High Voltage Engineering

35 QA New Pattern
Unit-I

Q.1 (a) Define EHV.

The definition of extra high voltage (EHV) depends on the context of the discussion. In electric
power transmission engineering this refers to equipment designed for more than 345,000 volts
between conductors. In electronics systems, a power supply that provides greater than 275,000 volts
is known as an "EHV Power Supply". The accelerating voltage for a television cathode ray tube may
be described as "extra-high voltage" or "extra-high tension" (EHT), as compared to other voltage
supplies within the equipment. This type of supply ranges from >5 kV to about 50 kV.

(b) Classify levels of voltages.

Levels of high voltage: World over the levels are classified as:
 LOW
 MEDIUM
 HIGH
 EXTRA and
 ULTRA HIGH Voltages
Since the exact magnitude of these levels vary from country to country. Hence this system of
technical terms for the voltage levels is inappropriate. In most part of the world even 440 V is
considered to be high voltage since it is dangerous for the living being. Hence it would be more
appropriate to always mention the level of voltage being referred without any set nomenclature.

(c) Elaborate various Voltage Levels at consumer level.

 A.C. Power Frequency:
440, 220 V- single phase
440 V, 3.3 kV, 6.6 kV, 11 kV-three phase (3.3 & 6.6 kV are being phased out)
Besides these levels, the Railway Traction at 25 kV, single phase is one of the biggest consumers of
power spread at any particular stretch to 40 km of track length.
 Generation: Three-phase synchronous generators
440 V, 3.3 kV, 6.6 kV (small generators), 11 kV (110 & 220 MW)
21.5 kV (500 MW), 33 kV (1000 MW) [limitation due to machine insulation requirement]
 Distribution:
Three phase: 440 V, 3.3 kV, 6.6 kV, 11 kV, 33 kV, and 66 kV
With the increase in power consumption density, the power distribution voltage levels are at rise
because the power handling capacity is proportional to the square of the voltage level. (In Germany
440 V, 3.0 kV 6.0 kV, 10 kV, 30 kV, 60 kV)

(d) Explain disadvantages of DC transmission over AC transmission.

 AC Transmission: 110 kV, 132 kV, 220 kV, 380 - 400 kV, 500 kV, 765 - 800 kV, 1000 kV
and 1150 kV exist. Work on 1500 kV is complete. In three phase power system, the rated
voltage is always given as line to line, rms voltage.
 D.C. Transmission: dc single pole and bipolar lines: ± 100 kV to ± 500 kV. Advance
countries like US, Canada and Japan have their single phase ac power consumption level at
110V. Rest of the whole world consumes single phase ac power at 220 V. The only
advantage of 110 V single phase consumer voltages is that it is safer over 220 V. However,
the disadvantages are many.
 Disadvantages:
 It requires double the magnitude of current to deliver the same amount of power as at
220 V
 Hence for the same magnitude of I 2R losses to limit the conductor or the insulation
temperature to 70° C (for PVC), the resistance of the distribution cable should be 4
times lower. Therefore, the cable cross-section area has to be increased four folds.
  Four times more copper requirement, dumped in the building walls is an expensive
venture.
 Due to higher magnitude of current, higher magnetic field in the buildings. Not good
for health.
 With the installation of modern inexpensive protective devices (earth fault relays),
220 V is equally safe as 110 V.
OR
(e) Explain electrical power transmission at high voltages.
Electric power transmission or "high voltage electric transmission" is the bulk transfer of electrical
energy, from generating power plants to substations located near population centers. This is distinct
from the local wiring between high voltage substations and customers, which is typically referred to
as electric power distribution. Transmission lines, when interconnected with each other, become high
voltage transmission networks.
Electricity is transmitted at high voltages (110 kV or above) to reduce the energy lost in long
distance transmission. Power is usually transmitted through overhead power lines. Underground
power transmission has a significantly higher cost and greater operational limitations but is
sometimes used in urban areas or sensitive locations.
The most important application and advantage of high voltage is to transmit high power
across long distance with very little power loss. High voltage is needed when we use high power
equipment (industrial and medical instruments.) as high current source is difficult to generate and
high voltage source is easily available (3-ph AC or HVDC transmission lines) and is also easy to
convert it into lower values using transformer and voltage dividers to get desired value so high
voltages are used in industry.
Power transfer for large systems, whether in the context of interconnection of large systems
or bulk transfers, led engineers invariably to think in terms of high system voltages. Figure 1.1 lists
some of the major A.C. transmission systems in chronological order of their installations, with
tentative projections to the end of this century.
The electric power (P) transmitted on an overhead A.C. line increases approximately with the
surge impedance loading or the square of the system’s operating voltage. Thus for a transmission line
of surge impedance ZL (250Ω) at an operating voltage V, the power transfer capability is
approximately P = V2/ZL, which for an overhead A.C. system leads to the following results:
V (kV) 400 700 1000 1200 1500
P (MW) 640 2000 4000 5800 9000

Q.2 (a) Give different levels of High Voltage Transmission.

Different forms of high voltages mentioned above are classified as
i. High D.C. Voltages
ii. High A.C. Voltages of power frequency.
iii. High A.C. Voltages of high frequency.
iv. High transient or impulse voltages of very short duration such as lightning over voltages, and
v. Transient voltages of longer duration such as switching surges.

(b) What do you understand by Electrical Power Transmission.

Electric power transmission or "high voltage electric transmission" is the bulk transfer of electrical
energy, from generating power plants to substations located near population centers. This is distinct
from the local wiring between high voltage substations and customers, which is typically referred to
as electric power distribution. Transmission lines, when interconnected with each other, become high
voltage transmission networks.

(c) Give the reason for rise in transmission voltage levels.

The rapidly increasing transmission voltage level in recent decades is a result of the growing demand
for electrical energy, coupled with the development of large hydroelectric power stations at sites far
remote from centres of industrial activity and the need to transmit the energy over long distances to
the centres. However, environmental concerns have imposed limitations on system expansion
resulting in the need to better utilize existing transmission systems. This has led to the development
 of Flexible A.C. Transmission Systems (FACTS) which are based on newly developing high-power
electronic devices such as GTOs and IGBTs. Examples of FACTS systems include Thyristor
Controlled Series Capacitors and STATCOMS. The FACTS devices improve the utilization of a
transmission system by increasing power transfer capability. Although the majority of the world’s
electric transmission is carried on A.C. systems, high-voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission by
overhead lines, submarine cables, and back-to-back installations provides an attractive alternative for
bulk power transfer.

(d) What do you understand by the need for generating high voltages in laboratory?
In the fields of electrical engineering and applied physics, high voltages (D.C., A.C., and impulse)
are required for several applications. For example, electron microscopes and x-ray units require high
D.C. voltages of the order of 100 kV or more. Electrostatic precipitators, particle accelerators in
nuclear physics, etc. require high voltages (D.C.) of several kilovolts and even megavolts. High A.C.
voltages of one million volts or even more are required for testing power apparatus rated for extra
high transmission voltages (400 kV system and above). High impulse voltages are required for
testing purposes to simulate over-voltages that occur in power systems due to lightning or switching
surges. For electrical engineers, the main concern of high voltages is for the insulation testing of
various components in power systems for different types of voltages, namely, power frequency A.C.,
high frequency, switching or lightning impulses. Hence, generation of high voltages in laboratories
for testing purposes is essential and is discussed in this chapter.
Normally, in high voltage testing, the current under conditions of failure is limited to a small value
(less than an ampere in the case of D.C. or A.C. voltages and few amperes in the case of impulse or
transient voltages). But in certain cases, like the testing of surge diverters or the short circuit testing
of switchgear, high current testing with several hundreds of amperes is of importance. Tests on surge
diverters require high surge currents of the order of several kilo-amperes. Therefore, test facilities
require high voltage and high current generators. High impulse current generation is also required
along with voltage generation for testing purposes.

OR
(e) Give important applications of High Voltage.
The most important application:
i. Transmission of high power across long distance with very little power loss.
ii. High voltage is needed when we use high power equipments (industrial and medical
instruments) as high current is difficult to generate and high voltage source is easily available
(3-ph AC or high voltage DC transmission lines).
iii. As it is easy to convert High value power into lower values using transformers and voltage
dividers to get desired value so high voltages are used in industry.
iv. Generation of high D.C. voltages is required in research work in the areas of pure and applied
physics.
v. High direct voltages are needed in insulation tests on cables and capacitors.
vi. Impulse generator charging units also require high D.C. voltages of about 100 to 200 kV.
vii. For the generation of D.C. voltages of up to 100 kV, electronic valve rectifiers are used and
the output currents are about 100 mA.

Q.3 (a) Explain the formation of bubbles in cavity breakdown

Insulating liquids may contain gaseous inclusions in the form of bubbles. The processes by which
bubbles are formed include:
1. Gas pockets on the electrode surface,
2. Changes in temperature and pressure,
3. Dissociation of products by electron collisions giving rise to gaseous products,
4. Liquid vaporization by corona-type discharges from points and irregularities on the electrodes.

(b) Give the condition of electron avalanche.

Once the electron is injected into the liquid it gains energy from the applied field. In the electronic
theory of breakdown it is assumed that some electrons gain more energy from the field than they lose
in collisions with molecules. These electrons are accelerated until they gain sufficient energy to
ionize molecules on collisions and initiate avalanche.
The condition for the onset of electron avalanche is obtained by equating the gain in energy of an
electron over its mean free path to that required for ionization of the molecule.
eEλ = chυ
where E is the applied field, λ the electron mean free path, hυ the quantum of energy lost in ionizing
the molecule and c an arbitrary constant.

(c) Derive Paschen’s Law

In uniform fields, the Townsend's criterion for breakdown in electropositive gases is given by the
following equation,
(eαd -1 ) = 1
Or αd = ln (1/ + 1)
where the coefficients α and γ are functions of E/p and are given as follows:

and
where E0 is the applied electric field, and p the gas pressure. In a uniform field electrode system of
gap distance d,

where Ub is the breakdown voltage and Eb the corresponding field intensity. Eb is equal to the electric
strength of the dielectric under given conditions. When the applied field intensity E0 = Eb , the
Townsend's criterion for breakdown in electropositive gases in uniform field can be represented in
terms of the product of the gas pressure and the electrode gap distance 'pd' as,

Or
This is known as Paschen's law.

(d) Explain Bubble’s Theory

Insulating liquids may contain gaseous inclusions in the form of bubbles. The processes by which
bubbles are formed include:
(i) Gas pockets on the electrode surface,
(ii) Changes in temperature and pressure,
(iii) Dissociation of products by electron collisions giving rise to gaseous products,
(iv) Liquid vaporization by corona-type discharges from points and irregularities on the
electrodes.
The electric field in a spherical gas bubble which is immersed in a liquid of permittivity ε liq is given
by:

where E0 is the field in the liquid in the absence of the bubble. When the field E b becomes equal to
the gaseous ionization field, discharge takes place which will lead to decomposition of the liquid and
breakdown may follow. Kao has developed a more accurate expression for the ‘bubble’ breakdown
field strength which is of the form

where σ is the surface tension of the liquid, ε 1 and ε2 are the permittivities of the liquid and the
bubble respectively, r is the initial radius of the bubble (initially spherical, which is assumed to
elongate under the influence of the field), and V b is the voltage drop in the bubble. This expression
indicates that the critical electric field strength required for breakdown of liquid depends upon the
 initial size of the bubble which is affected by the external pressure and temperature. A strong
dependence of liquid breakdown strength upon the applied hydrostatic pressure has been observed
experimentally.
Commercial insulating liquids cannot readily be subjected to highly elaborated purification
treatment, and the breakdown strength will usually depend upon the nature of impurities present.

OR
(e) Explain Electro-Convection Breakdown.
It has been recognized that the electro-convection plays an important role in breakdown of insulating
fluids subjected to high voltages. When a highly pure insulating liquid is subjected to high voltage,
electrical conduction results from charge carriers injected into the liquid from the electrode surface.
The resulting space charge gives rise to coulombic forces which under certain conditions causes
hydrodynamic instability, yielding convecting current. It has been shown that the onset of instability
is associated with a critical voltage. As the applied voltage approaches the critical voltage, the
motion at first exhibits a structure of hexagonal cells and as the voltage is increased further the
motion becomes turbulent. Thus, interaction between the space charge and the electric field gives
rise to forces creating an eddy motion of liquid. It has been shown that when the voltage applied is
near to breakdown value, the speed of the eddy motion is given by ν e= where ρ is the density of
liquid. In liquids, the ionic drift velocity is given by
νd = KE
where K is the mobility of ions.

Let

The ratio M is usually greater than unity and sometimes much greater than unity (Table below).
Medium Ion ε M
-
Air NTP O2 1.0 2.3x10-2
-
Ethanol Cl 2.5 26.5
+
Methanol H 33.5 4.1
Nitrobenzene Cl- 35.5 22
-
Propylene Carbonate Cl 69 51
Transformer Oil H+ 2.3 200
Thus, in the theory of electro-convection, M plays a dominant role. The charge transport will be
largely by liquid motion rather than by ionic drift. The criterion for instability is that the local flow
velocity should be greater than drift velocity.

Q.4 (a) Briefly explain Penning Effect.

Paschen’s law does not hold good for many gaseous mixtures. A typical example is that of mixture
of Argon in Neon. A small percentage of Argon in Neon reduces substantially the dielectric strength
of pure Neon. In fact, the dielectric strength is smaller than the dielectric strengths of either pure
Neon or Argon. The lowering of dielectric strength is due to the fact that the lowest excited stage of
neon is metastable and its excitation potential (16eV) is about 0.9eV greater than the ionization
potential of Argon. The metastable atoms have a long life in neon gas, and on hitting Argon atoms
there is a very high probability of ionizing them. This phenomenon is known as Penning Effect.

(b) Define Corona Discharges.

If the electric field is uniform and if the field is increased gradually, just when measurable ionization
begins, the ionization leads to complete breakdown of the gap. However, in non-uniform fields,
before the spark or breakdown of the medium takes place, there are many manifestations in the form
of visual and audible discharges. These discharges are known as Corona discharges.

(c) Briefly define Filtering and Testing of Insulating Oil under Vacuum.
Filtration and Treatment Under Vacuum: Different types of filters have been used. Filter press with
soft and hard filter papers is found to be more suitable for insulating oil. Due to hygroscopic
properties of the paper, oil is pre-dried before filtering. Therefore, this oil can not be used for high
 voltage insulation. The subsequent process of drying is carried out in a specially, designed tank
under vacuum. The oil is distributed over a large surface by a so-called ‘‘Rasching-ring’’ degassing
column. Through this process, both the complete drying and degassing are achieved simultaneously.
By suitable selection of the various components of the plant e.g., rate of flow of oil, degassing
surface, vacuum pump etc., a desired degree of purity can be obtained.

(d) Explain Clump Mechanism of Vacuum Brakdown

The vacuum breakdown mechanism based on this theory makes following assumption:
(i) A loosely bound particle known as clumpexists on one of the electrode surfaces.
(ii) When a high voltage is applied between the two electrodes, this clump gets charged
and subsequently gets detached from the mother electrode and is attracted by the other
electrode.
(iii) The breakdown occurs due to a discharge in the vapour or gas released by the impact
to the particle at the opposite electrode.
It has been observed that for a certain vacuum gap if frequent recurrent electric breakdowns are
carried out, the withstand voltage of the gap increases and after certain number of breakdown, it
reaches an optimum maximum value. This is known as conditioningof electrodes and is of
paramount importance from practical reasons. In this electrode conditioning, the microemission sites
are supposed to have been destroyed.
Various methods for conditioning the electrodes have been suggested. Some of these are
(i) To treat the electrodes by means of hydrogen glow discharge. This method gives more
consistent results.
(ii) Allowing the pre-breakdown currents in the gap to flow for some time or to heat the
electrodes in vacuum to high temperature.
(iii) Treating the electrodes with repeated spark breakdown. This method is however quite
time consuming.
The area of electrodes for breakdown of gases, liquids, solids or vacuum plays an important
role. It has been observed that if the area of electrodes is increased for the same gap distance in
uniform field, the breakdown voltages are reduced.

OR
(e) Explain the Post-breakdown phenomena with their application
This is the phenomenon which occurs after the actual breakdown has taken place and is of technical
importance. Glow and arc discharges are the post-breakdown phenomena, and there are many
devices that operate over these regions. In a Townsend discharge the current increases gradually as a
function of the applied voltage. Further to this point only the current increases and the discharge
changes from the Townsend type to Glow type. Further increase in current results in a very small
reduction in voltage across the gap corresponding to the normal glow region. The gap voltage again
increases, when the current is increased more, but eventually leads to a considerable drop in the
applied voltage. This is the region of the arc discharge. The phenomena that occur in the region are
the post-breakdown phenomena consisting of glow discharge and the arc discharge.

Glow Discharge: A glow discharge is characterized by a diffused luminous glow. The colour of the
glow discharge depends on the cathode material and the gas used. The glow discharge covers the
cathode partly and the space between the cathode and the anode will have intermediate dark and
bright regions. This is called normal glow. If the current in the normal glow is increased such that the
discharge covers the entire cathode surface, then it becomes abnormal glow. In a glow discharge, the
voltage drop between the electrodes is substantially constant, ranging from 75 to 300 V over a
current range of 1 mA to 100 mA depending on the type of the gas. The properties of the glow
discharge are used in many practical applications, such as cold cathode gaseous voltage stabilized
tubes (voltage regulation tubes or VR tubes), for rectification, as a relaxation oscillator, and as an
amplifier.

Arc Discharge: If the current in the gap is increased to about 1A or more, the voltage across the gap
suddenly reduces to a few volts (20-50 V). The discharge becomes very luminous and noisy. This
 phase is called the arc discharge and the current density over the cathode region increases to very
high values of 103 to 107 A/cm. Arcing is associated with high temperatures, ranging from 1000 0C to
several thousand degrees Celsius. The discharge will contain a very high density of electrons and
positive ions, called the arc plasma. The study of arcs is important in circuit breakers and other
switch contacts. It is a convenient high temperature high intensity light source. It is used for welding
and cutting of metals. It is the light source in lamps such as carbon arc lamp. High temperature
plasmas are used for generation of electricity through magneto-hydro dynamic (MHD) or nuclear
fusion processes.

Q.5 (a) Define Centrifugal Method of Oil Treatment

Centrifugal Method: This method is helpful in partially extracting solid impurities and free water. It
is totally ineffective as far as removal of water and dissolved gases is concerned and oil treated in
this manner is even over-saturated with air as air, is thoroughly mixed into it during the process.
However, if the centrifugal device is kept in a tank kept under vacuum, partial improvement can be
obtained. But the slight increase in efficiency of oil achieved is out of proportion to the additional
costs involved.

(b) Explain Electro-Chemical Breakdown in Solids

Whenever cavities are formed in solid dielectrics, the dielectric strength in these solid specimen
decreases. When the gas in the cavity breaks down, the surfaces of the specimen provide
instantaneous anode and cathode. Some of the electrons dashing against the anode with sufficient
energy shall break the chemical bonds of the insulation surface. Similarly, positive ions bombarding
against the cathode may increase the surface temperature and produce local thermal instability.
Similarly, chemical degradation may also occur from the active discharge products e.g., O3, NO2
etc. formed in air. The net effect of all these processes is a slow erosion of the material and a
consequent reduction in the thickness of the specimen.

(c) Explain properties of pressing board as insulating material.

If the thickness of paper is 0.8 mm or more, it is called paper board. When many layers of paper are
laminated with an adhesive to get desired thickness, these are known as press boards and are used in
bushings, transformers as insulating barriers or supporting materials. The electrical properties of
press boards varies depending upon the resin content. The application of these press boards depends
upon the thickness and density of paper used. For high frequency capacitors and cables usually low
density paper (0.8 gm/cm3) is used where medium density paper is used for power capacitors and
high density papers are used in d.c. machines and energy storage capacitors. The electric strength of
press board is higher than that of resins or porcelain. However, it is adversely affected by
temperature above 20°C. The loss angle tan δ also decreases with increase in temperature. The main
advantage of this material is that it provides good mechanical support even at higher temperatures
upto 120°C.

(d) Explain essential electrical properties of liquid dielectrics

The electrical properties that are essential in determining the dielectric performance of a liquid
dielectric are:
i. its capacitance per unit volume or its relative permittivity
ii. its resistivity
iii. its loss tangent (tanδ) or its power factor which is an indication of the power loss under a.c.
voltage application
iv. its ability to withstand high electric stresses.

Permittivity of most of the petroleum oils vary from 2.0 to 2.6 while those of askerels vary between
4.5 and 5.0 and those of silicone oils from 2.0 to 73. In case of the non-polar liquids, the permittivity
is independent of frequency but in the case of polar liquids, such as water, it changes with frequency.
For example, the permittivity of water is 78 at 50 Hz and reduces to about 5.0 at 1 MHz.
 Resistivity of insulating liquids used for high voltage applications should be more than 10 16 ohm-
metre and most of the liquids in their pure state exhibit this property.

Power Factor of a liquid dielectric under a.c. voltage will determine its performance under load
conditions. Power factor is a measure of the power loss and is an important parameter in cable and
capacitor systems. However, in the case of transformers, the dielectric loss in the oil is negligible
when compared to copper and iron losses. Pure and dry transformer oil will have a very low power
factor varying between 10-4 at 200C and 10-3at 900C at a frequency of 50 Hz.

Dielectric Strength is the most important parameter in the choice of a given liquid dielectric for a
given application. The dielectric strength depends on the atomic and molecular properties of the
liquid itself. However, under practical conditions the dielectric strength depends on the material of
the electrodes, temperature, type of applied voltage, gas content in the liquid etc., which changes the
dielectric strength by changing the molecular properties of the liquid.

OR
(e) What is meant by purification of liquid dielectrics and why is it required.
The main impurities in liquid dielectrics are dust, moisture, dissolved gases and ionic impurities.
Various methods employed for purification are filtration (through mechanical filters, spray filters,
and electrostatic filters), centrifuging, degassing and distillation, and chemical treatment (adding ion
exchange materials such as alumina, fuller's earth, etc. and filtering). Dust particles when present
become charged and reduce the breakdown strength of the liquid dielectrics, and they can be
removed by careful filtration. Liquid will normally contain moisture and dissolved gases in small
quantities. Gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide significantly affect the breakdown strength of the
liquids, and hence it is necessary to control the amount of gas present. This is done by distillation and
degassing. Ionic impurity in liquids, like water vapour which easily dissociates, leads to very high
conductivity and heating of the liquid depending on the applied electric field. Water is removed
using drying agents or by vacuum drying. Sometimes, liquids are shaken with concentrated sulphuric
acid to remove wax and residue and washed with caustic soda and distilled water. A commonly used
closed-cycle liquid purification system to prepare liquids as per the above requirements is shown in
Fig. below. This system provides for cycling the liquid. The liquid from the reservoir flows through
the distillation column where ionic
impurities are removed. Water is
removed by drying agents or frozen
out in the low-temperature bath. The
gases dissolved in the liquid are
removed by passing them through
the cooling tower and/or pumped out
by the vacuum pumps. The liquid
then passes through the filter where
dust particles are removed. The
liquid thus purified is then used in
the test cell. The used liquid then
flows back into the reservoir. The
vacuum system thus helps to remove
the moisture and other gaseous
impurities.

Q.6 (a) Give properties and applications of vulcanized rubber.

The electrical properties expected of rubber insulation are high breakdown strength and high
insulation resistance. In fact the insulation strength of the vulcanized rubber is so good that for lower
voltages the radial thickness is limited due to mechanical consideration.
The physical properties expected of rubber insulation are that the cable should withstand normal
hazards of installation and it should give trouble-free service.
 Vulcanized rubber insulated cables are used for wiring of houses, buildings and factories for low-
power work.

(b) Give properties and applications of butyl & silicone rubber.

Butyl rubber: The processing of butyl rubber is similar to that of natural rubber but it is more
difficult and its properties are comparable to those of natural rubber. The continuous temperature to
which butyl rubber can be subjected is 85°C whereas for natural rubber it is 60°C. The current rating
of butyl insulated cables is approximately same as those of paper or PVC insulated cables. Butyl
rubber compound can be so manufactured that it has low water absorption and offers interesting
possibilities for a non-metallic sheathed cable suitable for direct burial in the ground.

Silicone rubber: It is a mechanically weak material and needs external protection but it has high
heat resistant properties. It can be operated at temperatures of the order of 150°C. The raw materials
used for the silicon rubber are sand, marsh gas, salt, coke and magnesium.

(c) Explain properties of ceramics as insulating material.

Ceramics materials are produced from clay containing aluminium oxide and other inorganic
materials. The thick parts of these substances is given the desired shape and form at room
temperature and then baked at high temperature about (1450°C) to provide a solid inelastic final
structure. Ceramics also known as porcelain in one of its forms have high mechanical strength and
low permittivity (εr < 12) are widely used for insulators and bushings. These have 40% to 50% of
clay, 30 - 20% of aluminium oxide and 30% of feldspar. The ceramics with higher permittivity (εr >
12) are used in capacitors and transducers. The specific insulation resistance of ceramics is
comparatively low. The tan δ of these materials is high and increases with increase in temperature
resulting in higher dielectric loss. The breakdown strength of porecelain compared to other insulating
material is low but it remains unaffected over a wide range of temperature variation. Porcelain is
chemically inert to alkalies and acids and, therefore, corrosion resistant and does not get
contaminated. Alumina (Al2O3) has replaced quartz because of its better thermal conductivity,
insulating property and mechanical strength. It is used for the fabrication of high current vacuum
circuit breakers.

(d) Explain Suspended Particle Theory.

In commercial liquids, the presence of solid impurities cannot be avoided. These impurities will be
present as fibers or as dispersed solid particles. The permittivity of these particles (ε 2) will be
different from the permittivity of the liquid (ε1). If we consider these impunities to be spherical
particles of radius r, and if the applied field is E then the particles experience a force F, where

This force is directed towards areas of maximum stress, if ε 2 > ε1, for example, in the case of the
presence of solid particles like paper in the liquid. On the other hand, if only gas bubbles are present
in the liquid, i.e. ε2 < ε1, the force will be in the direction of areas of lower stress. If the voltage is
continuously applied (d.c.) or the duration of the voltage is long (a.c.), then this force drives the
particles towards the areas of maximum stress. If the number of particles present is large, they
become aligned due to these forces, and thus form a stable chain bridging the electrode gap causing a
breakdown between the electrodes.
If there is only a single conducting particle between the electrodes, it will give rise to local field
enhancement depending on its shape. If this field exceeds the breakdown strength of the liquid, local
breakdown will occur near the particle, and this will result in the formation of gas bubbles which
may lead to the breakdown of the liquid.
The values of the breakdown strength of liquids containing solid impurities were found to be much
less than the values for pure liquids. The impurity particles reduce the breakdown strength, and it
was also observed that the larger the size of the particles the lower were the breakdown strengths.

OR
 (e) Explain Chemical & Electrochemical Deterioration and Breakdown.
In the presence of air and other gases some dielectric materials undergo chemical changes when
subjected to continuous electrical stresses. Some of the important chemical reactions that occur are:
 Oxidation: In the presence of air or oxygen, materials such as rubber and polyethylene
undergo oxidation giving rise to surface cracks.
 Hydrolysis: When moisture or water vapour is present on the surface of a solid dielectric,
hydrolysis occurs and the materials lose their electrical and mechanical properties. Electrical
properties of materials such as paper, cotton tape, and other cellulose materials deteriorate
very rapidly due to hydrolysis. Plastics like polyethylene undergo changes, and their service
life considerably reduces.
 Chemical Action: Even in the absence of electric fields, progressive chemical degradation of
insulating materials can occur due to a variety of processes such as chemical instability at
high temperatures, oxidation and cracking in the presence of air and ozone, and hydrolysis
due to moisture and heat. Since different insulating materials come into contact with each
other in any practical apparatus, chemical reactions occur between these various materials
leading to reduction in electrical and mechanical strengths resulting in failure.

The effects of electrochemical and chemical deterioration could be minimized by carefully studying
and examining the materials. High soda content glass insulation should be avoided in moist and
damp conditions, because sodium, being very mobile, leaches to the surface giving rise to the
formation of a strong alkali which will cause deterioration. It was observed that this type of material
will lose its mechanical strength within 24 hrs, when it is exposed to atmospheres having 100%
relative humidity at 700C. In paper insulation, even if partial discharges are prevented completely,
breakdown can occur due to chemical degradation. The chemical and electrochemical deterioration
increases very rapidly with temperature, and hence high temperatures should be avoided.

Q.7 (a) Give properties and applications of Neoprene and Styrene rubber.
Neoprene: Neoprene is a polymerized chlorobutadiene. Chlorobutadiene is a colourless liquid which
is polymerized into a solid varying from a pale yellow to a darkish brown colour. Neoprene does not
have good insulating properties and is used upto 660 V a.c. but it has very good fire resisting
properties and therefore it is more useful as a sheathing material.

Styrene rubber: Styrene is used both for insulating and sheathing of cables. It has properties almost
equal to the natural rubber.

(b) Explain properties of mica as insulating material

Mica consists of crystalline mineral silicates of alumina and potash. It has high dielectric strength,
low dielectric losses and good mechanical strength. All these properties make it useful for many
electrical devices e.g., commutator segment separator, armature windings, electrical heating and
cooling equipments and switchgear. Thin layers of mica are laminated with a suitable resin or
varnish to make thick sheets of mica. Mica can be mixed with the required type of resin to obtain its
application at different operating temperatures. Mica is used as a filler in insulating materials to
improve their dielectric strength, reduce dielectric loss and improve heat resistance property.

(c) Give classes of insulating materials.

International Electrotechincal Commission has categories various insulating materials depending
upon the temperature of operations of the equipments under the following categories.

Category Temperature Materials Used

range
Natural rubber, PVC, paper cotton, silk without
Class Y 90°C
impregnation
Class A 105°C Same as class Y but impregnated
 Polyethylene, terephthalate, cellulose tricetrate,
Class E 120°C
polyvinyl acetate enamel
Bakelite, bituminised asbestos, fibre glass, mica,
Class B 130°C
polyester enamel
Class F 155°C As class B but with epoxy based resin
As class B with silicon resin binder silicone
rubber, aromatic polyamide (nomex paper and
Class H 180°C
fibre), polyimide film (enamel, varnish and film)
and estermide enamel
Above as class B but with suitable non-organic binders,
Class C
180°C teflon and other high temperature polymers.

(d) Explain the properties of Composite Dielectrics.

A composite dielectric generally consists of a large number of layers arranged one over the other.
This is called "the layered construction" and is widely used in cables, capacitors and transformers.
Three properties of composite dielectrics which are important to their performance are given below.

(a) Effect of Multiple Layers: The simplest composite dielectric consists of two layers of the same
material. Here, advantage is taken of the fact that two thin sheets have a higher dielectric strength
than a single sheet of the same total thickness. The advantage is particularly significant in the case of
materials having a wide variation in dielectric strength values measured at different points on its
surface.

(b) Effect of Layer Thickness: Increase in layer thickness normally gives increased breakdown
voltage. In a layered construction, breakdown channels occur at the interfaces only and not directly
through another layer. Also, a discharge having penetrated one layer cannot enter the next layer until
a part of the interface also attains the potential which can produce an electric field stress comparable
to that of the discharge channel.
The use of layered construction is very important in the case of insulating paper since the paper
thickness itself varies from point to point and consequently the dielectric strength across its surface is
not homogeneous. The differences in the thickness impart a rough surface to the paper which can
produce an electric field stress comparable to that of the discharge channel. The rough surface of the
paper also helps in better impregnation when tightly wound. On the other hand, the existence of areas
with lower thickness in the paper can cause breakdown at these points at considerably lower
voltages.
Various investigations on composite dielectrics have shown that
i. the discharge inception voltage depends on the thickness of the solid dielectric, as well as on
the dielectric constant of both the liquid and solid dielectric, and
ii. the difference in the dielectric constants between the liquid and solid dielectrics does not
significantly affect the rate of change of electric field at the electrode edge with the change in
the dielectric thickness.

(c) Effect of Interfaces: The interface between two dielectric surfaces in a composite dielectric
system plays an important role in determining its pre-breakdown and breakdown strengths.
Discharges usually occur at the interfaces and the magnitude of the discharge depends on the
associated surface resistance and capacitance. When the surface conductivity increases, the discharge
magnitude also increases, resulting in damage to the dielectric.
In a composite dielectric, it is essential to maintain low dielectric losses because they normally
operate at high electric stresses. However, even in an initially pure dielectric liquid, when used under
industrial conditions for impregnating solid dielectrics, impurities arise, resulting in increased
dielectric losses.
OR
(e) Explain properties and applications of Epoxy Resins.
Epoxy resins are thermosetting types of insulating materials. They possess excellent dielectric and
mechanical properties. They can be easily cast into desired shapes even at room temperature. They
are very versatile, and their basic properties can be modified either by the selection of a curing agent
or by the use of modifiers or fillers.
They are highly elastic; samples tested under very high pressures, up to about 180,00psi (12,000atm)
returned to their original shape after the load was removed, and the sample showed no permanent
damage. Resistance to weathering and chemicals is also very good. The tensile strength of araldite
CT200 and hardner HV901 is in the range 5.5 - 8.5 kg/mm 2, and the compressive strength is11 -
13kg/mm2. The dielectric constant varies between 2.5 and 3.8. The dielectric loss factor is very small
under power frequency conditions lying in the range 0.003 - 0.03. The dielectric strength is
75kV/mm, when the specimen thickness is 0.025 mm or 1mil. The volume resistivity of the material
is of the order of 1013 ohm-cm.
Epoxy resin can be formed into an insulator of any desired shape for almost any type of high voltage
application. Insulators, bushings, apparatus, etc. can be made out of epoxy resin. It can also be used
for encapsulation of electronic components, generator windings and transformers. It is used for
bonding of very diverse materials such as porcelain, wood, metals, plastics, etc. It is a very important
adhesive used for sealing of high vacuum joints. In any laboratory or industry in which electrical or
electronic components or equipments are handled or manufactured, numerous occasions arise
wherein epoxy resins can be used with an advantage saving time, labour and money.