• Economic disadvantage of expendable mold casting: a

new mold is required for every casting

• In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused many
times

The processes include:

• Basic permanent mold casting
• Die casting
• Centrifugal casting

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 The Basic Permanent Mold Process
Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections designed for
easy, precise opening and closing.
These molds are commonly made of steel or cast iron.
• The cavity, with gating system included, is machined into the
two halves to provide accurate dimensions and good surface
finish.
• Metals commonly cast in permanent molds include
aluminum, magnesium, copper-base alloys, and cast iron.
• However, cast iron requires a high pouring temperature,
1250C to 1500C, which takes a heavy toll on mold life.
• The very high pouring temperatures of steel make
permanent molds unsuitable for this metal, unless the mold
is made of refractory material.
MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 2
 Permanent Mold Casting Steps

The
cores
can be
made of
metal

1. Mold is preheated and coated. The coatings aid heat dissipation and
lubricate the mold surfaces for easier separation of the cast product.
2. cores (if used) are inserted and mold is closed,

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 Permanent Mold Casting Steps

3. molten metal is poured into the mold, where it

solidifies.
4. mold is opened. Permanent molds do not collapse, so
the mold must be opened before appreciable cooling
contraction occurs in order to prevent cracks from
developing in the casting.

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 4

 Permanent Mold Casting, other applications
Slush Casting (Çalkalama döküm)
Slush casting is a permanent-mold process in which a hollow casting is
formed by inverting the mold after partial freezing at the surface to
drain out the liquid metal in the center.
• Solidification begins at the mold walls because they are relatively
cool, and it progresses over time toward the middle of the casting.
• The shell is controlled by the length of time allowed before draining.
Slush casting is used to make statues, lamp pedestals, and toys out of
low-melting-point metals such as zinc and tin.
• In these items, the exterior appearance is important, but the
strength and interior geometry of the casting are minor
considerations.
MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 5
 Permanent Mold Casting, other applications
Low pressure casting
• In low-pressure
casting, the liquid
metal is forced into
the cavity under
low pressure from
beneath so that
the flow is upward.
• Gas porosity and
oxidation defects
are thereby
minimized, and
mechanical
approximately
properties are 0.1 MPa
improved.
MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 6
 Permanent Mold Casting, other applications
Vacuum Permanent-Mold Casting
• This process is a variation of low-pressure casting in which a vacuum
is used to draw the molten metal into the mold cavity.
• The general configuration of the vacuum permanent mold casting
process is similar to the low-pressure casting operation.
• The difference is that reduced air pressure from the vacuum in the
mold is used to draw the liquid metal into the cavity, rather than
forcing it by positive air pressure from below.
• There are several benefits of the vacuum technique relative to low-
pressure casting:
1. air porosity and related defects are reduced, and
2. greater strength is given to the cast product.

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 Advantages and Limitations

• Advantages of permanent mold casting:

• Good dimensional control and surface finish
• More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal mold
results in a finer grain structure, so castings are stronger
• Limitations:
• Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
• Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting
because of need to open the mold
• High cost of mold.

Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to high volume

production and can be automated accordingly .

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 Die Casting
A permanent mold casting process in which molten metal is injected
into mold cavity under high pressure.
• Pressure is maintained during solidification, then mold is opened and
part is removed .
• Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence the name die
casting
• Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is what
distinguishes this from other permanent mold processes

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 9

 Die Casting Machines

Designed to hold and accurately close two mold halves and

keep them closed while liquid metal is forced into cavity.

Two main types:

1. Hot-chamber machine
2. Cold-chamber machine

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 Hot-Chamber Die Casting
Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects liquid metal under
high pressure into the die .
• High production rates - 500 parts per hour not uncommon
• Applications limited to low melting-point metals that do not
chemically attack plunger and other mechanical components
• Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead alloys
plunger forces metal in
chamber to flow into die
7 to 35 MPa

Video
MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 11
 Cold-Chamber Die Casting Machine
Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from external melting
container, and a piston injects metal under high pressure into die cavity.
• High production but not usually as fast as hot-chamber machines because
of pouring step.
• Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium alloys

ram forces metal to

flow into die,
14 to 140 MPa

Video

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 12

 Molds for Die Casting
• Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or maraging steel
• Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory qualities) used to die
cast steel and cast iron
• Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it opens
• Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to prevent sticking
• Because the die materials have no natural porosity and the molten
metal rapidly flows into the die during injection, venting holes and
passageways must be built into the dies at the parting line to
evacuate the air and gases in the cavity.
• The vents are quite small; yet they fill with metal during injection.
• Formation of flash is common in die casting, in which the liquid metal
under high pressure squeezes into the small space between the die
halves at the parting line or into the clearances around the cores and
ejector pins.

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 Advantages and Limitations
Advantages of die casting:
(1) high production rates possible;
(2) economical for large production quantities;
(3) close tolerances possible, on the order of ±0.076mm for small
parts;
(4) good surface finish;
(5) thin sections are possible, down to about 0.5mm and
(6) rapid cooling provides small grain size and good strength to the
casting

Disadvantages:
1) Generally limited to metals with low metal points
2) Part geometry must allow removal from die

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 14

 Centrifugal Casting
A family of casting processes in which the mold is rotated at high speed
so centrifugal force distributes molten metal to outer regions of die
cavity .
The group includes:
• True centrifugal casting
• Semicentrifugal casting
• Centrifuge casting

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 True Centrifugal Casting
Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to produce a tubular part
• In some operations, mold rotation commences after pouring rather
than before
Animation
• Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
• Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal, hexagonal, etc ,
but inside shape is (theoretically) perfectly round, due to radially
symmetric forces

Video
centrifugal casting MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 16
 Semicentrifugal Casting
Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings rather than tubular parts
• Molds are designed with risers at center to supply feed metal
• Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer sections than at center of
rotation
• Often used on parts in which center of casting is machined away, thus
eliminating the portion where quality is lowest
• Examples: wheels and pulleys

The rotation speed in

semicentrifugal
casting is usually set so that
G-factors of around 15 are
obtained

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 17

 Centrifuge Casting
Mold is designed with part cavities located away from axis of rotation,
so that molten metal poured into mold is distributed to these cavities
by centrifugal force
• Used for smaller parts
• Radial symmetry of part is not required as in other centrifugal casting
methods

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 18

 Continuous Casting
Molten metal is
cast through a
mold, the
casting takes the
two dimensional
profile of the
mold but its
length is
indeterminate.

The casting will

keep traveling
downward, its
length
increasing with
time.
MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 19
Video

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 20

 Furnaces

Pouring, cleaning

Casting defects

Foundry inspection methods

Product design considerations

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 Furnaces for Casting Processes
• The types of furnaces most commonly used in foundries are
(1) cupolas,
(2) direct fuel-fired furnaces,
(3) crucible furnaces,
(4) electric-arc furnaces, and
(5) induction furnaces.

Selection of the most appropriate furnace type depends on

factors such as the casting alloy; its melting and pouring
temperatures; capacity requirements of the furnace; costs of
investment, operation, and maintenance; and environmental
pollution considerations.

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 22

 Cupolas
• Used only for cast
irons
Although other
furnaces are also
used, the largest
tonnage of cast
iron is melted in
cupolas
• The "charge,"
consisting of iron,
coke, flux, and
possible alloying
elements, is
loaded.

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 23

 Crucible Furnaces
Metal is melted without direct contact with burning fuel mixture
• Sometimes called indirect fuel-fired furnaces
• Container (crucible) is made of refractory material or high-temperature
steel alloy.
• Used for nonferrous metals such as bronze, brass, and alloys of zinc and
aluminum.

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 24

They all utilize a container (the crucible) made out of a suitable
refractory material (e.g., a clay–graphite mixture) or high-
temperature steel alloy to hold the charge. In the lift-out crucible
furnace, the crucible is placed in a furnace and heated sufficiently
to melt the metal charge. Oil, gas, and powdered coal are typical
fuels for these furnaces. When the metal is melted, the crucible is
lifted out of the furnace and used as a pouring ladle. The other
two types, sometimes referred to as pot furnaces, have the heating
furnace and container as one integral unit. In the stationary-pot
furnace, the furnace is stationary and the molten metal is ladled out
of the container. In the tilting-pot furnace, the entire assembly can
be tilted for pouring. Crucible furnaces are used for nonferrous
metals such as bronze, brass, and alloys of zinc and aluminum.
Furnace capacities are generally limited to several hundred
pounds.

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 25

Electric-Arc Furnaces
• In this furnace type, the charge is melted by heat generated from an
electric arc. Various configurations are available, with two or three
electrodes. Power consumption is high, but electric-arc furnaces can
be designed for high melting capacity, 23,000 to 45,000 kg/hr, and
they are used primarily for casting steel.

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 26

Direct Fuel-Fired Furnaces

• A direct fuel-fired furnace contains a small open hearth, in which the

metal charge is heated by fuel burners located on the side of the
furnace. The roof of the furnace assists the heating action by
reflecting the flame down against the charge. Typical fuel is natural
gas, and the combustion products exit the furnace through a stack. At
the bottom of the hearth is a tap hole to release the molten metal.
Direct fuel-fired furnaces are generally used in casting for melting
nonferrous metals such as copper-base alloys and aluminum.

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 27

 Induction Furnaces
Uses alternating current passing through a coil to develop magnetic field in metal
• Induced current causes rapid heating and melting
• Electromagnetic force field also causes mixing action in liquid metal
• Since metal does not contact heating elements, environment can be closely controlled
to produce molten metals of high quality and purity
• Melting steel, cast iron, and aluminum alloys are common applications in foundry
work

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 28

 Ladles
• Moving molten metal from melting furnace to mold is sometimes done
using crucibles
• More often, transfer is accomplished by ladles

Figure 11.21 Two common types of ladles: (a) crane ladle, and (b) two-man
ladle.
MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 29
 Casting Quality

• There are numerous opportunities for things to go wrong in a casting

operation, resulting in quality defects in the product

• The defects can be classified as follows:

• General defects common to all casting processes

• Defects related to sand casting process

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 General Defects: Misrun
A casting that has solidified before completely filling mold cavity

Typical causes include

(1) fluidity of the molten metal is

insufficient,
(2) Pouring temperature is too
low,
(3) pouring is done too slowly,
and/or
(4) cross-section of the mold
cavity is too thin.

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 31

 General Defects: Cold Shut
Two portions of metal flow together but there is a lack of fusion
due to premature freezing

Its causes are similar

to those of a misrun.

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (b) cold shut

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 32

 General Defects: Cold Shot
Metal splatters during pouring and solid globules form and become
entrapped in casting

Pouring procedures and gating

system designs that avoid
splattering can prevent this
defect.

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (c) cold shot

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 33

 General Defects: Shrinkage Cavity
Depression in surface or internal void caused by solidification shrinkage that
restricts amount of molten metal available in last region to freeze

It often occurs near the top of the

casting, in which case it
is referred to as a ‘‘pipe’.
The problem can often be solved
by proper riser design.

Figure 11.22 Some common defects in castings: (d) shrinkage cavity

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 34
 General Defects: Microporosity

Microporosity consists of a
network of small voids
distributed throughout the
casting caused by localized
solidification shrinkage of the
final molten metal in the
dendritic structure.

Porosity in an Al-10%Cu alloy.

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 35
 General Defects: hot tears
• Hot tearing, also called hot
cracking, occurs when the
casting is restrained from
contraction by an unyielding
mold during the final stages of
solidification or early stages of
cooling after solidification.
• In permanent-mold processes,
hot tearing is reduced by
removing the part from the
mold immediately after
solidification.

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 36

 Sand Casting Defects
Balloon-shaped gas Formation of many
cavity caused by small gas cavities at or
release of mold gases slightly below surface
during pouring results from
of casting erosion of the sand
mold during pouring

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 37

 Sand Casting Defects
When fluidity of liquid
metal is high, it may Core shift and
penetrate into sand mold shift are
mold or core, causing caused by
casting surface to
buoyancy of
consist of a mixture of
sand grains and metal the molten metal
A step in cast product
at parting line
caused by sidewise
relative
displacement of
cope and drag

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 38

 Foundry Inspection Methods

Foundry inspection procedures include

(1) visual inspection to detect obvious defects such as misruns, cold

shuts, and severe surface flaws;
(2) dimensional measurements to ensure that tolerances have been
met; and
(3) metallurgical, chemical, physical, and other tests concerned with
the inherent quality of the cast metal.

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 39

 Product Design Considerations

1. Geometric simplicity:
• Although casting can be used to produce complex part
geometries, simplifying the part design usually improves
castability
• Avoiding unnecessary complexities:
• Simplifies mold-making
• Reduces the need for cores
• Improves the strength of the casting

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 40

Product Design Considerations, cont.

2. Corners on the casting:

• Sharp corners and angles should be avoided, since they
are sources of stress concentrations and may cause hot
tearing and cracks
• Generous fillets should be designed on inside corners and
sharp edges should be blended

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 41

 Product Design Considerations, cont.
3. Draft
In expendable mold casting, draft facilitates removal of pattern
from mold
• Draft = 1 for sand casting
In permanent mold casting, purpose is to aid in removal of the
part from the mold
• Draft = 2 to 3 for permanent mold processes
• Similar tapers should be allowed if solid cores are used

Minor
changes in
part design
can reduce
need for
coring
MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 42
Product Design Considerations, cont.

4. Machining Allowance:
• Almost all sand castings must be machined to achieve the
required dimensions and part features .
• Additional material, called the machining allowance, is left
on the casting for machining those surfaces where
necessary.
• Typical machining allowances for sand castings range
between 1.5 mm and 3 mm

MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 43

Product Design Considerations, cont.

5. Dimensional Tolerances and Surface Finish:

• Significant differences in dimensional accuracies and
finishes can be achieved in castings, depending on
process:
• Poor dimensional accuracies and finish for sand casting
• Good dimensional accuracies and finish for die casting
and investment casting
• Typical surface roughness achieved in sand casting is
around 6 µm. Similarly poor finishes are obtained in shell
molding,
• plaster-mold and investment casting produce much better
roughness values: 0.75 µm
MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 44
MM206E, Manufacturing Processes, Gazi University 45