular problem in fluid mechanics falls into one or the other
of these categories depends on the relative influence of the two main physical
properties defining a fluid: density and viscosity. If the effect of viscosity is neg-
ligible (we shall see in some detail what is meant by effect), then the problem
may be one in "hydrodynamics." If the density variations in the flow are domi-

1
2 INTERMEDIATE FLUID MECHANICS

Figure 1.1 Branches of mechanics.

nant, or at least significant, then the methods of compressible flow analysis must
be brought to bear. Few problems involving real fluids are totally devoid of the
effects of viscosity and variations in density, so the matter is often one requiring
a subjective judgment tempered (we always hope) by some knowledge and ex-
perience as to what are the important factors in a given flow situation. In fact,
many of the most challenging and frustrating problems in fluid mechanics involve
flow situations that reside in the "gray areas" that span the categories shown in
Table 1.1.
The organization of this text follows that of Table 1.1. The order of presen-
tation of the material is based on convenience and experience. There are, of course,
other categorizations possible: unsteady vs. steady, internal vs. external, one-di-
mensional vs. multidimensional, etc. Descriptions such as these are often used to
further define the groupings of Table 1.1. The reader should not infer from these
remarks that the solution of problems in fluid mechanics is solely one of choosing
the right "category." The likelihood that a particular problem can be solved is
greatly increased if it can be confined to such straightforward definitions. The
usual case, however, is one in which the engineer is forced to neglect the less
important facets of a flow for the simple reason that the problem cannot be solved
with all possible effects taken into account. Necessity is the mother of simplifi-
cation!

Table 1.1 Main divisions of fluid mechanics and some of their features
Ideal fluid flow Compressible flow Viscous flow

Hydrodynamics Gas dynamics Emphasis on viscous effects

Negligible viscous effects Density varies from point to Density often held constant
point in flow
Considerations mainly Viscous effects often Boundary layer theory
kinematic neglected or greatly applies
simplified
Mathematically complex, Simple geometries Mixing and diffusion
multidimensional important
Density often held Often treated as Turbulence
constant one-dimensional
 BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTORY MATERIAL 3

1.1 REVIEW OF SOME IMPORTANT MATHEMATICAL

TOOLS

In engineering analysis, mathematics is an essential language for expressing phys-

ical relationships in compact form. For instance, F = rna is a simple mathematical
form that imposes many far-reaching influences on all of nature. Engineers, in
their studies as well as in practical applications, must keep in mind both sides of
such relationships as well as the symbology by which they are linked (in this case,
the equals sign). In subsequent chapters we try to maintain an emphasis on the
essential physical implications of the governing mathematical relationships. This
is not always easy, however, because the language of mathematics can become
so encumbered with sophisticated nuances that the physics is lost in a forest of
symbology.
Probably the only way to avoid mathematical obfuscation is to develop a
familiarity with the language that allows one to "see through" the mathematics
to the underlying principles. To assist in gaining this familiarity, this section pro-
vides a brief review of some of the mathematical tools that are frequently em-
ployed in investigation of fluid flows. Other mathematical operations will be de-
scribed where they are most directly applicable.

Derivatives of Vectors
Quantities of interest in fluid mechanics often depend on many variables. One
common dependency is on location in space, and this location may be specified
by denoting three characteristic distances, or coordinates, relative to some point
of reference. This reference point is the origin of our coordinate system. Two
popular coordinate systems-Cartesian and polar-cylindrical-are illustrated in
Fig. 1.2.
To completely specify the location of a point it is necessary to provide both
the magnitude and direction of the coordinates. The resulting quantity is termed
a vector. (Vectors, requiring two specifications, may be viewed as a subset of a
more general set called tensors. Part Three of this text, which deals with viscous
flows, includes more information on tensors.) In the Cartesian coordinate system,
for instance, the location vector of the point P(x, y, z) is given by

y
''

z POLAR-CYLINDRICAL

Figure 1.2 Cartesian and polar-cylindrical coordinate systems.

4 INTERMEDIATE FLUID MECHANICS

R = xf + yj + zk
If we wish to express the rate of change of the position of a point P relative
to the origin, we write
dR d , ,
- =- (xf + yj + zk)
dt dt
dx dy , dz , ( df dj dk)
=-f+-j+-k+ x-+y-+z-
dt dt dt dt dt dt

But since the unit vectors are of constant (unit) magnitude and constant direction
(they are aligned with the fixed coordinate axes), the last term above involving
the rates of change of the unit vectors is zero and
dR dx dy, dz,
-=-f+-j+-k
dt dt dt dt
When one or more of the coordinates are curvilinear, as in the polar-cylin-
drical system of Fig. 1.2, we must be careful to account for changes in direction
of the unit vectors. Thus, in the polar-cylindrical system,
R = rlr + zlz
and
dR d , dr, dz,
- = r - ( 1 ) + - 1 +-1
dt dt r dt r dt z

Note that the unit vectors t and le are constrained to lie in the (x, y) plane, but
they rotate as the angle e changes due to the motion of point P. Thus though the
magnitude of t is constant, its orientation changes at the rate dS/dt, and the
direction of this change is that of l 8 • We find, therefore, that

and
dR de , dr , dz ,
- = r- le +- lr +- lz
dt dt dt dt
As a further example, consider the velocity vector q with components vn v6 ,
and vz in polar-cylindrical notation:
' ' '
q = Vrlr + Vale + Vzlz
The acceleration dq/dt may be expressed as
 BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTORY MATERIAL 5

Both the r and e components of acceleration include additional terms due to the
rotation of the unit vectors la and t. e
respectively. Since = Ve/r, these may be
expressed in the more familiar forms as v9v,/r and -v~jr.

Exercise Note that the unit vectors in polar-cylindrical coordinates may be

expressed as follows:
A A

1, = f cos e + j sin e
A A

1a = - f sin e + j cos e

From the first of these,

d A o Ao
- (1,) = -ffi sine + je cos e = e1 9 (1.1)
dt

and from the second,

d A 0 Ao
- C1e) = -ffi cos e - je sine = -e1, (1.2)
dt

Vector Differential Operations

The vector differential operator V, (called del or nabla) is defined in rectangular
coordinates as
a Aa Aa
V=f-+j-+k- (1.3)
ax ay az
The operator V must operate on something (scalar, vector, or tensor function),
and it is a vector operator because it has two components in each of the directions.
When the vector differential operator is applied to a scalar function S, we have
the gradient
as Aas Aas
gradS= VS = f - + j - + k - (1.4)
ax ay az
Note that the components of VS express the rates of change of S along the three
coordinate directions and grad S is the vector sum of these rates.
Though the del operator may be applied directly to vectors and tensors (e.g.,
Vq), it is more frequently found in applications involving products. The scalar
prod,_uct (o! dot product) produces the divergence of a vector. Thus with q = uf
+ vj + wk,
au av aw
div q = V · q = - + - + - (1.5)
ax ay az
6 INTERMEDIATE FLUID MECHANICS

The divergence of a vector is a scalar. The vector product (or cross product)
produces the curl:

curl q = V x q = 1(aw _ av) + ;(au _ aw) + k(av _ au)

ay az az ax ax ay
f j k
a a a
(1.6)
ax ay az
u v w
It is extremely important to note that these forms involving the operator V, in-
cluding its definition, are valid in general only for Cartesian coordinate systems.
In curvilinear coordinate systems the derivatives of the unit vectors become in-
volved and, as we have seen, significant differences from the Cartesian results
are to be expected.
All of the previous expressions-gradient, divergence, and curl-have im-
portant physical interpretations when applied to fluid flow problems. These will
be brought out in due course. None of these operations is commutative (e.g., VS
¥- SV) or associative (e.g., V · Sq ¥- VS · q). They are, however, distributive (e.g.,
curl(q + r) = curl q + curl r). Further discussion of vector differential operations
may be found in Bird et al. (1960, pp. 715-742) and Schey (1973).

Integration of Functions of More than One Variable

Often in the analysis of fluid flows it is necessary to deduce the nature of a func-
tion from its partial derivatives. Thus, given
aF aF
- = P(x,y) and ay = Q(x, y) (1. 7)
ax
it is necessary to find F(x, y).
The first of the expressions above will be satisfied by
F(x, y) = fP(x, y) dx + f(y) (1.8)
where the y appearing under the integral sign is treated as a parameter that does
not vary in the integration with respect to x. The notation f( y) means that f de-
pends only on y (and not on x or anything else). If we now differentiate with
respect to y,

-aF = a
- J P(x, y) dx + f'(y) = Q(x, y)
ay ay

wheref'(y) = df/dy. From this,

f'(y) = Q(x, y) - !..._ JP(x, y) dx

ay
 BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTORY MATERIAL 7

and

f(y) = J[ Q(x, y)- :y J dx]

P(x, y) dy +C

where C is a constant of integration. Substituting this result into Eq. (1.8), the
required function is

F(x, y) = JP(x, y) dx + J[ Q(x, y)- :y J P(x, y) dx] dy +C (1.9)

Example Consider the functions

P(x, y) = 2xy +1 and Q(x, y) = x 2 + 4y
from which

and

Applying Eq. (1.9),

F(x, y) = x 2y +x +f (x2 + 4y - x 2 ) dy +C
= x 2y + x + 2/ + C
Note that in this example,
aP aQ
-=-=2x
ay ax
and from Eq. (1.7),

This result is an expression of the necessary continuous nature of F(x, y) and

its first derivatives. It allows the expression of dF as an exact differential
dF=Pdx+Qdy
Functions of this type are especially common in the analysis of ideal fluid
flows (Part One of this text).

1.2 THE NOTION OF A CONTINUUM

Throughout this text we refer to conditions at a point in a field of flow. This

implies a location in space that can be defined to an unlimited degree of precision.
8 INTERMEDIATE FLUID MECHANICS

Physically, however, there is always a limit to which the "smallness" of dimen-

sions may be taken without the occurrence of unwanted discontinuities. For in-
stance, the distance between molecules of a gas at standard conditions is of the
order of 3 x 10-9 m. If the size of our point is of a similar magnitude, we cannot
even be sure that it will contain a molecule. The conditions at such a point are
likely to be totally misleading in terms of the average properties of a larger volume
surrounding it. The imposition of the continuum hypothesis requires that molec-
ularly averaged values at a point are meaningful.
In most cases this is not a serious limitation. In the standard gas, for instance,
there are about 10 million billion (10 16) molecules in a cubic millimeter. Average
properties of the volume would truly represent the characteristics and activity of
the molecules therein-such a volume is quite large, from a microscopic point
of view. On the other hand, a cubic millimeter might be quite small from the
perspective of the overall field of analysis so that the volume could be considered
to be a point for purposes of such analysis. In addition, conditions could be ex-
pected to vary continuously from one millimeter to another in such a gas, unless
some very sudden events occur. The continuum hypothesis can also break down
in cases where the characteristic distance between molecules becomes relatively
large. At the upper reaches of the stratosphere, which extends to about 20 miles
above the earth's surface, the density of air decreases to about 1/lOOth of its sea-
level value. In regions such as this, precise calculations must begin to consider
the microscopic or statistical approaches to analysis.
The concept of a continuum also bears upon the mathematical notion of the
derivative. By definition, the derivative of a function f(x) is

df f(x + Llx) - f(x)

f'(x) = - = lim - - - - - -
dx ax~o Llx

In our application of this definition to physical problems, we must think of the

limiting process as not really proceeding to Llx = 0 because in the end we would
expect severe discontinuities in f' (x) as the molecular level is approached. Our
definition of zero in this limit must be that volume of space over which the de-
rivative approaches a value that does not change as Llx is decreased. That this
volume is small enough to represent a point, for purposes of analysis, is the crux
of the continuum hypothesis.

1.3 BIBLIOGRAPHY

As has been noted, students are encouraged to review material related to their
previous courses in fluid mechanics. This area of the published literature abounds
with excellent texts, and we suggest that students review those with which they
are most familiar. The following list contains both introductory and intermediate
texts, with much overlap in the scope and level of coverage. In addition to valu-
able review material, these texts, and others like them, contain presentations that
 BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTORY MATERIAL 9

provide alternative points of view relating to much of the subject matter of this
book.

Allen, T. A., Jr., and R. L. Ditsworth: Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1972.
Bertin, J. J.: Engineering Fluid Mechanics, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1984.
Daugherty, R. L., and J. B. Franzini: Fluid Mechanics with Engineering Applications, 7th ed.,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1977.
Fox, J. A.: An Introduction to Engineering Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1974.
Fox, R. W., and A. T. McDonald: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, 3rd ed., John Wiley & Sons,
New York, 1985.
Gerhart, P. M., and R. J. Gross: Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, Addison-Wesley, Reading,
Mass., 1985.
John, J. E. A., and W. L. Haberman: Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1980.
Kreider, J. F.: Principles of Fluid Mechanics, Allyn & Bacon, Boston, 1985.
Mironer, A.: Engineering Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1979.
Olson, R. M.: Essentials of Engineering Fluid Mechanics, 4th ed., Harper & Row, New York, 1980.
Pao, R. H. F.: Fluid Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1961.
Prasuhn, A. L.: Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1980.
Roberson, J. A., and C. T. Crowe: Engineering Fluid Mechanics, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1975.
Rouse, H., and J. W. Howe: Basic Mechanics of Fluids, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1953.
Shames, I. H.: Mechanics of Fluids, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1982.
White, F. M.: Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1979.

REFERENCES
Bird, R. B., W. E. Stewart, and E. N. Lightfoot: Transport Phenomena, John Wiley & Sons, New
York, 1960.
Schey, H. M.: Div, Grad, Curl, and All That, W. W. Norton, New York, 1973.
Background and Introductory Material
As has been noted, students are encouraged to review material related to their previous
courses in fluid mechanics. This area of the published literature abounds with excellent texts,
and we suggest that students review those with which they are most familiar. The following list
contains both introductory and intermediate texts, with much overlap in the scope and level of
coverage. In addition to valuable review material, these texts, and others like them, contain
presentations that provide alternative points of view relating to much of the subject matter of this
book.
Allen, T. A., Jr. , and R. L. Ditsworth : Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1972.
Bertin, J. J. : Engineering Fluid Mechanics, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1984.
Daugherty, R. L. , and J. B. Franzini : Fluid Mechanics with Engineering Applications, 7th ed.,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1977.
Fox, J. A. : An Introduction to Engineering Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1974.
Fox, R. W. , and A. T. McDonald : Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, 3rd ed., John Wiley & Sons,
New York, 1985.
Gerhart, P. M. , and R. J. Gross : Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, Addison-Wesley, Reading,
Mass., 1985.
John, J. E. A. , and W. L. Haberman : Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, 2nd ed., Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1980.
Kreider, J. F. : Principles of Fluid Mechanics, Allyn & Bacon, Boston, 1985.
Mironer, A. : Engineering Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1979.
Olson, R. M. : Essentials of Engineering Fluid Mechanics, 4th ed., Harper & Row, New York,
1980.
Pao, R. H. F. : Fluid Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1961.
Prasuhn, A. L. : Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1980.
Roberson, J. A. , and C. T. Crowe : Engineering Fluid Mechanics, Houghton Mifflin, Boston,
1975.
Rouse, H. , and J. W. Howe : Basic Mechanics of Fluids, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1953.
Shames, I. H. : Mechanics of Fluids, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1982.
White, F. M. : Fluid Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1979.
Bird, R. B. , W. E. Stewart , and E. N. Lightfoot : Transport Phenomena, John Wiley & Sons,
New York, 1960.
Schey, H. M. : Div, Grad, Curl, and All That, W. W. Norton, New York, 1973.

Tools for Use in Ideal Fluid Flows

Li, W. , and S. Lam : Principles of Fluid Mechanics, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1976.
Robertson, J. H. : Hydrodynamics in Theory and Application, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
N.J., 1965.
Rouse, H. : Advanced Fluid Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1959.
Schey, E. M. : Div, Grad, Curl, and All That, W. W. Norton, New York, 1973.

Some Extensions to the Methods of Analysis of Ideal Flows

Churchill, R. V. : Complex Variables and Applications, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1960.
Dalton, C. , and M. F. Zedan : Design of Low-Drag Axisymmetric Shapes by the Inverse
Method, J. Hydronautics, 15, 1–4, pp. 48–54, 1984.
Denny, S. B. : Applicability of the Douglas Computer Program to Hull Pressure Problems, David
Taylor Model Basin Research Report 1786, October 1963.
Hess, J. L. , and A. M. O. Smith : Calculation of Nonlifting Potential Flow About Arbitrary Three-
Dimensional Bodies, J. Ship Research, 8, 22, pp. 22–44, 1964.
Joubert, P. N. , T. J. Sinclair , and P. H. Hoffman : A Further Study of Bodies of Revolution, J.
Ship Research, 22, 1, pp. 54–63, 1978.
Robertson, J. H. : Hydrodynamics in Theory and Application, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
N.J., 1965.
Schlichting, H. : Boundary Layer Theory, 6th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1968.
Wood, R. M. , and D. S. Miller : Impact of Fuselage Incidence on the Supersonic Aerodynamics
of Two Fighter Configurations, J. Aircraft, 22, 5, pp. 423–428, 1985.

Background
Liepmann, H. W. , and A. Roshko : Elements of Gasdynamics, John Wiley & Sons, New York,
1957.
Reynolds, W. C. , and H. C. Perkins : Engineering Thermodynamics, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1977.
Shapiro, A. H. : The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid Flow, Vols. I and II,
Ronald Press, New York, 1953.

Isentropic One-Dimensional Flows

Liepmann, H. W. , and A. Roshko : Elements of Gasdynamics, John Wiley & Sons, New York,
1957.

Wave Processes in Supersonic Flows

Bry, W. A. : Aerodynamic Loads on a Ball-Obturated Tubular Projectile, MS thesis, Naval
Postgraduate School, Monterey, Calif., 1982.
Liepmann, W. A. , and Roshko, A. : Elements of Gasdynamics, John Wiley & Sons, New York,
1957.
Nunn, R. H. , and W. A. Bry : Drag of a Tubular Projectile with Internal Blockage, J. Spacecraft
and Rockets, 21, 2, p. 216, 1984.

Continuous Flows with Entropy Changes

Benedict, R. P. : Fundamentals of Gas Dynamics, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1983.
John, J. E. A. : Gas Dynamics, Allyn & Bacon, Boston, 1969.
Rotty, R. M. : Introduction to Gas Dynamics, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1962.

Fundamental Concepts and Governing Relationships

Bird, R. B. , W. E. Stewart , and E. N. Lightfoot : Transport Phenomena, John Wiley & Sons,
New York, 1960.
Li, W. , and S. Lam : Principles of Fluid Mechanics, 2nd ed., Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass.,
1976.
Schlichting, H. : Boundary Layer Theory, 4th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1960.
Schlichting, H. : 6th ed., 1968.
Sears, F. W. : Thermodynamics, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1959.

The Boundary Layer

Blasius, H. : Grenzschichten in Flüssigkeiten mit leiner Reibung, Z. Math. u. Phys., 56, 1, 1908.
Translated into English in NACA TM 1256.
Cebeci, T. , and P. Bradshaw : Momentum Transfer in Boundary Layers, Hemisphere,
Washington, D.C., 1977.
Hansen, A. G. : Similarity Analysis of Boundary Value Problems in Engineering, Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1964.
Schlichting, H. : Boundary Layer Theory, 6th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1968.
Thompson, P. A. : Compressible-Fluid Dynamics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1972.

Turbulent Flows
Betz, A. : Untersuchung einer Joukowskyschen Tragfläche, ZFM, 6, pp. 173–179, 1915.
Dommasch, D. O. , S. S. Sherby , and T. F. Connolly : Airplane Aerodynamics, 2nd ed., Pitman
Pub. Corp., New York, 1957.
Flachsbart, O. : Winddruck auf Gasbehälter, Reports of the Aerody. Versuchsanstalt, IV series,
Göttingen, pp. 134–138, 1927.
Fuhrmann, G. : Theoretische und experimentelle Untersuchungen an Ballonmodellen, Diss.,
Göttingen, 1910.
Hinze, J. O. : Turbulence, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1959.
Hoemer, S. F. : Fluid Dynamic Drag, 2nd ed., published by the author, Midland Park, N.J., 1965.
Morrison, G. A. : On the Use of Liquid Crystal Thermography as a Technique of Flow
Visualization, MS thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, Calif., 1984.
Nikuradse, J. : Gesetzmässigkeit der Turbulenten Strömung in Glatten Rohren, Forsch. Arb.
Ing.-Wes., no. 356, 1932.
Reichardt, H. : Messungen turbulenter Schwankungen, Naturwissenschaften 404, 1938. (See
also ZAMM, 13, pp. 177–180, 1933, and ZAMM, 18, pp. 358–361, 1938.)
Reynolds, O. : On the Experimental Investigation of Circumstances Which Determine Whether
the Motion of Water Shall Be Direct or Sinuous, and the Law of Resistance in Parallel Channels,
Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 174, pp. 935–982, 1883. (See also Collected Papers, vol. II, p. 51.
Schlichting, H. : Boundary Layer Theory, 6th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1968.