UNIT1

CellularSystem

Introduction

In the older mobile radio systems, single high power transmitter was used to provide
coverage in the entire area. Although this technique provided a good coverage, but it was
virtually impossiblein this techniqueto re-usethesameradio channels in thesystem, and
any effort to re-use the radio channels would result in interference. Therefore, in order to
improvetheperformanceofawirelesssystemwiththeriseinthedemandfortheservices,
acellularconceptwaslaterproposed.Thischapterwillexamineseveralparametersrelated with
the cellular concept.

TheCellularConcept

The design aim of early mobile wireless communication systems was to get a huge
coverage area with a single, high-power transmitter and an antenna installed on a giant
tower, transmitting a data on a single frequency. Although this method accomplished a
good coverage, but it also means that it was practically not possible to reuse the same
frequencyalloverthesystem,becauseanyefforttoreusethesamefrequencywouldresult in
interference.

The cellular concept was a major breakthrough in order to solve the problems of limited
usercapacityandspectralcongestion.Cellularsystemprovideshighcapacitywithalimited
frequency spectrum without making any major technological changes [1]. It is a system-
level idea in which a single high-power transmitter is replaced with multiple low- power
transmitters, and small segment of the service area is being covered by each transmitter,
whichisreferredtoasacell. Eachbasestation(transmitter) isallocated a partofthetotal number
of channels present in the whole system, and different groups of radiochannels
areallocatedtotheneighboringbasestationssothatallthechannels
present in the system are allocated to a moderately small number of neighboring base
stations.

Themobiletransceivers (also called mobilephones, handsets, mobile terminals or mobile

stations) exchange radio signals with any number of base stations. Mobile phones are not
linked to a specific base station, but can utilize any one of the base stations put up by the
company. Multiple base stations covers the entire region in such a way that the user can
move around and phone call can be carried on without interruption, possibly using more
thanonebasestation.Theprocedureofchangingabasestationatcellboundariesiscalled
handover. Communication from the Mobile Station (MS) or mobile phones to the Base
Station(BS)happens onanuplinkchannelalsocalledreverselink,anddownlink channel or
forward link is used for communication from BS to MS. To maintain a bidirectional
communicationbetweenaMS andBS, transmission resources mustbeoffered inboth the
uplink and downlink directions. This can take place either using Frequency-Division
Duplex (FDD), in which separate frequencies are used forboth uplink and downlink
channels, or through Time-Division Duplex (TDD), where uplink and downlink
communications take place on the same frequency, but vary in time.

FDDisthemostefficienttechniqueiftrafficissymmetric,andFDDhasalsomadethetask of
radio planning more efficient and easier, because no interference takes place between
base stations as they transmit and receive data on differentfrequencies. In case of an
asymmetryintheuplinkanddownlinkdataspeed,theTDDperformsbetterthanFDD.As
theuplinkdatarateincreases,extrabandwidthis dynamicallyallocatedtothat, and as the data
rate decreases, the allotted bandwidth is taken away.
Someoftheimportantcellularconcepts are:
 Frequencyreuse
 ChannelAllocation
 Handoff
 Interferenceandsystemcapacity
 Trunkingandgradeofservice
 Improvingcoverageandcapacity
 CellsusingthesamesetofRadiochannels

Fig.1.1:CellularNetwork

FrequencyReuse

Conventionalcommunicationsystemsfacedtheproblemsoflimitedserviceareacapability and
ineffective radio spectrum utilization. This is because these systems are generally
designed to provide service in an autonomous geographic region and by selecting radio
channels from a particular frequency band. On the other hand, the present mobile
communication systems are designed to offer a wide coverage area and highgradeof
service. These systems are also expected to provide a continuous communicationthrough
an efficient utilization of available radio spectrum. Therefore, the design of mobile radio
networkmustsatisfythefollowingobjectivesi.e.,providingcontinuous service, andwide
service area, while efficiently using the radio spectrum.

In order to achieve these objectives, the present mobile systems use cellular networks
which depend more on an intelligent channel allocation and reuse of channels throughout
the region . Each base station is allocated a set ofradiochannels, which are to be used ina
geographic area called a cell. Base stations in the neighboring cells are allocated radio
channel sets, which are entirely different. The antennas of base station antennas are
designed to getthe required coverage within the specific cell. Byrestricting the coverage
area of a base station to within the cell boundaries, the same set of radio channels can be
used in the different cells that are separated from each other by distances which are large
enough in order to maintain interference levels within limits. The procedure of radio sets
selectionandallocationtoallthebasestationspresentwithinanetworkiscalledfrequency reuse .

Fig. 1.1 shows the frequency reuse concept in a cell in a cellular network, in which cells
utilize the same set of radio channels. The frequency reuse plan indicates where different
radio channels are used. The hexagonal shape of cell is purely theoretical and is a simple
modelofradiocoverageforeachbasestation,althoughithasbeengloballyadoptedasthe
hexagonpermitstheeasyanalysisofacellularsystem.Theradiocoverageofacell canbe
calculated from field measurements. Although the actual radio coverage is very
amorphous, a natural shape of a cell is required for an organized system design. While a
circle is generally chosen to represent the coverage area of BS, but the circles present in
the neighborhood cannot cover the entire region without leaving gaps or overlapping
regions.Therefore,whenselectingthecellshapeswhichcancovertheentiregeographical region
without overlapping, there are three choices possible: a hexagon, square, and
triangle.Aparticulardesignofthecellchoseninordertoservetheweakestmobileswithin the
coverage area, and these are generally present at the cell boundaries ofthe cell. As
hexagoncoversthelargestareafromthecenterofapolygontoitsfarthestpoint,therefore,
hexagon geometry can cover the entire geographic region to the fullest with minimum
number of cells. When hexagon geometry is used to cover the entire geographic area, the
base stations are either put up at the center of the cell, these cells are also called center
excitedcellsoratthethreeofthesixvertices(edgeexcitedcells).Generally,centerexcited cells
use omni-directional antennas and corner excited cells use directional antennas, but
practically considerations for placing base stations are not exactly the same as they are
shown in the hexagonal layouts.

ChannelReuseSchemes

The radio channel reuse model can be used in the time and space domain. Channel reuse
in the time domain turns out to be occupation of same frequency in different time slots
andisalsocalledTimeDivisionMultiplexing.Channelreuse inthespacedomain is categorized
into:
a) Samechannelisallocatedintwodifferentareas, e.g. AMandFMradio
stations using same channels in two different cities.
b) Same channel is frequently used in same area and in one system the
schemeusediscellularsystems.Theentirespectrumisthen dividedintoK
reusesets.

1
1

2
2

1
2

2
4

5
3 1
2 4

1
1 3 1
2
1

4 2
1
2

K=4
B q=D/R=4
B K=7
A
A

A
 Fig.1.2:K-CellReusePattern
LocatingCo-channelCellsinaCellularNetwork

Cells,whichusethesamesetofchannels,arecalled co-channelscells.Fordetermining
thelocationofco-channelcellpresentintheneighborhood,twoshiftparametersiandj

are used where i and j are separated by 600,asshowninFig.1.3below.Theshift

parameterscanhaveanyvalue0,1,2...,n.

j=
2
i=
j= i= 3
1 2
i-1
600
(0,0)

Fig.1.3:ShiftParametersiandjinHexagonalNetwork

To find the location of nearest co-channel cell, mark the center of the cell as (0, 0) for
which co-channelcells areto belocated. Definetheunitdistanceas thedistanceof centre of
two adjacent cells, and follow the two steps given below:

Step1:Moveinumberofcellsalongiaxis
Step2:Turn600anti-clockwiseandmove jnumberofcells

Thetechniqueoflocatingco-channelcells usingtheprecedingprocedureisshowninFig.
2.4fori=3andj=2.Theshiftparametersiandjmeasuresthenumberofneighboring cells between
co-channel cells.
 Fig.1.4:LocatingCo-channelCellswheni=3&j=2

Therelationship betweenclustersizeKandshiftparametersi&j,isgivenbelow:
Let 'R'be the distance between the center of a regular hexagon to any of its vertex. A
regularhexagonisonewhoseallsidesarealsoofequallengthi.e.'R'.Let'd'bethedistance between
the centre of two neighboring hexagons, and following steps are followed while
calculating the size of a cluster ‘K’.

Step1:Toshowthatd= 3R

Fig.1.5:DistanceBetweentwoadjacentcells
FromthegeometryoftheFig.2.5,OA=Rand AB=R/2 (2.1)
Then,OB= OA+AB= R+R/2=3R/2 (2.2)
Then,inright-angledOAP

OP=OAsin600=  
3 /2 R (1.3)
Letthedistance betweenthecentersoftwoneighboringhexagonalcells,OQ,be denoted by
‘d’, then,
OQ= OP+PQ(whereOP= PQ)

Therefore,      
d= 3/2 R  3/2 R

Hence,d= 3R (1.4)

Step2:Areaofasmallhexagon,Asmall hexagon W
TheareaofahexagonalcellwithradiusRis givenas


Asmallhexagon= 3 
3 /2 R2 (1.5)

Step3:TofindtherelationbetweenD, dandshiftparameters
Let‘D’bethedistance betweenthecenterofaparticularcellunderconsiderationto the
centre of the nearest co-channel cell.

i
Z

1200

Fig.1.6:RelationshipBetweenKandShiftParameters(i&j)
UsingcosineformulaXYZinFig.2.6, wehave
XZ2=XY2+YZ2-2XYYZcos1200
or,D2=(id)2+(jd)2-2(id)(jd)cos1200D2
=(i d)2+(j d)2- 2 (i d) (j d) (-1/2)D2= (id)2+
(jd)2+ (id) (j d)
D2=d2(i2 + j2+i j) (1.6)
D2=3 R2(i2+j2 +i j) (1.7)

Step4:Tofind theareaofalargehexagon, Alarge hexagon

Byjoining thecentersof thesixnearestneighboring co-channelcells,alargehexagon is
formed with radius equal to D, which is also the co-channel cell separation. Refer Fig.
1.7.

C1
C1

C1
R Large
C1 hexagon

C1
Small
hexagon
C1

Fig. 1.7: Larger Hexagon in the First Tier

TheareaofthelargehexagonhavingaradiusDcanbegivenas


Alargehexagon= 3 
3 /2 D2 (1.8)
Usingequation1.7

Alargehexagon= 3   
3 /2 3R2 i2j2ij (1.9)

Step7:Tofindthenumberofcellsinthelargehexagon (L)
Numberofcellsinlargehexagon
L=Alarge hexagon/Asmallhexagon (1.10)
Usingequations 2.9,2.5&2.10,weget
L=3(i2+j2+i j) (1.11)

Step8:Findthecorrelationbetween L andclustersizeK
It can be seen from Fig. 2.8, that the larger hexagon is created by joining the centersof
co-channel cells present in the first tier contains 7 cells of the central cluster plus 1/3rd
of the number of 7 cells of all the neighboring six clusters. Therefore, it can be
calculated thatthelarger hexagon consisting of thecentralcluster of K cells plus 1/3rd
thenumberofthecellsconnectedwithsixneighboringclusterspresentinthefirsttier.

Large
hexagon

Small
hexagon

Fig.2.8:NumberofClustersintheFirstTierforN=7

Hence,thetotalnumberofcellsenclosedbythelargerhexagonis L = K
+ 6 [(1 / 3) K)
L= 3K (1.12)
 Step9:ToestablishrelationbetweenKandshiftparameters
Fromequation1.11and1.12,weget
3K=3(i2+j2+i j)
K=(i2 +j2+i j) (1.13)

TheTable1.1showsthefrequencyreusepatternsalongwiththeclustersizes Table 1.1:

Frequency Reuse Pattern and Cluster Size

FrequencyReusePattern ClusterSize
(I,j) K=(i2+j2+ij)
(1,1) 3
(2,0) 4
(2,1) 7
(3,0) 9
(2,2) 12
(3,1) 13
(4,0) 16
(2,3) 19
(4,1) 21
(5,0) 25

FrequencyReuseDistance

To reuse the same set of radio channels in another cell, it must be separated by a distance
called frequency reuse distance, which is generally represented by D.

Reusing the same frequency channel in different cells is restricted by co-channel

interferencebetweencells.So,itisnecessarytofindtheminimumfrequencyreusedistance D in
order to minimize the co-channel interference. Fig. 2.9 illustrates the separation of cells
by frequencyreuse distance in a cluster of7 cells. In order to derive a
formulatocomputeD,necessarypropertiesofregularhexagoncellgeometryarefirst discussed.

7
7 6 2
6 2 1
1 5 3
5 3 4
4

Frequencyreusedistance(D)

Fig.1.9:FrequencyReuseDistance

The frequency reuse distance (D),which allows the same radio channel to be reused inco-
channel cells, depends on many factors:
 thenumberofco-channelcellsintheneighborhoodofthecentralcell
 thetypeofgeographicalterrain
 theantennaheight
 thetransmittedsignalstrengthbyeachcell-site

Suppose the size of all the cells in a cellular is approximately same, and it is usually
calculatedbythecoverage areaof thepropersignalstrength inevery cell.Theco-channel
interferencedoesnotdependontransmittedpowerofeach,ifthecellsizeisfixed,i.e.,the
threshold level ofreceived signal at the mobile unit is tuned to the size of the cell.
Theco-channelinterferencedependsuponthefrequencyreuseratio,q,andisdefined as

q =D/R

WhereDisthedistancebetweenthetwoneighboringco-channelcells,andRistheradius of the
cells. The parameter q is also referred to as the frequency reuse ratio or co-
channelreuseratio.Thefollowing stepsareusedtofindtherelationshipbetween frequency
reuse ratio q and cluster size K
Fig.2.10 showsanarrayofregularhexagonalcells, whereRisthecellradius. Duetothe
hexagonal geometry each hexagon has exactly six equidistant neighbors.

2
7

3
6

1
4
5
d

Fig.1.10:DistanceBetweenTwoAdjacentCells(d)

Letdbethedistancebetweentwocellcentersofneighboringcells.Therefore, d =
3R

TherelationshipbetweenD,d,andshiftparameters is

D2=3R2(i2+j2+i j) As K
= i2+ j2+ i  j
D2 =3 R2K
D2
= 3 K
R2
D 3K
R 
Asq=D/R q
= 3K

Thus,thefrequencyreuseratio qcanbecomputedfromtheclustersizeK.Table2.2 shows the

frequency reuse ratios for different cluster sizes, K
 Table1.2:FrequencyReuseRatioandClusterSize

ClusterSize FrequencyReuseRatio
K q= 3K
3 3.00
4 3.46
7 4.58
9 5.20
12 6.00
13 6.24
19 7.55
21 7.94
27 9.00

AstheD/Rmeasurementisaratio,ifthecellradiusisdecreased,thenthedistancebetween co-
channel cells must also be decreased by the same amount, for keeping co-channel
interference reduction factor same. On the other hand, if a cell has a large radius, then the
distancebetweenfrequencyreusingcellsmustbeincreasedproportionallyinordertohave the
same D/R ratio.

Asfrequencyreuseratio(q)increaseswiththeincreaseinclustersize(K),thesmallervalue of K
largely increase the capacity of the cellular system. But it will also increase the co-
channelinterference.Therefore,theparticularvalueofq(orK)isselectedinordertokeep
thesignal-to-cochannelinterferenceratioatanacceptablelevel.Ifalltheantennastransmit
thesamepower,thenwiththeincreaseinK,thefrequencyreusedistance(D)increases,and
reducethelikelihoodthatco-channelinterferencemayoccur.Therefore,thechallengeisto
gettheoptimalvalueofKsothatthedesiredsystemperformancecanbeachievedinterms of
increased system capacity, efficient radio spectrum utilization and signalquality.
 ChannelAllocationSchemes

For effective utilization of the radio spectrum, a channel reuse scheme is required which
must be able to increase the capacity and reduce interference. Several channel allocation
schemes have been proposed to address these objectives. Channel allocation schemes are
classified into fixed, dynamic, and hybrid. Theselection of aparticular channelallocation
scheme influences the performance of the system,mainly how tomanage the calls whena
call is handed-over from one cell to another [190], [117], [186], [163].

Inafixed channelallocation scheme,a set ofnominalchannels are permanently allocated to

each cell. Any call generated from within the cell can only be served by the idle radio
channelspresentinthatcell.Ifalltheradiochannelspresentinthatcellareoccupied,then
thecallisblocked.However,thereexistaseveralvariationsofthefixedallocation. Inone
ofthevariation, acell can borrowchannelsfrom neighboringcellsif itsown channelsare
already busy, and this scheme is called channel borrowing strategy. Such a borrowing
procedureisbeingmanagedbymobileswitchingcenter(MSC)andittrytomakesurethat the
borrowing of a radio channel form neighboring cells does not interferewith anyofthe
existing calls present in the donor cell.

In a dynamic channel allocation scheme, cells are not allocated radio channels
permanently. Instead, every time when a call is received, the serving base station (BS)
enquiresachannelfromtheMSC.TheMSCallocatesachanneltothecellaftertaking into
considerationthepossibilityoffutureblockingrateofthecandidatecell,there-usedistance of
the channel, and several other parameters.

Therefore,theMSCthenallocatesaparticularchannelifthatradiochanneliscurrentlynot in use
in the candidate cell as well in any other neighboring cell which falls inside the minimum
channel reuse distance in order to avoid co-channel interference. The Dynamic channel
allocation minimizes the possibility of blocking, thereby increasing the trunking capacity
of the system, as all the available channels are accessible to all the cells. In Dynamic
channel allocation schemes MSC gather information on traffic distribution,
channeloccupancyof all channels on a regular basis. This results in increased channel
utilization with decreased probability of dropped and blocked calls, but at the same time
the computational load on the system also increases.

HandoffStrategies

When a mobile moves from one cell to another cell when a call is in progress, the MSC
automaticallyshiftsthecall toanewchannelpresentinthenewcell.Thishandoffoperation
requirestheidentificationof anewbasestation,and channels thatareassociatedwiththe new
base station.

In any cellular network, managing handoff is very important job. Many handoff schemes
give high priority to handover requests over new call requests while allocating free
channels,anditmustbeperformedsuccessfullyandasinfrequentlyaspossible.Therefore, in
order to satisfy these requirements, optimum signal at which to begin a handoff level
mustbespecified by systemdesigners. When an optimalsignal levelfor acceptable voice
quality is specified, a somewhat stronger signal level is used as a threshold at which a
handoff is made. This margin is given by A = Pr handoff-Pr minimam_usable , and it should not be
toolargeortoosmall.IfAisverylarge,needlesshandoffswhichcanburdentheMSCmay take
place, and if A is verysmall, there may not be a sufficient timeto complete a handoff
process, before a call is vanished due to weak signal. Therefore, A should be carefully
selectedtomeetthesecontradictoryrequirements.Fig.1.11showsahandoffsituation.Fig.
1.11(a)presentsa case inwhich ahandoff doesnot takeplace and thesignalstrengthfalls
belowtheminimumacceptablelevelinordertokeepthechannelactive.Thiscalldropping occurs
when there is tremendous delay by the MSC in allocating a handoff, or when the
thresholdA is toosmall.Duringhightrafficloads unnecessary delays may takeplaceand this
happens either due to computational overloading at the MSC or no free channels are
availablein any of theneighboring cells and therebyMSChasto wait untila freechannel is
found in a neighboring cell.
While deciding about handoff initiation time, it is important to make sure that the drop in
thesignal levelisnotdue totemporaryfadingbut themobileis infactmoving awayfrom its
base station. Therefore, base station observes the signal strength for a definite period
of time before a handoff begins. This signal strength measurement must be optimized in
order to avoid unwanted handoffs, while ensuring that unwanted handoffs are completed
beforea call getsdropped.The timerequired to cometo adecision if ahandoffis needed,
depends on the speed of the vehicle at which it is moving. Information about the speed of
vehicle can also be calculated from the fading signal received at the base station.
ReceivedSignalLevel

LevelatpointA

Handoffthreshold

Minimumacceptablesignaltomaintainthecall
ReceivedSignalLevel

Level at point B (call is terminated)

Time

LevelatpointB(callisterminated)

Levelatwhichhandoffismade

Time

Fig.1.11:HandoffSituation
The time during which a caller remains within a cell, without any handoff to the
neighboringcells,iscalledthedwelltime.Thedwelltimeofacalldependsuponanumber of
factors i.e. propagation, interference, distance between the caller and the base station, and
several other time varying factors. It has been analyzed thatvariation of dwell time
depends on the speed of the caller and the radio coverage type.e.g., a cell in
which radio coverage is provided to highway callers (using vehicles), a large number of
callers have a moderately steady speed and they follow fixed paths with good radio
coverage.Forsuchinstances,thedwelltimeforrandomcallerisarandomvariablehaving
distributionthatishighlyconcentratedonthemeandwelltime.Whereas,forcallerspresent in
dense, micro-cellular environments, there is normally a huge deviation of dwell time
aboutthemean,andthedwelltimesingeneralareshorterthanthecellgeometry.Itisclear that the
information of dwell time is very important while designing handoff algorithms.

In first generation cellular systems, signal strength computations are done by the base
stations and monitored by the MSC. All the base stations regularly observe the signal
strengths of its reverse channels to find out the relative location of each mobile user with
respect to the base station. In addition to calculating the radio signal strength indication
(RSSI) of ongoing calls in the cell, an extra receiver in each base station, is used to find
out signal strengths of mobile users present in the neighboring cells. The extra receiver is
controlled by the MSC and is used to examine the signal strength of callers in the
neighboringcells,andinformsRSSItotheMSC.BasedontheRSSIvaluesreceivedfrom each
extra receiver, the MSC determines whether handoff is required or not.

In second generation cellular systems using digital TDMA technology, handoff decisions
aremobileassisted.Inmobileassistedhandoff(MAHO),eachmobilestationmeasuresthe
receivedpowerfromtheneighboringbasestationsandinformstheseresultstothe serving base
station. A handoff starts when the power received from the base station of a neighboring
cell go above the power received from the present base station. In MAHO scheme, the
call to be handed off between different base stations at a lot faster speed than
infirstgenerationsystemsbecausethehandoffcomputationsaredonebyeachmobile and by
keeping the MSC out of these computations. MAHO is suitable for micro-cellular
networkarchitectureswherehandoffsaremorefrequent.
Whenacallisinprogress,ifamobileshiftsfromonecellularsystemtoananother cellular system
managed by a different MSC, an intersystem handoff is required. AnMSC
performsanintersystem handoff when a signal goesweakin aparticularcelland

theMSC fails to find another cellinsideits systemto which itcan movetheongoing call, and
several issues should be addressed while intersystem handoff is implemented. e.g. a
localcallmightautomaticallyturnintoalong-distancecallwhenthecallershiftsoutofits home
network and enters into a neighboring system.

Various systems have different methods for dealing with hand-off requests. Several
systems manage handoff requests in the same way as they manage new call requests. In
suchsystems,thepossibility that ahandoffcallwill notbeserved byanewbasestationis
equivalent to the blocking probability of new calls. However, if a call is terminated
unexpectedly while in progress is more frustrating than being blocked occasionally on a
new call. Therefore, to improve the quality of service, various methods have been created
to give priorityto handoff callrequests over new call requests while allocating channels.

PrioritizingHandoffs

Oneschemefor prioritizing handoffs callrequests is called the guard channelconcept, in

whichapartoftheexistingchannelsinacellisreservedentirelyforhandoffcallrequests. The
major drawback of this scheme is that it reduces the total carried traffic, as smaller
number of channels is allocated to new calls. However, guard channels scheme present
efficientspectrum utilization when dynamic channel allocation strategies are used.

Queuing of handoff calls is another way to minimize the forced call terminations due to
unavailabilityofchannelsinthecell.Thereisactuallyatradeoffbetweentheminimization
inthepossibilityofforcedcallterminationofhandoffcallsandtotalcarriedtraffic.Handoff
callqueuingispossibleasthereisafixedtimeintervalbetweenthetimethereceivedsignal
strength falls below the handoff threshold and the time the call is terminated due to
unavailability of signal strength. The queue size and delay time is calculated from the
traffic pattern of the service area.It shouldbe noted that queuing of
handoff calls does not promise a zero forced call terminations, because large delays will
force the received signal strength to fall below the minimum level required to maintain
communication and therefore, lead to forced handoff call termination.

InterferenceandSystemCapacity

Interferenceisoneofthemajorfactorsaffectingtheperformanceofcellularradiosystems.
Sourcesofinterferenceconsistofanothermobileinsidethesamecell,anongoingcallina
neighboring cell, other base stations transmitting signal in the same fre- quency band, or
any non-cellular system which accidentally transmits energy into the cellular frequency
band. Interference on voice signals could give rise to cross talk, where the caller hears
interference in the background due to the presence of an unwanted transmission. The
presence of interference in control channels, gives rise to missed and blocked calls.
Interference is very dangerous in urban areas, due to the presence of larger base stations
andmobilewithgreaterRFnoise.Interferencehasbeenaccepted asamajorobstruction in
increasingthecapacityofasystemandislargelyresponsiblefordroppedcallsinanetwork.
Thetwomajortypesofinterferencesthataretakenconsiderationwhileallocatingchannels
tothecallsareco-channelandadjacentchannelinterference.Whileinterferingsignalsare
generatedinsidethecellularsystembycellulartransmitters,buttheyaredifficulttocontrol. The
interference due to out-of-band users is very difficult to control, which happens without
any word of warning, because of front end overload of subscriber equipment or
intermittent inter-modulation products.

Co-channelInterferenceandSystemCapacity

The channel reuse approach is very useful for increasing the efficiency of radio spectrum
utilization but it results in co-channel interference because the same radio channel is
repeatedly used in different co-channel cells in a network. In this case, the quality of a
received signal is very much affected both by the amount of radio coverage area and the
co-channel interference.
Co-channel interference takes place when two or more transmitters located within a
wirelesssystem,orevenaneighboringwirelesssystem,whicharetransmittingonthesame radio
channel. Co-channel interference happens when the same carrier frequency (base station)
reaches the same receiver (mobile phone) fromtwo different transmitters.
This type of interference is generally generated because channel sets have been allocated
to two different cells that are nor far enough geographically, and their signals are strong
enoughtocauseinterferencetoeachother.Thus,co-channelinterferencecaneithermodify the
receiver or mask the particular signal. It may also merge with the particular signal to
cause severe distortions in the output signal.

The co-channel interference can be evaluated by picking any particular channel and
transmittingdataonthatchannelatallco-channelsites.Inacellularsystemwithhexagonal
shapedcells,therearesixco-channelinterferingcellsinthefirsttier.Fig.2.12showsaTest 1
which is set-up to calculate the co-channel interference at the mobile unit, in this test
mobile unit is not stationary but is continuously moving in its serving cell.

Firsttier

Int erfering
Mobile Cells

Serving
Cell

Fig.1.12:Co-channelInterferenceMeasurementattheMobileUnit

Inasmallcellsystem, interferencewillbethemajordominatingfactorandthermalnoise can be

neglected. Thus the S/I can also be written as:

S 1 
I 6Dk (1.14)
 
R
k1

where
 S/I=Signaltointerferenceratioatthedesiredmobile receiver,
S=desiredsignalpower,
I=Interferencepower,
25isthepropagationpath-lossslopeanddependsontheterrain environment.

Ifweassume, forsimplification,thatDkisthesameforthesixinterfering cells,i.e.,D =

Dk,thentheformulaabovebecomes:

S 1 q (1.15)


I 6(q) 6

For analog systems using frequency modulation, normal cellular practice is to specify an
S/I ratio to be 18 dB or higher based on subjective tests. An S/I of 18 dB is the measured
value for the accepted voice quality from the present-day cellular mobile receivers.
18
Using anS/Iratioequalto18dB(101063.1)and=4intheEq.(1.15),then

q 663.10.254.41 (1.17)
SubstitutingqfromEq.(2.17)intoEq.(2.12)yields
(4.41)2

N 6.49 7. (1.18)

3
Eq.(1.18)indicatesthata7-cellreusepatternisneededforan S/Iratioof18 dB.

Therefore,theperformanceofinterference-limitedcellular mobilesystemcanbe
calculated from the following results.
a) Ifthesignal-to-interferenceratio(S/I)isgreaterthan18dB,thenthesystem is
said to be correctly designed.
b) If S/I is less than 18 dB and signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) is greater than 18
dB, then the system is said to be experiencing with a co-channel interference
problem.
 c) IfbothS/IandS/Narelessthan18dBandS/I isapproximatelysameas S/N in
a cell, then the systemhas a radio coverage problem.
d) IfbothS/IandS/Narelessthan18dBandS/IislessthanS/N,thesystem has both
co-channel interference and radio coverage problem.

Therefore, thereciprocity theoremcan beused to study theradio coverageproblem, butit

doesnotgiveaccurateresultswhenusedforthestudyofco-channelinterferenceproblem.
Therefore, itissuggested to performTest2in order to measureco-channel interferenceat the
cell-site. In Test 2 shown in Fig. 2.13, both the mobile unit present in the serving cell
andsixothermobileunitspresentintheneighboringcellsaretransmittingsimultaneously at the
same channel.

Firsttier

InterferingCells

Fig.1.13:Co-channelInterferenceMeasurementattheCell-site
Thereceivedsignal strengthmeas aredoneattheservingcell,underthefollowing
conditions: urements

 Whenonlythemobileunitpresentintheserving celltransmits(signalmeasured as S)

 Upto sixinterferencelevelsaremeasuredattheservingcell-siteduetopresence ofsix

mobile units in the neighboring cells (the average signal measured as I)
 Noisefromsourcesotherthan mobileunit(signalmeasured asN)
Then the received S/I and S/N is computed at the serving cell site. The test results are
compared with theTest1, and fromtheitcan beeasily found whether thecellular system has
a radio coverage or a co-channel interference problem or both.

Co-channelInterferenceReductionMethods

Interferenceis major factor affecting theperformanceofcellularcommunicationsystems.

Sources of interference may consist of a different mobile working in the same or in the
neighboring cells, which are operating in the same frequency band that may leak energy
into the cellular band.

Cells that use same set of radio channels are called co-channel cells, and the interference
caused by the received signals coming from these cells is called co-channel interference.
If the different cells in the cellular network use different radio channels then the inter-cell
interferenceshouldbekeptataminimumlevel.Whenthenumberofmobileusersincrease
andtheradiochannelsavailableinthesystemarelimited,then,inordertosatisfythishigh demand,
the radio channels have to be reused in various cells. Thatis why for increasing the
capacity, there exist many co-channel cells which can simultaneously serve the large
number of users.

Infact,Deploymentofradiochannelreuseisrequiredtoimprovethecapacityofa system. But,

the reuse mechanism brings in co-channel interference from neighboring cells using the
same set of radio channels. Therefore, the quality of received signal gets affected by the
amount of co-channel interference and the extent of radio coverage. Therefore, frequency
reuse should be planned very carefully in order to keep the co- channel interference at an
acceptable level.
Theco-channelinterferencecanbereducedbythefollowingmethods:
a. Increasingthedistance(D)betweentwoco-channelcells,D
As D increases, the strength of interfering signal from co-channel interfering cells
decreases significantly. But it is not wise to increase D because as D is increased,
K must also be increased. High value of K means fewer number of radio channels
areavailablepercellforagivenspectrum.Thisresultsintodecreaseofthesystem
capacity in terms of channels that are available per cell.
b. Reducingtheantennaheights
Reducingantennaheightisagoodmethodtominimizetheco-channelinterference in
some environment, e.g., on a high hill. In the cellular system design effective
antenna height is considered rather than the actual antenna height.Therefore, the
effective antenna height changes according to the present location of the mobile
unit in such a difficult terrain.
Whentheantennaisputupontopofthehill,theeffectiveantennaheightgetsmore
thantheactualantennaheight.So,inordertominimizetheco-channelinterference,
antenna with lower height should be used without decreasing the received signal
strength either at the cell-site or at the mobile device. Similarly, lower antenna
heightinavalleyisveryusefulinminimizingtheradiatedpower inafar-offhigh-
elevation area where the mobile user is believed to bepresent.
However, reducing the antenna height does not always minimize the co-channel
interference, e.g.,inforests,thelarger antennaheightclearsthetopsofthelongest trees
in the surrounding area, particularly when they are located very close to the
antenna. Butreducing theantenna heightwould not beappropriate for minimizing
co-channelinterferencebecauseunnecessaryattenuationofthesignalwouldoccur in
the vicinity of the antenna as well as in the cell boundary if the height of the
antenna is below the treetop level.
c. Usingdirectionalantennas.
The use of directional antennas in every cell can minimize the co-channel
interferenceiftheco-channelinterferencecannotbeavoidedbyafixeddivisionof co-
channel cells. This will also improve the system capacity even if the traffic
increases.Theco-channelinterferencecanbefurtherminimizedbysmartlysetting up
the directional antenna.
 d. Useofdiversityschemesatthe receiver.
The diversity scheme used at the receiving end of the antenna is an efficient
techniqueforminimizingtheco-channelinterferencebecauseanyunwantedaction
performed at the receiving end to increase the signal interference would notcause
further interference. For example, the division of two receiving antennas installed
atthecell-sitemeeting thecondition of h/s=11, (whereh is theantenna heightand s is
thedivision between two antennas), would producethecorrelation coefficient of 0.7
for a two-branch diversity system. The twocorrelated signals can be combined
with the use of selective combiner. The mobile transmitter couldsuffer
upto7dBminimization inpowerandthesameperformance atthecell-sitecan be
achieved as a non-diversity receiver. Therefore, interference from the mobile
transmitters to the receivers can be significantly reduced.

AdjacentChannelInterference

Signals from neighboring radio channels, also called adjacent channel, leak into the
particular channel, thus causing adjacent channel interference. Adjacent channel
interferencetakesplaceduetotheinabilityofamobilephonetoseparateoutthesignalsof adjacent
channels allocated to neighboring cell sites (e.g., channel 101 in cell A, and
channel102incellB),wherebothAandDcellsarepresentinthesamereusecluster.The problem
of adjacent channel interference can become more serious if a user transmitting
onachannel,whichisextremelyclosetoasubscriber'sreceiverchannel,whilethereceiver tries
to receive a signal from base station on the desired channel. Thisis called the near
andfareffect,whereaneighboringtransmittercatchesthereceiverof theuser.Otherwise,
thenear-fareffectoccurswhenamobileneartoabasestationtransmitsonachannelwhich
isclosetotheonebeingusedbyaweakmobile.Thebasestationmayfindsometroublein
separating out a particular user from the one using adjacent channel

Adjacent channel interference can be reduced through careful and thorough filtering and
efficient channelallocations.Aseach cellis allocatedonlya portionof the totalchannels, a
cell must not be allocated channels which are located adjacent in frequency. By
maintainingthechannelseparationaslargeaspossibleinagivencell,theadjacentchannel
interferencemaywellbeminimizedsignificantly.Hence, insteadofallocating contiguous
band of channels to each cell, channels are allocated such a way that the fre- quency
separation between channels in a given cell should be maximized. With sequentially
allocating consecutive channels to various cells, several channel allocation schemes are
capable enough to keep apart adjacent channels present in a cell with bandwidth of N
channels,whereNisthesizeofacluster.However,somechannelallocationschemesalso avoid a
secondary source of adjacent channel interference by not using the adjacent channels in
neighboring cells.

TrunkingandGradeofService

In cellular mobile communication, the two major aspects that have to be considered with
extracareare:trunking,andgradeofservice.Theseaspectsaretobeplannedverywellin order to
getabetter systemperformance. Thegrade of serviceis astandard which is used to define
the performance of a cellular mobile communication system by specifyinga desired
probability of a mobile user acquiring channel access,when a definite number of radio
channels are present in the system. The cellular communication network dependson
atrunkingsystemtofitlargenumberofmobileusersinalimitedradioband.Thestatistical
behaviorofmobileusersisbeingexploitedbytrunkingsothatafixednumberofchannels can be
allocated to large mobile users. In trunking, large number of mobile users is being
accommodated to share the limited radio channels available in a cell.

In trunked cellular communication systems, each mobile user present in network is

allocated a channel on the basis of a request. After the call is terminated, the occupied
channelsimmediatelygobacktothepoolofavailablechannels.Whenamobileuser made
arequest forchannels and ifallof the radio channels areoccupied,thentheincoming call
isblocked.Infewcommunicationsystems,aqueueisgenerallyusedtokeeptherequesting
mobileusersuntilachannelbecomesfree.Thegradeofservice(GOS)isusedtodetermine
thecapabilityofausertogetaccesstotrunkedradio systems duringbusyhours.Thebusy hour is
generally based on customer’s request for channels during peak load.
It is, therefore, necessary to approximate the maximum required capacity in terms of
number of available channels and to allocate the appropriate number of channels in order
tomeet the GOS.GOSisgenerallydefined astheprobabilitythat acall isblocked.A call which
cannot get completed after the call request is made by a user is called a blocked or
lostcall,anditmayhappeneitherduetochannelcongestionorduetothenon-availability of a free
channel. Therefore, GOS can be computed from channel congestion which is defined as
the call blocking probability, or being delayed beyond a certain time.
Thetrafficintensity(AuErlangs)generatedbyeachuseris

Au=λH

whereλistheaveragenumberofcallsgeneratedperunittimeandHistheaverageduration of each
call. If A is having U users and number of channels are not mentioned, then the total
offered traffic intensity A is
A=UAu
Additionally, if a trunked system is having C channels, and the traffic is equally divided
between the channels, then the intensity of traffic (Ac) for each radio channel is

Ac=UAu/C (1.19)

Notethatwhentheofferedtrafficgoespastthemaximumcapacityofthesystem,thetotal carried
traffic gets very limited due to the limited number of channels.The maximum possible
carried traffic is the total number of channels, C, in Erlangs. The AMPSsystem is
generallydeveloped for a GOS of2% blocking and it shows that 2outof100calls will be
blocked because channels are occupied during the busiest hour.
Different typesoftrunkedradiosystemscommonlyusedinthenetworksare:

1. Inthefirst type,no queuing isoffered forcallrequestsi.e.,for eachuser whorequests

service, there exists no setup time and if free radio channel is available, it is
immediatelyallocatedtotheuser. Ifallthechannelsarebusy,thentherequestinguser is
blocked. In this trunking system, it is assumed that call arrival follows a Poisson
distribution and the trunking is also called blocked calls cleared. Moreover,it
isalso assumedthatthereareunlimitedusersinthenetworkandhavingthefollowing
additional features:
(a)Thechannelrequestcanbemadeatanytimebyallthemobileusers(bothnewand blocked
users); (b) the probability of a user being allocated a channel is exponentially
distributed, therefore, occurrence of longer call duration is very unlikely as
explained by an exponential distribution; and (c) there are a fixed number of
channels present in the trunking pool, and it is known as an M/M/m queue, which
leads us to the derivation of the Erlang B formula. The Erlang B
formulahelpsinfindingtheprobabilitythatacallisblockedandalsomeasuresthe
GOSforatrunkedradio systemwhichdoesnot providequeuingforblocked calls. The
Erlang B formula is
AC
C!=GOS
Pr[blocking]= (1.20)
C kk
A
0k!
where C is the number of trunked channels present in the trunked radio system and
A is the offered traffic. It is possible to design a trunked systems with fixed number
of users, but the final expressions are found to be very complex than the Erlang B,
andtheaddedcomplexityisnotacceptablefortypicaltrunkedradiosystemsinwhich
numberofusersaremorethanthechannelspresent inthesystem.. Thecapacityof a
trunked radio system in which blocked calls are lost is shown in Table 2.3.
Table2.3:CapacityofanErlangBSystem

Numberof Capacity(Erlangs)forGOS
ChannelsC =0.01 =0.005 =0,002 =0.001
2 0.153 0.105 0.065 0.046
4 0.869 0.701 0.535 0.439
5 1.36 1.13 0.9OO 0.762
10 4.46 3.96 3.43 3.09
20 12.0 11.1 10.1 9.41
24 15.3 14.2 13.0 12.2
40 29.0 27.3 25.7 24.5
 70 56.1 53.7 51.0 49.2
100 84.1 80.9 77.4 75.2

2. Inasecondformof trunkednetworks,aqueueis usedtokeep the blockedcalls.If allthe

channels arepresently busy, then thecallcan bepostponed untilafreechannel is found,
and this whole process is Blocked Calls Delayed, and the GOS for this type of
trunking is the probability that a new call is not allocated to a channel even after
waiting a certain time in the queue. The probability that a new call is not allocated a
channel immediately is calculated by the Erlang C formula

AC
Pr[delay >0]= C  AC1Ak (1.21)


AC!1 


 Ck0 k!

Ifno channeliscurrentlyfound freethenthecallisdelayed, andtheGOSofa trunked

system in which the blocked calls are delayed is given by

Pr[delay>t]= Pr[delay>0]Pr[delay>t|delay>0] (1.22)

=Pr[delay>0]exp(-(C-A)t/H)

Forallthecallsnaqueued systemtheaveragedelayDisgivenby
H
D=Pr[delay>0] (1.23)
CA

ImprovingCapacityInCellularSystems

With the rise in the demand for wireless services, the number of radio channels
allocated to each cell could become inadequate in order to satisfy this increase in the
demand. Therefore, to increase the capacity (i.e. a cellular system can take up more calls)
ofacellularsystem,itisveryimportanttoallocatemorenumberofradiochannelsto each cell in
order to meet the requirements of mobile traffic. Various techniques that are proposed for
increasing the capacity of a cellular system is as follows:

i. Cellsplitting
ii. Cellsectoring
iii. Repeatersforextendingrange
 iv. Microzonemethod

CellSplitting

Cellsplittingisamethodinwhichcongested(heavytraffic)cellissubdividedintosmaller
cells,and each smallercellishaving itsown basestationwithreductionin antennaheight and
transmitter power. The original congested bigger cell is called macrocell and the smaller
cells are called microcells. Capacity of cellular network can be increased by creating
micro-cells within the original cells which are having smaller radiusthan macro-
cells,therefore, the capacityof asystem increasesbecausemore channelsperunit areaare
now available in a network.

Fig.1.14:CellSplitting

Fig.2.14showsacellsplittinginwhichacongestedcell,dividedintosmallermicro-cells, and the

base stations are put up at corners of the cells. The micro-cells are to be added in such a
way in order to the frequency reuse plan of the system should be preserved. For micro-
cells, the transmit power of transmitter should be reduced, and each micro-cell is
havinghalftheradiustothatofmacro-cell.Therefore,transmitpowerofthenew cells can be
calculated by analyzing the received power at the cell boundaries. Thisis required in order
to make sure that frequency reuse plan for the micro-cells is also working the same way
as it was working for the macro-cells.

Pr-OPtpR-n
  R n
Pr-N P tN2
 

WherePtp is thetransmitpowerofmacro-cell
PtN isthetransmitpowerofmacro-cell
nisthepathloss exponent
 R 
R, istheradiusofmacroandmicro-cells
2
 
Incellsplitting,followingfactorsshouldbecarefully monitored;

1. In cell splitting, allocation of channels to the new cells (micro-cells) must

be done very cautiously. So, in order to avoid co-channel interference, cells must
follow the minimum reuse distance principle.

2. Power levels of the transmitters for new and old cells must be redesigned.
If the transmitter of the old cell has the same power as that of new cells, then the
channels in old cell interferewith the channels of new cell. But, if thepower level
oftransmitter is too low then it mayresult into in sufficient area coverage.

3. In order to overcome the problem of point(2); the channels of macro-cell

isdividedintotwoparts.Thechannelsinthefirstpartareforthenewcellandother part
consists of channel for the old cell. Splitting of cells is done accordingto the
numberofsubscriberspresentintheareas,andthepowerlevelsofthetransmitters mustbe
redesigned according to the allocated channels to old and new cells.

4. Antennasofdifferentheightsandpowerlevelsareusedforsmoothandeasy
handoff, and this technique is called Umbrella cell approach. Using this approach
largecoverageareaisprovidedforhighspeedusersandsmallcoverageareatolow speed
users. Therefore, the number of call handoffs is maximized for high speed users
and provides more channels for slow speed users.
 5. The main idea behind cell splitting is the rescaling of entire system. In cell
splitting, reuse factor (D/R) is kept constant because by decreasing the radius of
cell (R) and, at the same time, the separation between co-channel (D) is also
decreased. So, high capacity can be achieved without changing the (D/R) ratio of
system.

Sectoring

AnotherwayofimprovingthechannelcapacityofacellularsystemistodecreasetheD/R
ratiowhilekeepingthesamecellradius.Improvementinthecapacitycanbeaccomplished by
reducing the number of cells in a cluster, hence increasing the frequencyreuse. To achieve
this, the relative interference must be minimized without decreasing thetransmit power.

For minimizing co-channel interference in a cellular network, a single omni-directional

antenna is replaced with multiple directional antennas, with each transmitting within a
smaller region. These smaller regions are called sectors and minimizing co-channel
interference while improving the capacity of a system by using multiple directional
antennasiscalledsectoring.Theamountuptowhichco-channelinterferenceisminimized
dependsonthe amountofsectoring used.Acell isgenerallydividedeither into three120
degree or six 60 degree sectors. In the three-sector arrangement, three antennas are
generallylocatedineachsectorwithonetransmitandtworeceiveantennas.Theplacement of
two receiveantennas provideantennadiversity, which is also known asspacediversity.
Space diversity greatly improves the reception of a signal by efficiently providing a big
target for signals transmitted from mobile units. The division between thetwo receive
antenna depends on the height of the antennas above ground.

When sectoring technique is used in cellular systems, the channels used in a particular
sector are actually broken down into sectored groups, which are only used inside a
particular sector. With 7-cell reuse pattern and 120 degree sectors, the number of
interferingcellsintheneighboringtierisbroughtdownfromsixtotwo.Cellsectoring also
improves the signal-to-interference ratio, thereby increasing the capacity of a cellular
system. This method of cell sectoring is very efficient, because it utilized the existing
systemstructures. Cellsectoring also minimized theco-channelinterference, with theuse of
directional antennas, a particular cell will get interference and transmit only a fraction of
the available co-channel cells.

Itisseenthatthereuseratioq=(NIS/I)1/n,whereNIdependsonthetypeofantennaused.
Foranomni-directionalantennawithonlyfirst-tierofco-channelinterferer,thenumberof co-
channel interfering cells NI = 6, but for a 120 degree directional antenna, it is 2
So,theincreaseinS/Iratiois
NIS/I 0 qn0
120120
NIS/Iomni q
nom
ni
S/I120 3
0

S/Iomni

n = path loss exponent NI=Numberofco-channelinterferingcells q

= frequency reuse ratio = D/R

Thus,S/Iratioincreaseswiththeincreaseinnumberofsectors,butatthecostofadditional handoff
that might be required for the movement of a user from one sector to another.

MicrocellZoneConcept

The micro-cell zone concept is associated with sharing the same radio equipment by
different micro-cells. It results in decreasing of cluster size and, therefore, increase in
system capacity. The micro-cell zone concept is used in practice to improve the capacity
of cellular systems.

To improve both capacity and signal quality of a cellular system, cell sectoring depends
upon correct setting up of directional antennas at the cell-site. But it also gives rise to
increase in the number of handoffs and trunking inefficiencies. In a 3-sector or 6-sector
cellular system, each sector acts like a new cell with a different shape and cell. Channels
allocatedtotheun-sectoredcellaredividedbetweenthedifferentsectorspresentinacell,
therebydecreasingnumberofchannelsavailableineachsector.Furthermore,handofftakes
place every time a mobile user moves from one sector to another sector of the same cell.
ThisresultsinsignificantincreaseofnetworkloadonBSCandMSCofthecellularsystem.
Theproblemofchannelpartitioning andincreasein networkloadbecomeveryhardifall the 3
or 6-sectored directional antennas are placed at the centre ofthe cell.

AsshownintheFig.1.15,threedirectionalantennasareputatapoint,Z1,alsocalledzone- site,
where three adjacent cells C1, C2, and C3 meet with each other. Z1, Z2 and Z3 are three
zone-sites of the cell C1, and each zone-site is using three 135degree directional
antennas. All the three zone-sites also behave as receivers, which also receive signals
transmittedbyamobileuserpresentanywhereinthecell.Allthethreezone-sitesarelinked to one
common base station, as shown in Fig. 2.16. This arrangement is knownas Lee's micro-
cell zone concept.

In order to avoid delay, these zone-sites are connected through a high-speed fiber link to
thebasestation.Thebasestationfirstfindsout,whichofthethreezone-siteshasthebetter received
signal strength from the mobile user and then that particular zone-site is used to transmit
the signal to the mobile user. Therefore, only one zone-site is active at a time for
communicatingwiththeuseranditalsominimizestheco-channelinterferenceexperienced by
the mobile user.

C2 Zone-site
C3
Z1
23
C1

Fig.1.15:LocationofZone-sites inSectoredCells
Therefore, micro-cell zone architecture minimizes the co-channel interference, improves
systemcapacity,demandslesshandoffs, andthesystemis easyto implement.Thesystem
capacity for a system with cluster size k=3 is 2.33 times greater than the present analog
cellular system with k=7 for the C/I requirement of 18 dB. This micro-cell system gives
improved voice quality than the AMPS cellular system at 850 MHz. The micro-cell zone
conceptcanbeusedwithbothdigitalcommunicationsystemsandpersonalcommunication
systems,andisbestsuitedforindoorapplications.Itisalsoveryusefultoprovideservices along
highways or in crowded urban areas.

High-speedfiberlinks

Base
23
station

Fig.1.16:Lee’sMicrocellZoneConcept

Advantagesofmicrozoneconcept:
1. Whenthemobileuser movesfromonezonetoanotherwithinthe samecell,the
mobile user can keep the same channel for the call progress.
2. Theeffectofinterferenceisverylowduetotheinstallationoflowpower
transmitters.
3. Bettersignalqualityispossible.
4. Fewerhandoffswhenacallisinprogress.

RepeatersforRangeExtensions

Wireless operators wantto providededicated coveragefor users located within buildings,

or in valleys or tunnels as these areas are sometimes very hard to reach. Radio re-
transmitters,alsoknownasrepeaters,arefrequentlyusedtoprovidecoverageinsuch areas
whererangeextension capabilities arerequired.Repeaters arebidirectionaldevices,as the
signals can be concurrently transmitted to and received froma base station.
Repeaters may be installed anywhere as they function using over the air signals, and are
able repeat entire frequency band. After receiving signals from base station, the repeater
amplifies the signals before it forwards them to the coverage area. As repeaters can also
reradiate the received noise, so repeaters must be installed very carefully. Directional
antennas or distributed antenna system (DAS) are linked practically to the repeater inputs
or outputs for spot coverage, mainly in tunnels or buildings.

Aserviceproviderdedicatessomeamountofcellsite’strafficfortheareascoveredbythe repeater
by modifying the coverage of cell. As the repeater do not add more channels to the
system, it only reradiates the base station signal into specific locations. Repeaters are
generally used to provide coverage into those areas, where signal reception has been very
weak.Signalpenetrationinsidethebuildingisgenerallyprovidedbyinstallingmicro-cells
outsidethebigbuilding,andinstallingmanyrepeatersinsidethebuildings. Thistechnique
provides better coverage into targeted areas, but does not increase the capacity that is
required with the rise in the indoor and outdoor traffic. Therefore, dedicated base stations
insidebuildingsarerequiredtomeettheservicedemandsoflarge numberofcellularusers
presentinsidethebuilding.Findingaproperlocationforrepeatersanddistributedantennas
inside the building needs a very careful planning, mainly due to the interference signals
reradiated into the building.Also,repeaters must be able to match the available capacity
fromthe base station.Software SitePlannerhelps the engineerstodecidethe best location for
putting up the repeaters and DAS network.

Conclusion

The fundamental concepts of frequency reuse, frequency planning, handoff, and trunking
efficiency are presented in this chapter. The performance determining parameters such as
grade of service, spectrum efficiency, and radio capacity under diverse situations are also
discussed.Handoffsareessential topassmobiletrafficfromonecell toanother,and there is
variety of different ways to implement handoffs. The capacity of a cellular system
depends upon several variables. The S/I influence the frequency reuse factor of a cellular
system,whichrestrictsthenumberofradiochannelswithinthecoveragearea.Thenumber of
users in a particular area is greatly influe
 UNITII
MobileRadioPropagation:LinkCalculationandAntennaSystem

FreeSpacePropagationModel:

The free space propagation model is used to predict received signal strength when the transmitter and
receiver have a clear, unobstructed line-of-sight path between them. Satellite communication systems and
microwave line-of-sight radio links typically undergo free space propagation. As with most large- scale
radio wave propagation models, the free space model predicts that received power decays asa function of
theT-Rseparationdistanceraisedtosomepower(i.e.apowerlawfunction).Thefreespacepowerreceived by a
receiver antenna which is separated from a radiating transmitter antenna by a distance d, is given by the
Friis free space equation,

Pr(d)=PtGtGrλ2/(4πd)2

wherePt isthetransmittedpower,Pr (d)isthereceivedpowerwhichisafunctionoftheT-Rseparation,Gt is the

transmitter antenna gain, Gr is the receiver antenna gain, d is the T-R separation distance in meters and λ
is the wavelength in meters. The gain of an antenna is related to its effectiveaperture, Aeby,

G=4πAe/λ2

The effective aperture Ae is related to the physical size of the antenna, and λ is related to the carrier
frequency by,

λ= c/f=2πc/ωc

where f is the carrier frequency in Hertz, ωc, is the carrier frequency in radians per second, and c is the
speed of light given in meters/s.

An isotropic radiator is an ideal antenna which radiates power with unit gain uniformly in all directions,
and is often used to reference antenna gains in wireless systems. The e/7'ective isotropic radiated power
(EIRP) is defined as

EIRP=PtGt
and represents the maximum radiated power available from a transmitter in the direction of maximum
antenna gain, as compared to an isotropic radiator. In practice, effective radiated power (ERP) is used
insteadofEIRPtodenotethemaximumradiatedpowerascomparedtoahalf-wavedipoleantenna(instead of an
isotropic antenna).

The path loss, which represents signal attenuation as a positive quantity measured in dB, is defined as the
difference (in dB) between the effective transmitted power and the received power, and may or may not
include the effect of the antenna gains. The path loss for the free space model when antenna gains are
included is given by

PL(dB)=10log(Pt/Pr)=-10log[PtGtGrλ2/(4πd)2]

Whenantennagainsareexcluded,theantennasareassumedtohaveunitygain,andpathlossisgivenby PL (dB) =

10log(Pt/Pr) = -10log[λ2/(4πd)2]

The Friis free space model is only a valid predictor for P rfor values of d which are in the far-field of the
transmittingantenna.Thefar-field,orFraunhoferregion,ofatransmittingantennaisdefinedastheregion beyond
the far-field distance df, which is related to the largest linear dimension of the transmitter antenna aperture
and the carrier wavelength. The Fraunhofer distance is given by

df=2D2/λ

whereDisthelargestphysicallinear dimensionoftheantenna.Additionally, tobe inthefar-fieldregion, df must

satisfy

df>>D

#Ifatransmitterproduces50wattsof power,expressthetransmitpowerinunitsof(a)dBm,and
(b) dBW If 50 watts is applied to a unity gain antenna with a 900 MHz carrier frequency, find the
received power in dBm at a free space distance of 100 m from the antenna. What is Pr( 10 km) ?
Assume unity gain for the receiver antenna.

TheThreeBasic PropagationMechanisms:

Reflection,diffraction,andscatteringarethethreebasicpropagationmechanismswhichimpact propagation in a
mobile communication system.
Reflectionoccurswhenapropagatingelectromagneticwaveimpingesuponanobjectwhichhasverylarge
dimensionswhencomparedtothewavelengthofthepropagatingwave.Reflectionsoccurfromthe surface of the
earth and from buildings and walls.

Diffractionoccurswhenthe radiopath betweenthe transmitterandreceiverisobstructedbya surface that has

sharp irregularities (edges). The secondary waves resulting from the obstructing surface are present
throughout the space andeven behind the obstacle, giving rise to a bending of waves around the obstacle,
even when a line-of-sight path does not exist between transmitter and receiver. At high frequencies,
diffraction, like reflection depends on the geometry of the object, as well as the amplitude, phase, and
polarization of the incident wave at the point of diffraction.

Scattering occurs when the medium through which the wave travels consists of objects with dimensions
that are small compared to the wavelength, and where the number of obstacles per unit volume is large.
Scatteredwavesare producedbyroughsurfaces,smallobjects,orbyotherirregularitiesinthe channel.In
practice, foliage, street signs, and lamp posts induce scattering in a mobile communications system.

Reflection:

Whena radiowave propagatinginone mediumimpinges uponanothermediumhavingdifferentelectrical

properties,thewaveispartiallyreflectedandpartiallytransmitted.Iftheplanewaveisincidentona perfect
dielectric,partofthe energyistransmittedintothe secondmediumandpartof the energyisreflectedback into the
first medium, and there is no loss of energy in absorption. lf the second medium isa perfect
conductor,thenallincidentenergyisreflectedbackintothefirstmediumwithoutlossofenergy.Theelectric
fieldintensityofthereflectedandtransmittedwavesmayberelatedtotheincidentwavein themediumof origin
through the Fresnel reflection coefficient (Г). The reflection coefficient is a functionof the material
properties, and generally depends on the wave polarization, angle of incidence, and the frequency of the
propagatingwave.
Reflectionfromdielectrics:

Figure 3.4 shows an electromagnetic wave incident at an angle θ iwith the plane of the boundary between
two dielectric media. As shown in the figure, part of the energy is reflected back to the first media at an
angleθr,andpartoftheenergyistransmitted(refracted)intothesecondmediaatanangleθ t.Thenatureof reflection
varies with the direction of polarization of the E-field. The behavior forarbitrary directions of polarization
can be studied by considering the two distinct cases shown in Figure
The plane of incidence is defined as the plane containing the incident, reflected, and transmitted rays.
In Figure 3.4a, the E—field polarization is parallel with the planeof incidence (that is, the E-field has
averticalpolarization,ornormalcomponent,withrespecttothereflectingsurface)andinFigure3.4b, theE-
fieldpolarizationisperpendiculartotheplaneofincidence(thatis,theincidentE-fieldispointing out of the
page towards the reader, and is perpendicular to the page and parallel to the reflecting surface).
Becauseofsuperposition,onlytwoorthogonalpolarizationsneedbeconsideredtosolvegeneralreflection
problems.The reflectioncoefficientsfor the twocasesofparallelandperpendicular E-fieldpolarizationat the
boundary of two dielectrics are given by

Whereηistheintrinsicimpedanceoftherespectivemedium. Or,

Whereɛisthepermittivityoftherespectivemedium.

BrewsterAngle:

The Brewster angle is the angle at which noreflection occurs in the medium of origin. It occurs when the
incident angle BB is such that the reflection coefficient Г ||is equal to zero (see Figure 3.6), The Brewster
angle is given by the value of θBwhich satisfies

Sin(θB)= √(ɛ1)/√(ɛ1+ɛ2)

For thecasewhenthefirstmediumisfreespaceandthesecondmediumhasarelativepermittivity ɛ r, above

equation can be expressed as

Sin(θB)=√(ɛr-1)/√(ɛr2-1)

NotethattheBrewsterangleoccursonlyfor vertical(i.e.parallel)polarization.
#Calculatethe Brewsterangleforawaveimpingingongroundhavingapermittivityofɛ r=4.

ReflectionfromPerfectConductors:

Sinceelectromagneticenergycannotpassthroughaperfectconductoraplanewaveincidentonaconductor has all

of its energy reflected. As the electric field at the surface of the conductor must be equalto zero at all
times in order to obey Maxwel1’s equations, the reflected wave must be equal in magnitude to the
incidentwave.ForthecasewhenE-fieldpolarizationisinthe plane ofincidence,the boundary conditions require
that

θi=θr

andEi = Er(E-fieldinplaneofincidence)

Similarly,for thecasewhentheE-fieldishorizontallypolarized,theboundaryconditionsrequirethat θi=θr

andEi =-Er(E-fieldnotinplane ofincidence)

GroundReflection(2-ray)Model:

In a mobile radio channel, a single direct path between the base station and a mobile is seldom the only
physical means for propagation, and hence the free space propagation model is in most cases inaccurate
whenusedalone.The2-raygroundreflectionmodelshowninFigure3.7isausefulpropagationmodelthat is based
on geometric optics, and considers both the direct path and a ground reflected propagation path between
transmitter and receiver. This model has been found to be reasonably accurate for predictingthe large-
scalesignalstrengthoverdistancesofseveralkilometersformobileradiosystemsthatusetalltowers (heights
which exceed 50 m), as well as for line of-sight, microcell channels in urban environments.
Referring to Figure 3.7, ht is the height of the transmitter and hr is the height of the receiver. lf Eo is the
freespaceE-field(inunitsofV/m)atareferencedistancedofromthe transmitter,thenford>do,thefree space
propagating E—field is given by

Two propagating waves arrive at the receiver: the direct wave that travels a distance d'; and the reflected
wave that travels a distance d”.

The electric field E TOT( d, t) can be expressed as the sum of equations for distances d’ and d” (i.e. direct
wave and reflected wave.

Diffraction:

Diffraction allows radio signals to propagate around the curved surface of the earth, beyond the horizon,
and to propagate behind obstructions. Although the received field strength decreases rapidly as a receiver
movesdeeperintotheobstructed(shadowed)region,thediffractionfieldstillexistsandoftenhassufficient
strength to produce a useful signal.

The phenomenon of diffraction can be explained by Huygen`s principle, which states that all points on a
wavefrontcanbeconsideredaspointsourcesfortheproductionofsecondarywavelets,andthatthese
waveletscombinetoproduceanewwavefrontinthedirectionof`propagation.Diffractioniscausedbythe
propagation of secondary wavelets into a shadowed region. The field strength of a diffracted wave in the
shadowed region is the vector sum of the electric field components of all the secondary waveletsin the
space around the obstacle.

FresnelZoneGeometry:

Consider a transmitter and receiver separated in free space as shown in Figure 3.10a. Let an obstructing
screen of effective height h with infinite width (going into and out of the paper,) be placed between them
atadistanced1fromthetransmitterandd2 fromthereceiver.Itisapparentthatthewave propagatingfrom
thetransmittertothereceiverviathetopofthescreentravelsalongerdistancethan ifadirectline-of-sight
path(through the screen)existed. Assuming h << d1, d2and h >>λ , then the difference between the direct
pathandthediffractedpath,calledtheexcesspathlength(Δ),canbeobtainedfromthegeometryofFigure as
Knife-edgeDiffractionModel:

Estimating the signal attenuation caused by diffraction ofradio waves over hills and buildings is essential
in predicting the field strength in a given service area. Generally, it is impossible to make very precise
estimates of the diffraction losses, and in practice prediction is a process of theoretical approximation
modifiedbynecessaryempiricalcorrections.Thoughthecalculationofdiffractionlossesovercomplexand
irregular terrain is a mathematically difficult problem, expressions for diffraction losses for many
simplecaseshavebeenderived.Asastartingpoint,thelimitingcaseofpropagationoveraknife-edgegives good
insight into the order of magnitude of diffraction loss.

When shadowing is caused by a single object such as a hill or mountain, the attenuation caused by
diffraction can be estimated by treating the obstruction as a diffracting knife edge. This is the simplest of
diffraction models,and thediffraction loss in this casecan bereadily estimatedusing theclassical Fresnel
solution for the field behind a knife edge (also called a half-plane).

MultipleKnife-edgeDiffraction:

ln many practical situations, especially in hilly terrain, the propagation path may consist of more than one
obstruction,inwhichcasethetotaldiffractionlossduetoalloftheobstaclesmustbecomputed.Bullington
suggestedthattheseriesofobstaclesbereplacedbyasingleequivalentobstaclesothatthe pathlosscanbe
obtainedusingsingleknife-edgediffractionmodels.Thismethod,illustratedinFigure3.15,oversimplifies the
calculations and often provides very optimistic estimates of the received signal strength. In a more
rigorous treatment, Millington et. al. gave a wave-theory solution for the field behind two knife edges in
series. This solution is very useful and can be applied easily for predicting diffraction losses due to two
knife edges. However, extending this to more than two knife edges becomes a formidable mathematical
problem. Many models that are mathematically less complicated have been developed to estimate the
diffraction losses due to multiple obstructions.

Scattering:

The actual received signal in a mobile radio environment is often stronger than what is predicted by
reflection and diffraction models alone. This is because when a radio wave impinges on a rough surface,
the reflected energy is spread out (diffused) in all directions due to scattering. Objects such as lamp posts
and trees tend to scatter energy in all directions, thereby providing additional radio energy at a receiver.
Flat surfaces that have much larger dimension than a wavelength may be modeled as reflective surfaces.
However, the roughness of such surfaces often induces propagation effects different from the specular
reflection described earlier in this chapter. Surface roughness is often tested using the Rayleigh criterion
which defines a critical height (hc) of surface protuberances for a given angle of incidence i.e. given by

hc=λ/(8sinθi)

Asurfaceisconsideredsmoothifitsminimumtomaximumprotuberancehislessthanhc,andisconsidered
roughiftheprotuberanceisgreaterthanhc.Forroughsurfaces,theflatsurfacereflection coefficientneeds to be
multiplied by a scattering loss factor, ρs, to account for the diminished reflected field.

Outdoorpropagationmodel:

Longley-RiceModel:

The Longley-Rice model is applicable to point-to-point communication systems in the frequency range
from40 MHz to 100 GHz, over differentkinds of terrain.The median transmission lossis predicted using
thepathgeometryoftheterrainprofileandtherefractivityofthetroposphere.Geometricopticstechniques
(primarily the2-ray ground reflection model)are used topredict signalstrengths within the radiohorizon.
Diffraction losses over isolated obstacles are estimated using the Fresnel-Kirchoff knife- edge models.
Forward scatter theory is used to make troposcatter predictions over long distances.

TheLongley-Ricemethodoperatesintwomodes.Whenadetailedterrainpathprofileisavailable,thepath-
specific parameterscanbe easily determinedandthe predictioniscalleda point-to-point mode prediction.
Ontheotherhand,iftheterrainpathprofileisnotavailable,theLongley-Ricemethodprovidestechniques to
estimate the path-specific parameters, and such a prediction is called an area mode prediction.

OkumuraModel:

Okumura`s model is one of the most widely used models for signal prediction in urban areas. This model
is applicable for frequencies in the range 150 MHz to 1920 MHz (although it is typically extrapolated up
to 3000 MHz) and distances of 1 km to 100 km. It can be used for base station antenna heights ranging
from 30 m to 1000 m. Okumura developed a set of curves giving the median attenuation relative to free
space(Amu),inanurbanareaoveraquasi-smoothterrainwithabasestationeffectiveantennaheight
(hte) of 200 m and a mobile antenna height (hre) of 3 m. These curves were developed from extensive
measurements using vertical omni-directional antennas at both the base and mobile, and are plotted as a
functionoffrequencyintherange100MHzto1920MHzandasafunctionofdistancefromthebasestation in the
range 1 km to 100 km. To determine path loss using Okumura`s model, the free space path loss
betweenthe points of interest is first determined, andthen the value of A mu(f, d) (asread from the curves) is
added to it along with correction factors to account for the type of terrain. The model can beexpressed as

L50(dB)=LF+Amu(f,d)-G(te)-G(re)- GAREA

where L50 is the 50th percentile (i.e., median) value of propagation path loss, L F is the free space
propagation loss, Amu is the median attenuation relative to free space, G(hte) is the base station antenna
heightgainfactor,G(hre)isthemobileantennaheightgainfactor,andG AREAisthegainduetothetypeof
environment.Notethattheantennaheightgainsarestrictlyafunctionofheightandhavenothingtodowith antenna
patterns.

HataModel:

The Hata model[Hat90]isanempirical formulationof the graphicalpathlossdata providedbyOkumura, and is

valid from 150 MHz to 1500 MHz. Hata presented the urban area propagation loss as a standard formula
and supplied correction equations for application to other situations. The standard formula for median
path loss in urban areas is given by

L50(urban)(dB)=69.55+26.16logfc-13.82loghte-a(hre) +(44.9- 6.55loghte)logd

wherefcisthefrequency(inMHz)from150MHzto1500MHz,hteistheeffectivetransmitter(basestation)
antennaheight(inmeters)rangingfrom30mto200m,hreistheeffectivereceiver(mobile) antenna height (in
meters) ranging from1 mto 10 m, d is the T-R separation distance (in km), and a(hre)isthe correction
factorfor effective mobile antenna height which is afunction of the size of the coverage area. Fora small to
medium sized city, the mobile antenna correction factor is givenby

a(hre)= (1.11ogfc-0.7)hre-(1.56logfc-0.8)dB
andforalargecity,itisgivenby
a(hre) = 8.29(log1.54hre)2 -1.1 dB for fc<= 300 MHz
a(hre)=3.2(log11.75hre)2—4.97dBforfc>=300MHz
Toobtainthepathloss ina suburbanarea thestandardHataformulainequationsaremodifiedas L 50(dB) =

L50(urban)-2[log(fc/28)]2-5.4

andfor pathlossin openruralareas, theformulaismodified as

L50(dB)=L50(urban)–4.78(logfc)2+18.33logfc- 40.94
IndoorPropagationModels:

With the advent of Personal Communication Systems (PCS), there is a great deal of interest in
characterizing radio propagation inside buildings. The indoor radio channel differs from the
traditionalmobile radio channel in two aspects - the distances covered are much smaller, and the
variability of the environment is much greater for a much smaller range of T-R separation distances. It has
been observed thatpropagationwithinbuildingsisstronglyinfluencedbyspecificfeaturessuchasthelayoutofthe
building, the construction materials, and the building type. This section outlines models for path loss
within buildings.

Indoor radio propagation is dominated by the same mechanisms as outdoor: reflection, diffraction, and
scattering.However,conditionsaremuchmorevariable.Forexample,signallevelsvarygreatlydepending on
whether interior doors are open or closed inside a building. Where antennas are mounted also impacts
large-scale propagation. Antennas mounted at desk level in a partitioned office receive vastlydifferent
signalsthanthosemountedontheceiling.Also,thesmallerpropagationdistancesmakeitmore difficultto insure
far-field radiation for all receiver locations and types of antennas.

PartitionLosses(samefloor):

Buildings have a wide variety of partitions and obstacles which form the internal and external structure.
Houses typically use a wood frame partition with plaster board to form internal walls and have wood or
non-reinforced concrete between floors. Office buildings, on the other hand, often have large open areas
(openplan)whichareconstructedbyusingmoveableofficepartitionssothatthespacemaybereconfigured easily,
and use metal reinforced concrete between floors. Partitions that are formed as part ofthe building
structure are called hard partitions, and partitions that may be moved and which do not spantothe ceiling
are called soft partitions. Partitions vary widely in their physical and electrical characteristics, making it
difficult to apply general models to specific indoor installations.
PartitionLossesbetweenFloors:

The losses between floors of a building are determined by the external dimensions and materials of the
building, as well as the type of construction used to create the floors and the external surroundings. Even
thenumberofwindowsinabuildingandthepresenceoftinting(whichattenuatesradioenergy)canimpact the
lossbetweenfloors.Itcanbe seenthatforallthree buildings,the attenuationbetweenone floorsofthe
buildingisgreaterthanthe incremental attenuationcausedbyeachadditionalfloor.After aboutfive or six floor
separations, very little additional path loss is experienced.

PropagationModel(PracticalLinkBudget design)
FreeSpacePropagationModel

Thereductionoftheaveragesignallevelasthe mobilestationmoves awayfromthebasestationis called

propagation path loss.

Agoodpathlosspredictionmodelshouldbeabletodistinguishbetweenrural,suburban,andurban areas,
since there are important differences in radio propagation in these different area types.

TypicalFreeSpacePropagationmodelisgivenby

ReceivedPower (Pr)=Pt+Gt+Gr-(32.44+20log(d)+20 log(f))

Where
Pr = Received power in
dBmPt=Transmitpower in
dBm
Gt=TransmittingantennagainindBi.

Gr=Receivingantennagainin dBi.
d = Distance in Km
f=Frequency in MHz
HataModel

Hatahasdevelopedthreeempiricalpathloss modelsbasedonthemeasurementsbyOkumura inTokyo area of

Japan. The Hata model for typical path loss for urban area is given as

Lu=69.55+26.16log(f)-13.82log(hB)-a(hM)+[44.9-6.55log(hB)]log(d)

Where

f=propagation frequency in MHz.

hB=heightofthebasestationantenna inm
hM=height ofthe mobilestationantenna inm

d=distancebetweenbasestationandthemobilestationinkm.

Theterma(hM)isa correctionfactor, thevalue ofwhichdependsupontheterraintype.Thevalueof a(hM) for

small and medium sized cities can be found in dB as

a(hM)=[1.1log(f)-0.7]hM-1.56log(f)+0.8

andforlargecitiesdependinguponfrequency as

a(hM)=8.29[log(1.54 hM)]2-1.10 whenf≤200MHz

a(hM)=3.2[log(11.75hM)]2-4.97 whenf≥400 MHz

For typicalsuburbanarea wesubtractacorrectionfactor

Lsu=Lu–2[log(f/28)]2-5.4
Foropenarea wehavea differentcorrectionfactor

Lr= Lu–4.78 [log(f)]2+ 18.33log(f)-40.94

The open area of the Hata model corresponds to flat deserted area. For path loss of typical rural area a
margin of 6-10 dB is often added to the path loss predicted by the open area Hata model.

In Hata modela largecity is understood to beheavily built with relatively largebuildings averaging more
than four floors in height. If the city has lower average buildings height, it is considered to be small or
medium.

Therangeofparametervalues,wheretheHatamodelisapplicable,is

 f = 150– 1500 MHz

 hB = 30– 200 m
 hM = 1– 10 m
 d = 1-20 km

For higher carrier frequencies of 1500- 2000 MHz the following modification of Hata model for urban
area hasbeenproposed.ThisisalsoknownasCost231Hata modelanditistheextensionofHata model for PCS
(1900 MHz).

Lu =46.3+33.9log(f) –13.82log(hB)–a(hM) +[44.9-6.55log(hB)] log(d)+C

Wherethecorrectionfactora(hM)forsmallandmedium-sizedcities

a(hM) =[1.1 log(f)-0.7)]hM-1.56log(f)+0.8

Thesemodifiedequationhavebeensuccessfullyusedforcellular mobilenetworkdesignat1800MHz band.
However, itshould be noted that(modified) Hata modelis only valid for macrocelldesign. The Hata model
is not applicable to microcells with d<1 km.

TheHatamodelalsobeenextendedtodistancesd=20…100kmwiththefollowing modification

Lu=69.55+26.16log(f)–13.82log(hB) –a(hM)+[ 44.9-6.55log(hB)]log(d)]a

Examples:

1. A transmitter has a power output of 50 W at a carrier frequency of 200MHz. It is connected to

anantennawithagainof10dBi.Thereceivingantennais15Kmawayandhasagainof3dBi. Calculate
power delivered to the receiver, assuming free space propagation. Assume also that there are
no losses or mismatches in the system.
2. Let us consider a Kathmandu city with different GSM uplink parameters. The MS is
transmittingwithpower2W.TheminimumacceptablereceivedpoweratBSis -116dBm.The carrier
frequency is 900MHz, the height of base station is 30m and height of mobile station is
1m.Estimate the maximum cell radius and corresponding cell area.

RadioLinkPowerBudget

Transmission in uplink and downlink of cellular systems is asymmetric, since the BS

transmitter typically uses much higher power than the MS transmitter. However, the
transmission quality in uplink and downlink should be equal, especially near the cell edge.
Both speech and data services in cellular systems are dimensioned for equal transmission
qualityinbothdirections.Transmissionqualityinuplinkanddownlinkcanbedeterminedfrom the
link budget. The terms in the link budget are defined with aid of the block diagram in the
adjoining figure.
 GBS GMS

LBS-f1 LMS-f Ldpx-txP

P A
BS-tx C DUPLEX MS-rx MS-RX
BS-TX L
COMB. FILTER
FILTER
c

PMS-tx
ANTENNA ANTENNA MS-TX
FEEDER FEEDER

Ldpx-rx
Gdiv LBS-f2
PBS-rx

ANTENNA
BS-RX DIVERSITY FEEDER
COMBINER

Where

 PBS-txistheoutputpowerlevelofthebasestation
 Acisthebasestationtransmittercombiningfilterloss(dB),
 LBS-f1istheBasestationantennafeeder loss(dB),
 GBSisthebasestationantennagain(dBi,relativetoanisotropicradiator),
 LCistheradiopathlossbetweenisotropicantennas(dB),
 GMSisthemobilestationgain(dBi),
 LMS-fisthemobilestationantennafeederloss(dB),
 Ldpx-rxisthemobilestationduplexfilter lossinthedownlinkdirection(dB).
 Ldpx-txisthe duplexfilter lossintheuplinkdirection(dB),
 Gdivisthebasestationdiversitygain(dB),
 PMS-rxis thereceivedpowerlevelinthemobilestationinputterminal(dBm),
 PBS-rxisthereceivedpowerlevelinthebasestationinputterminal(dBm).

ThefollowingFigureshowsapictorialexampleofaradiolinkpowerbudget.Inadditiontothe linkbudget of the

transmitted signal, it also illustrates noise at the receiver. The noise has power NoB at the input of the
receiver, and it is amplified by the noise figure (NF) of the receiver.
 45

40
PowerLevel[dBm]

35

30

-95

-100

PowerLevel[dBm]
-105

-110

-115

Transmitterat Base RadioChannel ReceiveratMobileStation

Station
The abbreviation FM stands for fading margin for slow fading. Hence, the signal-to-noise ratio(SNR)inthe
figure corresponds to the SNR that is encountered, when the receiver is shadowed by an obstruction. The
average SNR is better that this value.The SNR during a fade should still be larger than the minimum
acceptable Eb / No definedfor the system. The maximumacceptable path loss can be computed as

Lc=EIRPmax-Prec,min

Where

EIRPisEffectiveIsotropicRadiatedPower

PrecisReceivedpowerwith(hypothetical)isotropicantenna For

downlink:

EIRPBTS,max =PBS-tx maximumBTSpower (meanpoweroverburst)

- Ac combinerandfilterloss

- LBS-f1 antennacableloss

+GBS antennagain

PMS,rec,min =PMS-rxMSreferencesensitivity(for MSclassi)

+ LMS-f antennacableloss

- GMS antennagain

+Ldpx-rx duplexfilter loss

Foruplink:

EIRPMS,max= PMS-tx maximumtransmissionpowerofMS(meanpower

over burst for MS class i)
- Ldpx-txduplexfilterloss

- LMS-f antennacableloss

+GMS antennagain

PBTS,rec,min =PBS-rx BTSreferencesensitivity

+ LBS-f1antennacableloss

- GBS antennagain

- Gdiv diversitygain(ifexisting)

A balanced power budget is achieved if and only if

Lc,uplink=Lc,downlink
Whichisequivalentto

EIRPBTS,max-PMS,rec,min=EIRPMS,max-PBTS,rec,min

In reality, balancedpower budget is only achieved withan accuracy of ±5 dB, depending primarily on the
employed mobile phone class and the initial network design goals. Therefore, uplink and downlink may
have different power rangeswhich may lead to significant performance differences on the cell boundary or
at indoor locations.

Theacceptablepathloss(withoutinterferencemargin)foranycellularsystemcanbecomputedseparately for
uplink and downlink as:
 Lc,u PMS tx Ldpx tx LMS f GMS PBS rx LBS fi GBS Gdiv

Lc,d PBS tx Ac LBS fi GBS PMS rx LMS f GMS Ldpx rx

Example:power balance/unbalanceina GSM–systemwithfollowingparametervalues:

 PBS-tx= 10 W(40dBm)
 PMS-tx=1W (30dBm,handheldtelephone)
 PMS-tx= 5W(37dBm,carmountedtelephone)
 SBS = -104dBm
 SMS = -102dBm(handheldtelephone)
 SMS = -104dBm(carmountedtelephone)
 Ldpx-tx=Ldpx-rx
 Gdiv = 7 dB
 Ac = 3 dB
Thepowerunbalanceofthe handheldtelephone:

L =Lc,d – Lc,u= [PBS-tx –Ac– LBS-fi + GBS]

- [PMS-rx+LMS-f–GMS +Ldpx-rx]
- [PMS-tx–Ldpx-tx- LMS-f+GMS]
+[PBS-rx+LBS-fi - GBS–Gdiv]

=PBS-tx-Ac-PMS-rx-PMS-tx+PBS-rx- Gdiv

= 40 – 3+ 102–30– 104 –7=-2dB

Theuplinkdirectionisthus2dBbetter.Thisdifference canbeneglectedinpracticalnetworkdesign. For the
car mounted telephone the power unbalance is:
FORMULA
L =PBS-tx-Ac-PMS-rx -PMS-tx+ PBS-rx - Gdiv

= 40 – 3+ 104 –37 –7–104=-7dB

The uplink direction is now 7 dB better. From the operator’s point of view it would be better if the power
unbalance were in favor of the downlink. This would guarantee better network control. However the real
time power control used in GSM caneasily rectify situation and produce almost perfect power balance.
 UNIT III
MobileRadioPropagation
MultipathWavePropagationand
Fading

MultipathPropagation

Inwirelesstelecommunications,multipathisthepropagationphenomenonthatre-sults in radio
signals reaching the receiving antenna by two or more paths.Causesof multipath
includeatmosphericducting,ionosphericreflectionandrefraction,andreflectionfrom
waterbodiesandterrestrialobjectssuchasmountainsandbuildings.Theeffectsof
multipathincludeconstructiveanddestructiveinterference,andphaseshiftingofthe signal. In
digital radio communications (such as GSM) multipath can cause errors and affect thequality
ofcommunications.We discussall therelated issuesinthis chapter.

Multipath&Small-ScaleFading

Multipath signals are received in a terrestrial environment, i.e., where different forms of
propagationarepresentandthesignalsarriveatthereceiverfromtransmitterviaavariety
ofpaths.Thereforetherewouldbemultipathinterference,causingmulti-pathfading. Adding the
effectofmovement of eitherTxorRxor thesurroundingclutter to it, the
receivedoverallsignalamplitudeorphasechangesoverasmallamountoftime.Mainly this causes
thefading.

Fading

The term fading, or, small-scale fading, means rapid fluctuations of the amplitudes,phases,or
multipath delays of a radio signalover a short period or short travel distance.This
mightbesosevere thatlargescaleradiopropagation losseffectsmightbeignored.
 MultipathFadingEffffects

Inprinciple,thefollowingarethemainmultipatheffects:

1. Rapidchangesinsignalstrengthoverasmalltraveldistanceortimeinterval.

2. Random frequency modulationdue to varying Doppler shifts on different mul-

tipathsignals.

3. Timedispersionorechoescausedbymultipathpropagationdelays.

FactorsInfluencingFading

The following physical factors influence small-scale fading in the radio propagation
channel:

(1) Multipathpropagation–Multipathisthepropagationphenomenonthatre-sultsinradio
signals reaching the receiving antenna by two or more paths. The effects of multipath
include constructive and destructive interference, and phase shifting of the signal.

(2) Speed of the mobile – The relative motion between the base station and the mobile
results in random frequency modulation due to different doppler shifts on each of the
multipathcomponents.

(3) Speed of surrounding objects – If objects in the radio channel are in mo- tion, they
induce a time varying Doppler shift on multipath components. If the surrounding
objectsmove atagreaterratethanthemobile,then thiseffectdominatesfading.

(4) TransmissionBandwidthofthesignal–Ifthetransmittedradiosignalbandwidth is greater

than the “bandwidth” of the multipath channel (quanti- fied by coherence
bandwidth),thereceivedsignalwillbedistorted.
 TypesofSmall-ScaleFading

The type of fading experienced by the signal through a mobile channel dependson the relation
between the signal parameters (bandwidth, symbol period) and the channelparameters (rms
delay spread and Doppler spread). Hence we have four different types of fading.Therearetwo
typesoffadingdue tothetimedispersivenatureofthe channel.

FadingEffffectsduetoMultipathTimeDelaySpread

FlatFading

Such types of fading occurs when the bandwidth of the transmitted signal is less than the
coherence bandwidth of the channel. Equivalently if the symbol period of the signal is more
thanthermsdelayspreadof thechannel,thenthefadingisflatfading.

Sowecansaythatflatfadingoccurswhen

BS BC

whereBSisthesignalbandwidthandBCisthecoherencebandwidth.Also

TS×στ

whereTSis thesymbolperiod andστ is the rms delayspread. Andin such a case,mobile channelhas
aconstantgainand linearphaseresponseoveritsbandwidth.

FrequencySelectiveFading

Frequency selective fading occurs when the signal bandwidth is more than theco-herence
bandwidthofthemobileradiochannelorequivalentlythesymbolsdurationofthesignal
islessthanthermsdelayspread.

B S×BC

and
TS στ
Atthereceiver,weobtainmultiplecopiesofthetransmittedsignal,allattenuatedanddelayed in time.
The channel introduces inter symbol interference. A rule of thumb for a channelto haveflat
fading is if
στ≤0.1
TS

FadingEffffectsduetoDopplerSpread

FastFading

In a fast fading channel, the channel impulse response changes rapidly within the symbol
duration of the signal. Due to Doppler spreading, signal undergoes frequency dispersion
leadingtodistortion.Thereforeasignalundergoesfastfadingif

TS × TC

whereTCisthecoherencetimeand

BS×BD

whereBDistheDopplerspread.Transmissioninvolvingverylowdataratessufferfrom fast fading.

SlowFading

In such a channel, the rate of the change of the channel impulse response is much
lessthanthetransmittedsignal.Wecanconsideraslowfadedchannelachannelinwhichchannel is
almostconstantover atleastonesymbolduration.Hence

TS TC

and
BS×BD

Weobservethatthevelocityoftheuserplaysanimportantroleindecidingwhether the signal

experiences fast or slow fading.
 FigureIllustrationofDopplereffect.

DopplerShift

The Doppler effect (or Doppler shift) is the change in frequency of a wave for an observer

moving relative to the source of the wave.In classical physics (wavesina medium), the
relationshipbetweentheobservedfrequencyfandtheemittedfrequencyfoisgiven
by:
. Σ
v±vr
f= f0
v±vs
where vis thevelocityofwaves in themedium,vs is thevelocityofthesourcerelativeto
themediumandvr is thevelocityof thereceiverrelative to themedium.
In mobile communication, the above equation can be slightly changed according toour
convenience since the source (BS) is fixed andlocated at a remote elevated levelfrom
ground.TheexpectedDopplershiftoftheEMwavethencomesoutto
vr vr
b
ce± foorλ,± .AstheBSislocatedatanelevatedplace,acosφfactorwould

alsobemultipliedwiththis.Theexactscenario,asgiven inFigure5.1,isillustratedbelow.
Consider a mobile moving at a constant velocityv, along a path segment length d
between points A and B, while it receives signals from a remote BS source S. The
difference inpath lengths traveledby thewave fromsourceS to themobileatpointsAand B is ∆l
= d cos θ = v∆tcos θ,where ∆t is the time required for the mobile totravel
fromAtoB,andθis assumedtobethesameatpointsAandBsincethe
source is assumed to be very far away.The phase change in the received signal due to
the difference in path lengths is therefore
2π∆l 2πv∆t
∆ϕ= = cosθ (5.11)
λ λ

andhencetheapparentchangeinfrequency,orDopplershift(fd)is
1 ∆ϕ v
∆t =.cosθ. λ
f2π
d= .

Example1

An aircraft is heading towards a control tower with 500 kmph, at an elevation of 20◦.
Communicationbetweenaircraft andcontrol toweroccursat 900MHz.Findout the expected
Dopplershift.
SolutionAsgivenhere,
v =500kmph

thehorizontalcomponentofthevelocityis

vj=vcosθ=500×cos20 ◦=130m/s

Hence,itcanbewrittenthat

900×106=1m
λ=
3×108 3
130
fd=1 =390Hz
/3
If the plane banks suddenly and heads for other direction, the Doppler shift change will be390
Hz to −390 Hz.

ImpulseResponseModelofaMultipathChannel

Mobileradiochannelmaybemodeledasalinearfilterwithtimevaryingimpulseresponse in
continuous time. To show this, consider time variation due to receiver motionand time
varying impulseresponseh(d,t)andx(t),thetransmittedsignal.
Thereceivedsignaly(d,t)atanypositiondwouldbe
∫∞
y(d,t)=x(t)∗h(d,t)=x(τ)h(d,t−τ)dτ
−∞
∫∞
Foracausalsystem:h(d,t)=0,fort<0andforastablesystem |h(d,t)| dt<
−∞
∞
Applyingcausalityconditionintheaboveequation,h(d,t−τ)=0fort−τ<0

⇒τ>t,i.e.,theintegrallimitsarechangedto

∫t
y(d,t)= x(τ)h(d,t−τ)dτ.
−∞

Since the receiver moves along thegroundata constantvelocityv,the positionof the receiver
is d = vt, i.e.,
∫t
y(vt, t)= x(τ)h(vt,t−τ)dτ.
−∞

Sincev is a constant,y(vt,t)is justa functionoft.Therefore theaboveequationcan be

expressed as
∫t
y(t)= x(τ)h(vt,t−τ)dτ=x(t)∗h(vt,t)=x(t)∗h(d,t)
−∞

It is useful todiscretizethemultipathdelay axisτoftheimpulseresponse intoequaltime

delaysegmentscalledexcessdelaybins,eachbinhavingatimedelaywidthequal

to(τi+1 −τi)=∆τandτi=i∆τfori∈{0,1,2,..N−1},whereNrepresentsthetotal
number of possible equally-spaced multipath components, including the first arriving
component.Theusefulfrequencyspanofthemodelis 2/∆τ .Themodelmaybe used to analyze

transmittedRF signalshaving bandwidth less than 2/∆τ.

IfthereareNmultipaths,maximumexcessdelayisgivenbyN∆τ.

{y(t)=x(t)∗h(t,τi)|i=0,1,...N−1}

Bandpasschannelimpulseresponsemodelis

x(t)→h(t, τ)=Re{h b(t, τ)ejωct→y(t)=Re{r(t)ejωct}

Basebandequivalentchannelimpulseresponsemodelisgivenby
1 1
c(t)→ hb(t,τ)→r(t)=c(t)∗ hb(t,τ)
2 2
Averagepoweris
1
x2(t)= |c(t)|2

2
Thebasebandimpulseresponseofamultipathchannelcanbeexpressedas
N−1
hb(t,τ)= Σ ai(t,τ)exp[j(2πfcτi(t)+ϕi(t,τ))]δ(τ τi(t))
i=0 —

whereai(t,τ)andτi(t)aretherealamplitudesandexcessdelays,respectively,ofthe ith multipath

component at timet. The phase term 2πfc τi(t) +ϕi(t, τ) in the aboveequation represents the
phase shift due to free space propagation of theith multipath component, plus any
additional phase shifts which are encountered in the channel.
If the channel impulse response is wide sense stationary over a small-scale time or distance
interval, then
N−1
hb(τ)= Σ aiexp[jθi]δ(τ τi)
i=0 −

Formeasuringhb(τ),weuseaprobingpulsetoapproximateδ(t)i.e.,

p(t)≈δ(t−τ)

Powerdelayprofile is takenbyspatialaverageof|hb(t,τ )|2 over alocalarea.Thereceived power delay

profile in a local area is given by

p(τ)≈k|hb(t;τ)|2.

RelationBetweenBandwidthandReceivedPower

In actual wireless communications, impulseresponseof a multipath channelis mea- sured

usingchannelsoundingtechniques.Letus considertwoextremechannelsoundingcases. Consider a
pulsed, transmitted RF signal

x(t)=Re{p(t)ej2πfct}
.
4τmax
where p(t) = for0≤t≤Tbband0elsewhere.Thelowpasschanneloutput
Tbb
is

1 N−1aexp[jθ]p(t τ)
r(t) = Σ i i i
2i=0 −
. Tb
N−1 τmax )
= aiexp[jθi]. rect(t− −τi.
i=0
Tbb
2
 Figure:AgenerictransmittedpulsedRFsignal.

Thereceivedpoweratanytimet0is
r(t)r∗(t)dt
|r(t)| = 1 τ∫max
2
0
τmax
0
τ∫max .N−1 Σ
1 1Σ a2(t)p 2(t−τ) dt

k0 k
=τmax 4
0 k=0
1Σ τ∫max.. _____________________ Σ2
N−1 τ Tb
k —

= a2(t0)
max
rect(t −τi) dt
τmax Tbb 2
k=0 0
N−1

Σ
= a2(t).
k0
k=0

Interpretation: If the transmitted signal isable to resolve the multipaths, then average small-
scale receiver power is simply sum of average powers received from each multipath
components.
N−1
|aiexp(jθi)| 2]≈ Σ N −1
E [PWB]=E [Σ 2i

a,θ a,θ a
i=0 i=0

Now insteadof apulse, consider aCWsignal,transmitted into thesame channeland

forsimplicity,lettheenvelopebec(t)=2.Then

Σ
N −1
r(t)= aiexp[jθi(t,τ)]
i=0
 andtheinstantaneouspoweris
2 ΣN−1 2
|r(t)|=| aexp[jθ(t,τ)]|
i i
i=0

Overlocalareas,aivarieslittlebutθivariesgreatlyresultinginlargefluctuations.
NΣ
−1
2
Ea,θ[PCW]= Ea,θ[ aiexp(jθi)]|
i=0
NΣ− 1 Σ
N−Σ
1N
|
≈ a2 +2 r cos(θ−θ)

i ij i
ji=0 i=0i,ji

whererij=Ea[aiaj].

If,rij=cos(θi−θj) =0, then Ea,θ[PCW] =Ea,θ[PWB].This occurs ifmultipath

componentsareuncorrelatedorifmultipathphasesarei.i.dover[0,2π].
Bottomline:

1. If the signal bandwidth is greater than multipath channel bandwidth then

fadingeffects arenegligible

2. If thesignal bandwidth is less than the multipath channel bandwidth, large

fadingoccursduetophaseshiftofunresolvedpaths.

LinearTimeVaryingChannels(LTV)

Thetimevarianttransferfunction(TF)ofanLTVchannelisFTofh(t,τ)w.r.t.τ.
∫∞
H(f,t)=FT[h(τ,t)]= h(τ,t)e−j2πfτdτ
−∞
∫∞
h(τ,t)=FT −1[H(f,t)]= H(f, t)ej2πfτdf
−∞
Thereceivedsignal ∫∞
r(t)= R(f,t)ej2πftdf
−∞

whereR(f,t)=H(f,t)X(f).
Σ
Forflat fading channel, h(τ, t) = Z(t)δ(τ − τi) where Z(t) αn (t)e −j2πfcτn(t).In
=thiscase,thereceivedsignalis
∫∞

r(t)= h(τ,t)x(t−τ)dτ=Z(t)x(t−τi)
−∞
 Figure:Relationshipamongdifferentchannelfunctions.

wherethechannelbecomesmultiplicative.
Dopplerspreadfunctions:
∫∞
H(f,ν)=FT[H(f,t)]= H(f,t)e−j2πνtdt
−∞

and ∫∞
H(f,t)=FT −1[H(f,ν)]= H(f,ν)ej2πνtdν
−∞

DelayDopplerspread:
∫∞
H(τ,ν)=FT[h(τ,t)]= h(τ,t)e−j2πνtdt
−∞

Small-ScaleMultipathMeasurements

DirectRFPulseSystem

AwidebandpulsedbistaticradarusuallytransmitsarepetitivepulseofwidthTbbs,and
usesareceiverwithawidebandpassfilter(BW=2 Hz).Thesignalisthen
bb

amplified,envelopedetected,anddisplayedandstoredonahighspeedoscilloscope.Immediate
measurementsofthesquareofthechannelimpulseresponse convolvedwiththe probingpulse can
be taken. If the oscilloscope is set on averaging mode, then this system providesalocal average
power delay profile.
 Figure:DirectRFpulsedchannelIRmeasurement.

This system is subject to interference noise.If the first arriving signal is blocked or
fades,severefadingoccurs,anditispossiblethesystemmaynottriggerproperly.

FrequencyDomainChannelSounding

In this case we measure the channel in the frequency domain and then convert it into time
domain impulse response by taking its inverse discrete Fourier transform (IDFT). A vector
networkanalyzercontrolsasweptfrequencysynthesizer.AnS-parametertestsetisused to monitor
the frequency response of the channel. The sweeper scans a particular frequency band,
centered on the carrier, by stepping through discrete frequencies. The number and spacing of
the frequency step impacts the time resolution of the impulse response measurement. For each
frequency step, the S-parameter test set transmits aknownsignal
levelatport1andmonitorsthereceivedsignalatport2.Thesesignalsallowtheanalyzer
tomeasurethecomplexresponse,S21(ω),ofthechanneloverthemeasuredfrequency range. The
S21(ω) measure is the measure of the signal flow from transmitter antenna to receiver
 Figure:FrequencydomainchannelIRmeasurement.

antenna(i.e.,thechannel).
This system is suitable only for indoor channelmeasurements. This system is also non
real-time.Hence,itisnotsuitablefortime-varyingchannelsunlessthesweeptimesare fast enough.

MultipathChannelParameters

To compare the different multipath channels and to quantify them, we define some
parameters.Theyallcanbedeterminedfromthepowerdelayprofile.Thesepa-rameters can be
broadly divided in to two types.

TimeDispersionParameters

Theseparametersincludethemeanexcessdelay,rmsdelayspreadandexcessdelay
spread.Themeanexcessdelayisthe firstmomentofthe powerdelayprofileandis
definedas
Σ 2 Σ
a τk P(τ
τ¯= k
= Σ k)τk
2
Σ P(τk)
k
a
whereak is the amplitude,τk is the excessdelay andP(τk) is thepower of the individual multipath
signals.
Themeansquareexcessdelayspreadisdefinedas
P(τ)τ2
¯
τ 2Σ k
Σ
Pk=(τk)
Sincethermsdelayspreadisthesquarerootofthesecondcentralmomentofthepower
delayprofile,itcanbewrittenas
.
στ= τ¯2−(τ¯)2

Asaruleofthumb,forachanneltobeflatfadingthefollowingconditionmustbesatisfied

≤0.1
Tστ S

whereTSisthesymbolduration. Forthiscase, noequalizerisrequiredatthereceiver.

Example 2

1. Sketchthe1powerdelayprofileandcomputeRMSdelayspreadforthefollow-ing:
Σ −6
P(τ)= δ(τ−n×10 )(inwatts)
n=0

2. If BPSK modulation is used, what is themaximumbit rate that canbesent through

thechannelwithoutneedinganequalizer?

Solution

1. P(0)=1watt,P(1)=1watt

(1)(0)+(1)(1)
τ= =0.5µs
1+1

τ2=0.5µs2στ=0.5µs
 2. Forflatfadingchannel,weneedστ0.1 ⇒Rs=1 =0.2×104 =200kbps
Ts Ts

ForBPSKweneedRb =Rs=200kbps

Example3Asimpledelayspreadbound:Feher’supperbound
Considerasimpleworst-casedelayspreadscenarioasshowninfigurebelow.

Hered min=d 0andd max=di+dr

Transmittedpower=P T,Minimumreceivedpower=P Rmin=P Threshold

PRmin λ
=ttT ttR ( 4πd )2
PT
max

PutttT=ttR=1i.e.,consideringomni-directionalunitygainantennas

dmax=( λ)( PT )21

4π PRminλ
τ =dmax
=( )( PT 2 1
max )
c 4πPc T PRmin
1 )(
1

τ max=( ___________ )2
4πf PRmin

FrequencyDispersionParameters

Tocharacterizethechannelinthefrequencydomain,wehavethefollowingparam-eters.
 (1) Coherence bandwidth: it is a statistical measure of the range of frequencies over
whichthechannelcanbeconsideredtopassallthefrequencycomponentswithalmost equalgain and
linear phase. When this condition is satisfied then wesay the channel to be flat.
Practically, coherence bandwidth is the minimum separation over which the two
frequencycomponentsareaffecteddifferently.Ifthecoherencebandwidthiscon-sidered
tobethebandwidthoverwhichthefrequencycorrelationfunctionisabove
0.9,thenitisapproximatedas
1
BC≈ .
50σ
τ

However,ifthecoherencebandwidthisconsideredtobethebandwidthoverwhichthe
frequencycorrelationfunctionisabove0.5,thenitisdefinedas
1
BC≈ .
5στ

The coherencebandwidthdescribes the timedispersivenatureof the channel in the local

area.Amoreconvenientparameter tostudythetimevariationof the channelisthe
coherencetime.Thisvariationmaybeduetotherelativemotionbetweenthemobileand
thebasestationorthemotionoftheobjectsinthechannel.
(2) Coherencetime:thisisastatisticalmeasureofthetimedurationoverwhichthechannel
impulse response is almost invariant. When channel behaves like this,itissaidtobeslow faded.
Essentially it is the minimum timedurationoverwhich two received signals are
affecteddifferently.Foranexample,ifthecoherencetime isconsideredto be the bandwidthover
whichthetimecorrelationis above0.5,then
itcanbeapproximatedas
9
TC ≈
16πf
m
ν
wherefmisthemaximumdopplerspreadgivenbefm= . λ
 AnotherparameteristheDopplerspread(BD)whichistherange offrequenciesover which the
received Doppler spectrum is non zero.

Statisticalmodelsformultipathpropagation

Manymultipathmodelshavebeenproposedtoexplaintheobservedstatisticalna-tureof
apracticalmobile channel.Both thefirstorderandsecondorderstatistics

Figure:TworayNLoSmultipath,resultinginRayleighfading.

have been examined in order to find out the effective way to model and combat the channel
effects. The most popular of these models are Rayleigh model, which de- scribes the NLoS
propagation. The Rayleigh model is used to model the statistical time varying nature of the
received envelopeofaflatfading envelope.Below,wediscussaboutthemainfirstorder and second
order statistical models.

NLoSPropagation:RayleighFadingModel

LettherebetwomultipathsignalsS1andS2receivedattwodifferenttimeinstantsdueto
thepresenceofobstaclesasshowninFigure5.6.Nowtherecaneitherbeconstructiveor
destructiveinterferencebetweenthetwosignals.
Let Enbe the electricfield and Θnbe the relative phase of the various multipath signals.So
we have
˜E= Σ Enejθn
N

n=1
NowifN→∞(i.e.aresufficientlylargenumberofmultipaths)andalltheEnareIID
distributed,thenbyCentralLimitTheoremwehave,
Σ jθ
˜ Ee n
N
limE= n
lim
N→∞ N→∞
n=1

=Zr+jZi=Rejφ
whereZrandZiareGaussianRandomvariables.Fortheabovecase
.
R= Z2+Z2
r i

and
Z
φ =tan −1
i

Zr
ForallpracticalpurposesweassumethattherelativephaseΘnisuniformalydis-
tributed.
jθ 1∫2π
n
E[e ] = e jθdθ= 0
2π

ItcanbeseenthatEnandΘnareindependent.So,
Σ
E [E˜ ] =E[ Een jθn]=0
.˜ . 2 Σ Σ ΣΣ ΣN
E[E jθn ∗−jθn e j(θ n −θ m ) ]= 2
..]=E[ Ene Ene ]=E[ En Em En =P0
m n

m n n=1

whereP0 isthetotalpowerobtained.TofindtheCumulativeDistributionFunc-tion(CDF) of R, we
proceed as follows.
∫∫
F R(r)=Pr(R≤r)= fZi,Zr(zi,zr)dzidzr
A

whereAisdeterminedbythevaluestakenbythedummyvariabler.LetZiandZr
bezeromeanGaussianRVs.HencetheCDFcanbewrittenas
∫∫ −(Z2+Z2)

1 r i

FR(r)= √ e 2
2σ dZi dZr
2πσ 2
A

LetZr=pcos(Θ)andZi=psin(Θ)Sowehave
2π2π
∫∫ 1 −p2

FR(r)= √ e2σ2 pdpdθ

2πσ 2
00

2
−r

=1−e 2σ2

Aboveequationisvalidforallr≥0.Thepdfcanbewrittenas
r−r2
e 2σ2
fR(r)=σ2

and is showninFigurewithdifferentσvalues.This equationtoo is validfor allr ≥0.

AbovedistributionisknownasRayleighdistributionandithasbeenderived
 Figure5.7:Rayleighprobabilitydensityfunction.

forslowfading.However, if fD1Hz,wecallitasQuasi-stationaryRayleigh fading. We

observe the following:
.
π
E[R]= σ
2

E[R2]=2σ2
π 2
var[R]=(2−)σ
2
median[R]=1.77σ.

LoSPropagation:RicianFadingModel

RicianFadingistheadditiontoallthenormalmultipathsadirectLOSpath.

Figure:Riceanprobabilitydensityfunction.
 r −(r2+A2) Ar
e 2σ2I0( )
f R(r)=σ 2
σ2
forallA≥0andr≥0.HereAisthepeakamplitudeofthedominantsignaland
I0(.)isthemodifiedBesselfunctionofthefirstkindandzerothorder.
AfactorKisdefinedas
A2
KdB=10log 2
2σ
AsA→0thenKdB →∞.

GeneralizedModel:NakagamiDistribution

AgeneralizationoftheRayleighandRicianfadingistheNakagamidistribution.

Figure:Nakagamiprobabilitydensityfunction.

Itspdfisgivenas,
2rm−1 m m −mr
2
) Ω
fR(r)= ( e
Γ(m) Ω m
where,
Γ(m)isthegammafunction

Ωistheaveragesignalpower and
misthefadingfactor.Itisalwaysgreaterthanorequalto0.5.

Whenm=1,NakagamimodelistheRayleighmodel.When
(M+1)2
m=
2M+1
Figure :Schematic representationoflevelcrossingwitha Rayleighfadingenve-lopeat 10 Hz
Doppler spread.

where
A
M=
2σ
NakagamifadingistheRicianfading.

Asm→∞Nakagamifadingistheimpulsechannelandnofadingoccurs.

SecondOrderStatistics

To design better error control codes, we have two important second order param- eters of
fading model, namely the level crossing rate (LCR) and average fade duration (AFD).
These parameters can be utilized to assess the speed of the user by measuring themthrough
the reverse channel. The LCR is the expected rate at which the Rayleigh fading envelope
normalized to the local rms amplitude crosses a specific level ’R’ in a positivegoingdirection.
∫√
∞
N = r˙p(R, ρe−ρ2
R D
0

wherer˙isthetimederivativeofr(t),fDisthemaximumDopplershiftandρisthevalue of
thespecifiedlevelR,normalizedtothelocalrmsamplitudeofthefadingenvelope.
Theotherimportantparameter,AFD,istheaverageperiodtimeforwhichthe
receiverpowerisbelowaspecifiedlevelR.
1
τ¯= Pr(r≤R)
Nr
As ∫
Pr(r≤R)=p R(r)dr =1−e −ρ,
2

0
therefore,
1−e−ρ
2

D
τ¯= √ ρe−ρ2

2−πρ 2f
e −1
=√ .
2πfDρ
Apart from LCR, another parameter isfading rate, which is defined as the numberof times the
signal envelope crosses the middle value (rm) in a positive going direction per unit time. The
average rate is expressed as
2vN(rm
) =.
λ

Another statistical parameter, sometimes used in themobile communication, is called asdepth

of fading. It is defined as the ratio between the minimum valueand the mean square value of
the faded signal. Usually, an average value of 10% as depth of fadinggivesa
marginalfadingscenario.

SimulationofRayleighFadingModels

Clarke’sModel:withoutDopplerEffffect

In it, two independent Gaussian low pass noise sources are used to produce in-phase and
quadrature fading branches. This is the basic model and is useful for slow fadingchannel. Also
the Doppler effect is not accounted for.

ClarkeandGans’Model:withDopplerEffffect

Inthismodel,theoutputoftheClarke’smodelispassedthroughDopplerfilterintheRF or through
twoinitialbasebandDopplerfiltersforbasebandprocessing asshowninFigure
5.11.Here,theobtainedRayleighoutputisflatfadedsignalbutnotfrequencyselective.
Figure:ClarkeandGan’smodelforRayleighfadinggenerationusingquadra-ture
amplitudemodulationwith(a)RFDopplerfilter,and,(b)basebandDopplerfilter.

RayleighSimulatorwithWideRangeofChannelConditions

To get a frequency selective output we have the following simulator through which both
thefrequencyselectiveandflatfadedRayleighsignalmaybeobtained.Thisis
achievedthroughvaryingtheparametersaiandτi,asgiveninFigure

Two-RayRayleighFadedModel

Theabovemodelis,however,verycomplexanddifficulttoimplement.So,wehavethe two ray

Rayleigh fading model which can be easily implemented in software as shown in Figure 5.13.

hb(t)=α 1ejφ1δ(t)+α 2ejφ2δ(t−τ)

where α1 and α2 are independent Rayleigh distributed and φ1 and φ2 are indepen- dent and
uniformalydistributedover0to2π.Byvaryingτitispossibletocreateawiderange of
frequencyselectivefading effects.
Figure : Rayleigh fading model to get both the flat and frequency selective
channelconditions.

SalehandValenzuelaIndoorStatisticalModel

Thismethodinvolvedaveragingthesquarelawdetectedpulseresponsewhilesweep-ing the
frequency of the transmitted pulse. The model assumes that the multipath components arrive
in clusters. The amplitudes of the received components are in- dependent Rayleigh
randomvariableswithvariancesthatdecayexponentiallywithclusterdelayaswellas excess delay
within a cluster. The clusters and multipath components within a cluster form
Poissonarrivalprocesseswithdifferentrates.

SIRCIM/SMRCIMIndoor/OutdoorStatisticalModels

SIRCIM(SimulationofIndoorRadioChannelImpulse-responseModel)generatesrealistic samples
of small-scale indoor channel impulse response measurements. Sub-
 Figure5.13:Two-rayRayleighfadingmodel.

sequent work by Huang produced SMRCIM (Simulation of Mobile Radio Channel Impulse-
response Model), a similar program that generates small-scale urban cellu- lar and micro-
cellular channel impulse responses.

Conclusion

In this chapter, the main channel impairment, i.e., fading, has been introduced whichbecomes
so severe sometimes that even the large scale path loss becomes insignificant in comparison
to it. Some statistical propagation models have been presented based on
thefadingcharacteristics.Mainlythefrequencyselectivefading,fastfadinganddeepfading
canbeconsideredthemajorobstructionfromthechannelseverityviewpoint.
 UNIT IV

EqualizationandDiversity

Introduction

Apart from the better transmitter and receiver technology, mobile communications require signal processing
techniquesthatimprovethelinkperformance.Equaliza-tion,Diversityandchannelcodingarechannelimpairment
improvement techniques. Equalization compensates for Inter Symbol Interference (ISI) created by multipathwithin
timedispersive channels.An equalizer within areceivercompensatesforthe average range of expected channel
amplitude and delay characteristics. In otherwords,an equalizer is a filter at the mobile receiver whose
impulseresponseisinverseofthechannelimpulseresponse.Assuchequalizersfindtheiruseinfrequencyselec- tive
fadingchannels. Diversity isanothertechniqueusedtocompensatefast fadingand is usuallyimplemented usingtwo
ormorereceiving antennas.Itisusually em-ployed to reduce the depths and duration of the fades
experiencedbyareceiverinaflatfadingchannel.Channelcoding improvesmobilecommunicationlinkperfor- mance by
adding redundantdatabitsinthetransmitted message.At the baseband portion of the transmitter, a
channelcodermapsadigitalmessage sequence into another specific code sequence containinggreaternumber of
bitsthanoriginalcon-tainedinthemessage.ChannelCodingisusedtocorrectdeepfadingorspectralnull.We discussall
threeof thesetechniquesin this chapter.A general frameworkofthefadingeffectsandtheir
mitigationtechniquesisshowninFigure4.1.

Figure4.1:Ageneralframeworkoffadingeffectsandtheirmitigationtechniques.
 Equalization

ISIhasbeenidentifiedasoneofthemajorobstaclestohighspeeddatatransmissionovermobileradiochannels.
Ifthemodulationbandwidthexceedsthecoherencebandwidthoftheradiochannel(i.e.,frequencyselectivefading),
modulation pulses are spread in time, causingISI.Anequalizeratthefrontendofa receiver compen- satesfor the
average range of expected channel amplitude and delay characteristics. As the mobilefadingchannelsare random
and timevarying,equalizersmusttrack thetime-varyingcharacteristics of the mobile channel and
thereforeshouldbetime- varying or adaptive.An adaptive equalizer has twophases of operation: training and
tracking. These are as follows.
TrainingMode:

• Initiallyaknown,fixed lengthtraining sequenceissentby thetransmitterso that thereceiverequalizer may average to

apropersetting.

• Trainingsequenceistypicallyapseudo-randombinarysignalorafixed,ofprescribedbitpattern.

• Thetrainingsequenceisdesignedtopermitanequalizeratthereceivertoacquiretheproperfiltercoefficient
intheworstpossiblechannelcondition.Anadaptivefilteratthereceiverthususesarecursivealgorithmto
evaluatethechannelandestimatefiltercoefficientstocompensateforthechannel.

Tracking Mode:

• Whenthetrainingsequenceisfinishedthefiltercoefficientsarenearoptimal.

• Immediatelyfollowingthetrainingsequence,userdataissent.

• When thedataoftheusers arereceived,theadaptivealgorithmsof theequal-izer tracksthechanging channel.

• Asaresult,theadaptiveequalizercontinuouslychangesthefiltercharacteris-ticsovertime.

AMathematicalFramework

Thesignalreceivedbytheequalizerisgivenby

x(t)=d(t)∗h(t)+nb(t) (4.1)

whered(t)isthetransmittedsignal,h(t)isthecombinedimpulseresponseofthetransmitter,channelandthe RF/IF section

of the receiver and nb (t) denotes the baseband noise.
Iftheimpulseresponseoftheequalizerisheq (t), theoutputoftheequalizeris
 yˆ (t)=d(t)∗h(t)∗heq(t)+nb(t)∗heq(t)=d(t)∗g(t)+nb(t)∗heq(t). (4.2)

However,thedesiredoutputoftheequalizerisd(t)whichistheoriginalsourcedata.Assumingnb(t)=0,wecan write y(t) =

d(t), which in turn stems the following equation:

g(t)=h(t)∗heq(t)=δ(t) (4.3)

Themaingoalofanyequalizationprocessistosatisfythisequationoptimally.Infrequencydomainitcan be written as

Heq(f)H(f)=1 (4.4)

whichindicatesthatanequalizerisactuallyaninversefilterofthechannel.Ifthechannelisfrequencyselective, the equalizer

enhances the frequency components with small amplitudes and attenuates the strong frequencies in the received
frequency spectrum in order to provideaflat,compositereceivedfrequency response and linear phase response. For
atimevaryingchannel,theequalizerisdesignedtotrackthe channel variations so that the above equation is
approximately satisfied.

ZeroForcingEqualization

In a zero forcing equalizer, the equalizer coefficients cn are chosen to force the samples of the combined channel

andequalizerimpulseresponsetozero.Wheneachofthedelayelementsprovideatimedelayequaltothe symbol duration

T, the frequency response Heq (f ) of the equalizer is periodic with a period equal to the symbol rate1/T. The
combined response of the channel with the equalizer must satisfy Nyquist’s criterion

Hch(f)Heq(f)=1,|f|<1/2T (4.5)
whereHch(f)isthefoldedfrequencyresponseofthechannel.Thus,aninfinitelengthzero-forcingISIequalizer is simply an
inverse filter which inverts the folded frequency responseof the channel.
Disadvantage:SinceHeq(f)isinverseofHch(f)soinversefiltermayexcessivelyamplifythenoiseatfrequencies where the
folded channel spectrum hashigh atten-uation,so it is rarely used for wirelesslink except for static channels with
high SNR such as local wired telephone.The usual equalizermodelfollows a time varying or adaptive structure
which is given next.

AGenericAdaptiveEqualizer

ThebasicstructureofanadaptivefilterisshowninFigure4.2.Thisfilteriscalledthetransversalfilter,and
inthiscasehasNdelayelements,N+1tapsandN+1tunablecomplexmultipliers,calledweights.Theseweights are
updatedcontinuously byan adaptivealgorithm. In thefigurethesubscriptkrepresentsdiscretetime index. The adaptive
algorithm is controlledbythe error signal ek. The error signalis derived by
comparingtheoutputoftheequalizer,withsome signaldk which is replica of transmitted signal. Theadaptive
algorithmusesektominimizethecostfunctionandusestheequalizerweightsinsuchamannerthatit minimizes
thecostfunctioniteratively.Letusdenote thereceived sequencevector at the receiverand

Figure4.2:Agenericadaptiveequalizer.theinputtotheequalizeras

xk=[xk,xk−1,.....,xk−N]T, (4.6)

andthetapcoefficientvectoras

wk=[w0,w1,.....,wN]T. (4.7)
k k k

Now,theoutputsequenceoftheequalizerykistheinnerproductofxkandwk,i.e.,
yk=×xk,wk∗=xTwk=wTxk. (4.8)
k k

Theerrorsignalisdefinedas

ek=dk−yk=dk−xTwk. k (4.9)

Assumingdkandxktobejointlystationary,theMeanSquareError(MSE)isgivenas
MSE=E[e2]=E[(dk−yk)2]
k
= E[(dkk −xTwk)2]
= E[d2]+wTE[xk xT]wk− 2E[dkxT]wk k k k k
(4.10)
wherewkis assumed to be anarrayofoptimumvaluesand thereforeithasbeen takenoutoftheE() operator. The MSE
then can be expressed as

MSE=ξ=σ2+wTRwk−2pTwk k k (4.11)

wherethesignalvarianceσ2 =E[d2]andthecrosscorrelationvectorpbetweenthe
d k
desiredresponseandtheinputsignalisdefinedas
Σ Σ
p=E[dkxk]=E dkxkdkxk−1dkxk−2··· dkxk−N . (4.12)

TheinputcorrelationmatrixRisdefinedasan(N+1)×(N+1)squarematrix,w
⎤ h e re
2 xkxk−1 xkxk−2 ··· xkxk−N
⎢ xk ⎥

k−1
⎥
k
x k−1kx ⎢ x2 x k−1 xk−2···x k−1
xk−N
Σ Σ ⎢ ⎥

R=ExkxT=E⎢ xk−2x k xk−2x k−1 x2···x k−2x k−N ⎥.(4.13)

. . .
k −2
⎢ . . ..
.. ···
⎣
. ⎥
.k−N ⎥
⎦
xk−Nxk xk−Nx k−1xk−Nxk−2 ··· x2
 .

Clearly,MSEisafunctionofwk.Onequating∂ξ ∂wk
to0,wegettheconditionfor
minimumMSE(MMSE)whichisknownasWienersolution:

wk=R−1p. (4.14)

Hence,MMSEisgivenbytheequation

MMSE=ξmin =σ2 −pT wk. d

(4.15)

ChoiceofAlgorithmsforAdaptiveEqualization

Sinceanadaptiveequalizercompensatesforanunknownandtimevaryingchannel,itrequiresaspecificalgorithm to
update the equalizer coefficients and track the channel variations. Factors which determine algorithm’s
performance are:
Rate of convergence: Number of iterations required for an algorithm, in re- sponse to a stationary inputs, to
converge closeenoughtooptimalsolution.Afast rate of convergence allows thealgorithm to adapt rapidly to a
stationaryenviron- ment of unknown statistics.

Misadjustment: Provides a quantitative measure of the amount by which thefinal value of mean square error,
averaged overanensemble ofadaptivefilters,deviatesfromanoptimalmeansquareerror.

Computational complexity: Numberofoperationsrequiredtomakeonecom-pleteiterationofthe algorithm.

Numerical properties: Inaccuracies like round-off noise and representation errors in the computer, which
influence the stability of the algorithm.
Threeclassicequalizeralgorithmsareprimitiveformostoftoday’swirelessstan-dards.TheseincludetheZero Forcing
Algorithm (ZF), the Least Mean Square Algo- rithm (LMS), and the Recursive Least Square Algorithm (RLS).
Below, we discussafewoftheadaptivealgorithms.
LeastMeanSquare(LMS)Algorithm

LMSalgorithmisthesimplestalgorithmbasedonminimizationoftheMSEbetweenthedesiredequalizeroutput
andtheactualequalizeroutput,asdiscussedearlier.Herethesystemerror,theMSEandtheoptimalWienersolution remain
the same as given theadaptiveequalizationframework.
In practice, the minimization of the MSE is carried out recursively, and may be performed by use of the
stochastic gradient algorithm. It is the simplest equalization algorithm and requires only 2N+1 operations per
iteration. The filter weights are updated by the update equation. Letting the variable n denote the sequence of
iteration, LMS is computed iteratively by

wk(n+1)=wk(n)+µek(n)x(n−k) (4.16)
where the subscript k denotes the kth delay stage in the equalizer and µ is the step size which controls the
convergence rate and stability of the algorithm.
TheLMSequalizermaximizesthesignaltodistortionratioatitsoutputwithintheconstraintsoftheequalizer filter
length. If an input signal has a time dispersioncharacteristicsthatisgreaterthanthe propagation delay through
theequalizer, thentheequalizerwillbe unableto reducedistortion.Theconvergence rate of the LMS algorithm
isslowduetothefactthatthereis onlyoneparameter,thestepsize,thatcontrolstheadaptationrate. Toprevent the
adaptation from becoming unstable,the value of µ is chosen from

N,
0<µ<λ2i (4.17)
i=1
whereλiisthei-theigenvalueofthecovariancematrixR.
NormalizedLMS(NLMS)Algorithm

IntheLMSalgorithm, thecorrectionthatisappliedto wk(n)isproportionaltotheinputsamplex(n−k).Therefore when x

(n− k)islarge, the LMSalgorithm experiences gradient noise amplification.Withthenormalizationofthe LMS step
sizeby "x(n)"2 in theNLMSalgorithm,thisproblem iseliminated.Only when x(n−k) becomes close to zero,
thedenominatorterm "x(n)"2 intheNLMSequationbecomesvery small and the correction factormaydiverge.So,
asmall positivenumberε is addedto thedenominatortermofthecorrectionfactor.
Here,thestepsizeistimevaryingandisexpressedas
β
µ(n)= . (4.18)
"x(n)"2 +ε
Therefore,theNLMSalgorithmupdateequationtakestheformof

wk(n+1)=wk(n)+ ek(n)x(n−k). β (4.19)

"x(n)"2+ε

Diversity

Diversityisamethodusedtodevelopinformationfromseveralsignalstransmittedoverindependentfadingpaths. It
exploitsthe randomnature ofradiopropagationbyfindingindependentsignalpathsforcommunication.Itisa very
simpleconceptwhereifonepath undergoesadeep fade, anotherindependent path may have a strong signal. Asthere
ismore thanonepath to select from,both the instantaneousand average SNRs at the receiver may be improved.
Usually diversity decisions are made by receiver. Unlike equalization, diversity requires no training overhead
asatrainingsequenceisnot requiredby transmitter. Note that if the distance between two receivers is a
multipleofλ/2,theremightoccuradestructive interference be- tween thetwo signals.Hence receivers
indiversitytechniqueareusedinsuchaway thatthe signal received by one is independent of the other. Diversity can
be of various forms, starting from space diversity to timediversity. Wetake up the types one by one in thesequel.

Figure4.3:Receiverselectiondiversity,withMreceivers.

DifferentTypesofDiversity

SpaceDiversity

A method of transmission or reception, or both, in which the effects of fading are minimized by the simultaneous
use of two or more physically separated antennas, ideally separated by one half or more wavelengths. Signals
receivedfromspatially separated antennashaveuncorrelated envelopes.Spacediversity receptionmethodscan
 beclassifiedintofourcategories:selection, feedbackorscanning, maximal ratiocombiningandequal gain combining.
(a) SelectionDiversity:

Thebasicprincipleofthistypeofdiversityisselectingthebest signalamongallthesignalsreceived
fromdifferentbranchesatthereceivingend.SelectionDiversityisthesimplestdiversitytechnique.Figure
7.3showsablockdiagramofthismethodwhere’M’demodulatorsareusedtoprovideMdiversitybranches
whose gainsareadjustedto providethesameaverageSNRforeachbranch.Thereceiverbrancheshaving the highest
instantaneous SNR is connected to the demodulator.
Let Mindependent Rayleigh fading channelsareavailableatareceiver.Eachchanneliscalleda
diversitybranchand leteachbranchhas thesameaverageSNR.Thesignal to noiseratioisdefined as
Eb
SNR=Γ= α2 (4.20)
N0
 whereEbis theaveragecarrierenergy,N0 is thenoisePSD,α is arandomvariable used to represent amplitude
values of the fading channel.
TheinstantaneousSNR(γi)isusuallydefinedasγi= instantaneoussignalpowerperbranch/meannoise
powerperbranch.ForRayleighfadingchannels,αhasaRayleighdistributionandsoα2andconsequentlyγi
haveachi-squaredistribution
withtwodegreesoffreedom.Theprobabilitydensityfunctionforsuchachannelis
Γ.−γi 1
(7.21)
p(γi)= e
Γ
TheprobabilitythatanysinglebranchhasaninstantaneousSNRlessthansomedefinedthresholdγis
∫ γ
∫ γ −γ
≤γ]P=r[γ p(γ )dγ= 1
e −γi γ 1−e
d= =P(Γ). (7.22)
Γ Γ
i i i i
0 0 Γ

Similarly,the probabilitythatallM independentdiversitybranchesreceivesignalswhicharesimultaneously less than

some specific SNR threshold γ is
. −γ ΣM
Pr [γ,γ,...,γ 1 2 ≤Mγ ]= 1−e P
Γ= ( γ M) (7.23)

wherePM(γ) is theprobabilityofallbranches
failingtoachieveaninstantaneousSNR=γ.Quiteclearly,PM(Γ)<P(Γ).IfasinglebranchachievesSNR>γ,thentheprobabil
itythatSNR>γforoneormorebranches is given by
. −γ
ΣM
>γP]r=[ γ i1 −PM(γ)=1− 1−e Γ (7.24)

whichismorethantherequiredSNRforasinglebranchreceiver. This expressionshowsthe advantage whena

selectiondiversity is used.
Todetermineofaveragesignaltonoiseratio,wefirstfindoutthepdfofγas
M. Σ M−1 γ
d −γ /
p (γ)= P (γ)= 1−e Γ e− /Γ. (7.25)
M
dγM Γ

TheaverageSNR,γ¯,canbethenexpressedas
∫ ∞ ∞M−1
.
Σ
M γ γp̄ =(γ)dγ= Mx 1−e −x e−x dx (7.26)
0 0

wherex=γ/ΓandΓistheaverageSNRforasinglebranch,whennodiversityisused.
 Thisequationshowsanaverageimprovementinthelinkmarginwithoutrequir-ingextratransmitterpower or
complexcircuitry,anditiseasytoimplementasit neededamonitoringstationandanantenna switchatthe receiver. It is
not an optimal diversity technique as it doesn’t use all the possible branches simultaneously.
(b) FeedbackorScanningDiversity:

ScanningallthesignalsinafixedsequenceuntiltheonewithSNRmorethanapredeterminedthreshold
isidentified.Feedbackorscanningdiversityisverysimilar toselectiondiversity exceptthatinsteadofalways using the
best of N signals, the N signals are scanned in a fixed sequence until one is found to be above a
predeterminedthreshold. Thissignal isthen receiveduntilitfallsbelowthresholdand the scanningprocess is again
initiated. The resulting fading statisticsare somewhat inferior, but theadvantageisthatitisvery simple to
implement(only one receiver is required).
(c) MaximalRatio Combining:

Signalsfromallofthembranchesareweightedaccordingto their individualsignalvoltageto noisepower ratios and

then summed. Individual signals must be cophased before being summed, which generally requires an individual
receiver andphasing circuitforeach antennaelement.Producesan outputSNRequal to thesum of all
individualSNR.Advantageof producing an outputwith an acceptableSNReven when none ofthe
individualsignalsarethemselvesacceptable.ModernDSPtechniquesanddigitalreceiversare now making this
optimalform,as it givesthebest statistical reductionoffadingofany known linear
diversitycombiner.Intermsofvoltagesignal,
Σm
rm= ttiri (7.27)
i=1

wherettiisthegainandriisthevoltagesignalfromeachbranch.
(d) EqualGainCombining:

Insomecasesitisnotconvenienttoprovideforthevariableweightingcapabilityrequiredfortruemaximal ratio
combining. In such cases,thebranchweightsareallsetunity, butthesignalsfrom each branch are co-
phasedtoprovideequalgaincombiningdiversity.Itallowsthereceivertoexploitsignalsthataresimultaneously received

on each branch. Performance of this method ismarginally inferiortomax-imal ratio combining and
superiortoSelectiondiversity. Assumingall thetti tobe
 Figure4.4:Maximalratiocombiningtechnique.

unity,here,
m Σ
rm = ri. (7.28)
i=1
PolarizationDiversity

Polarization Diversity relies on the decorrelation of the two receive ports to achieve diversity gain. The two
receiverportsmustremaincross-polarized.PolarizationDiversity at a base station doesnotrequireantenna spacing.
Polarizationdiversity combinespairsofantennaswithorthogonal polarizations(i.e. horizontal/vertical,

± slant 45o, Left-hand/Right-hand CPetc). Reflectedsignalscan undergo polarizationchangesdepending onthe

channel. Pairing two complementary polarizations, this scheme can immunize a system from polarization
mismatches that would otherwisecausesignalfade.Polarizationdiversityhas prove valuable at radio and
mobilecom-municationbasestationssinceitislesssusceptibletothenearrandom orientations of transmitting
antennas.

Frequency Diversity

InFrequencyDiversity,thesameinformationsignalistransmittedandreceivedsimultaneouslyontwoormore
independent fading carrier frequencies. Rationale behind this technique is that frequencies separatedbymore
than the coherence bandwidth of the channel will be uncorrelated and will thusnotexperience the same fades.
Theprobabilityofsimultaneousfadingwillbetheproductoftheindividualfadingprobabilities.Thismethod is
employedin microwave LoS links which carry several channels in afrequencydivision multiplex mode (FDM).
Maindisadvantageisthatitrequiressparebandwidthalsoasmany receiversasthere are channels used for the
frequency diversity.

TimeDiversity

Intimediversity,thesignalrepresentingthesameinformationaresentoverthesamechannelatdifferenttimes.
Timediversityrepeatedlytransmitsinformationattimespacingsthatexceedsthecoherencetimeofthechannel.
Multiplerepetitionofthesignalwillbereceivedwithindependentfadingconditions, thereby providing for diversity. A
modern implementation of time diversityinvolves theuseofRAKE receiver for spread
spectrumCDMA,wherethemultipathchannelprovidesredun-dancyinthe transmitted message. Disadvantage is that
it requires spare bandwidth also as many receivers as there are channels used for the frequency diversity. Two
important types of time diversity applicationisdiscussed below.

Application1:RAKEReceiver

In CDMA spread spectrum systems, CDMA spreading codes are designed to provide very low correlation
between successive chips, propagation delay spread in the radio channel provides multiple version of the
transmitted signal at the receiver. Delayingmultipath componentsby morethan achip duration,will
 appear like uncorrelated noise at a CDMA receiver.CDMA receiver maycombinethetimedelayed versionsof
the original signaltoimprove the signal tonoise ratio at the receiver.RAKE

Figure4.5:RAKEreceiver.

receivercollect thetimeshiftedversionsoftheoriginalsignalbyprovidingasep-aratecorrelationreceiverfor
Mstrongestmultipathcomponents.Outputsofeachcorrelatorareweightedtoprovideabetterestimate of the transmitted
signal thanprovided by asingle component.Demodulation and bitdecisionsare basedon the weighted output of the
correlators.Schematicof a RAKEreceiveris shown in Figure4.5.
Application2:Interleaver

Intheencodeddatabits,somesourcebitsaremoreimportantthanothers,andmustbeprotectedfromerrors. Many speech

coderproduceseveral importantbits in succession.Interleaver spread thesebit outin timeso thatif
thereisadeepfadeornoiseburst,theimportantbitsfromablockofsourcedataarenotcorruptedat the sametime.Spreading
sourcebitsovertime,itbecomespossibletomakeuseoferrorcontrol coding. Interleaver can be of two forms, a block
structure or a convolutionalstructure.
Ablockinterleaverformatstheencodeddataintoarectangulararrayofmrowsandncolumns,andinterleaves nm
bitsatatime.Eachrowcontainsaword ofsourcedatahavingn bits.aninterleaverofdegreemconsistsof
mrows.sourcebitsareplaced into the interleaverbysequentiallyincreasing therow numberforeachsuccessive bit, and
forming the columns. The interleaved source data is then read out row-wise and transmittedoverthe channel. This
has the effect of separating the original source bits by m bit periods. Atthereceiver,de-interleaver
storesthereceiveddatabysequentiallyincreasingtherownumberofeachsuccessivebit,andthenclocksoutthe data row-
wise, oneword atatime.Convolutionalinterleaversare ideallysuitedforusewithconvolutional codes.
 UNIT -V
WIRELESSNETWORKS
 IEEE802.11extensions
Asthefirststandardwaswrappingup,thecreationofanewstandardsactivitybeguninthe
802.11standardsbody.Thenewactivitygaverisetotwo morestandards;IEEE b and
IEEE 802.11a.
 802.11b: This standard was developed by IEEE with the support from the consortium Wireless
EthernetCompatibilityAlliance(WECA).Thisstandardisbackwardcompatiblewiththeoriginal
standard that added two new data rates 5.5 mbps and 11 Mbps using two coding techniques; the
mandatorycodingmodeknownasComplementaryCodingKeying(CCK)modulationandPacket
Binary Convolution Coding (PBCC). Because ofbackward compatibility with the 802.11, this
standard has gained wide popularity with millions of installed base, which is growing rapidly.
802.11a: The successor to 802.11b is 802.11a with greater speed and at a different frequency. It
operates at radio frequencies between 5 GHz incorporating a coded multi-carrier scheme known as
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multi-carrier (OFDM). The 5 GHz band is currently unlicensed and
lesscongestedthanthe2.4GHzISMband.The802.11aspecifiesdataspeedas highas54mbps,also supports
6, 12, 24, and 34 mbps. There is trade off between bandwidth and range - lower bandwidth cases
offering increases range. For 54 mbps, the typical range is 20-30 meters. The 802.11a and 802.11b
devices can coexist without interference or reduced performance.

 802.11g:Thesuccessof802.11bhasledtoanotherextensionthatprovides22Mbpstransmission. It
retains backward compatibility with the popular 802.11b standard. This standardwill become
802.11g.

Upper Layers
802.11 802.11DSSS 802.11a 802.11bHR- 802.11g
FHSS OFDM DSSS OFDM

WiFi: Any of the above wireless LAN standards are referred to by the brand name “WiFi”. It
essentially denotes a set of Wireless LAN standards developed by the working group 11 of the
IEEE LAN/MAN Standards Committee (IEEE 802).

WiMAX:The story of wireless LAN cannot be complete without the mention of WiMAX,
whichstandsforWorldwideInteroperabilityforMicrowaveAccessbytheWiMAXForum.Theforum
was formed in June 2001 to promote conformance and interoperability of the IEEE
802.16standard,officiallyknownasWireless(MetropolitonAreaNetwork)MAN.TheForumdescribe
sWiMAX as "a standards-based technology enabling the delivery of last mile wireless
broadbandaccess as an alternative to cable and DSL". It supports point to multi-point (PMP)
broadbandwireless access. WiMAX can deliver a maximum of 70 Mbit/s, over a maximum
distance of 70miles (112.6 kilometers). It has some similarities toDSL in this respect, where one
can eitherhave high bandwidth or long range, butnot both simultaneously.The other feature to
considerwith WiMAX is that available bandwidth is shared between users in a given radio
sector, so ifthere are many active users in a single sector, each willget reduced bandwidth.
1. DevelopmentofIEEE 802.11
The Physical layer (PHY) and medium access control (MAC) layer were mainly targeted by
theIEEE802project.Whentheideaofwirelesslocalareanetwork(WLAN)wasfirstconceived, it was
just thought of another PHY of one of the available standards. The first candidate which was
considered for this was IEEE’s most prominent standard 802.3.
However later findings showed that the radio medium behaved quite different than the
conventional well behaved wire. As there was attenuation even over short distances, collisions
could not be detected. Hence, 802.3’s carrier sense multiple access with collision detection
(CSMA/CD) could not be applied.
Thenext candidatestandardconsideredwas
802.4.Atthatpointoftime,itscoordinatedmediumaccessi.e.thetokenbusconceptwasbelieved
tobesuperiorto802.3’scontention-basedscheme.Hence,WLANbeganas802.4L.Laterin1990
itbecameobviousthattokenhandlinginradionetworkswasratherdifficult.The standardization
bodyrealizedtheneedofawirelesscommunicationstandardthatwouldhaveitsownveryunique MAC.
Finally, on March 21, 1991, the project 802.11 was approved (fig. 1).

Figure1WLANNetwork Architecture
2. IEEE802.11family

Themostwidelydeployed802.11standardhasalotofextensionandmanymorearecurrently
underdevelopment.Firstintroducedin1999,theIEEE802.11standardswasprimarilydeveloped
keeping in mind the home and the office environment for wireless local area connectivity. The
Initial standards gave a maximum data rate of 2MbpsperAPwhich increased to 11 Mbpsper AP
with the deployment ofIEEE 802.11b.Newer extensions like IEEE 802.11g and IEEE 802.11a
provided maximum data rate of 54Mbps per AP using various methods to boost up the
maximum data rates. WLAN devices basedonIEEE802.11g currently offer data rate 100-
125Mbps. Similarly, a relatively newer IEEE 802.11n gives a maximum data rate of about
540Mbps.Furthermore,inadditiontothese,severalotherstandardsweredeployedwhichsolved many
QoS and security issues related with the earlier standards. Additional mechanisms were
introduced to remedy QoS support and security problemsin IEEE 802.11e [12] and IEEE
802.11i.TheIEEE 802.11n standard which we earlier
talked about also introduced MAC enhancements to overcome MAC layer limitations in the
currentstandards.TheIEEE802.11sstandard added meshtopology support totheIEEE802.11. The
IEEE 802.11u improved internetworking with external non-802.11 networks. The IEEE
802.11w was an added onto 802.11i covering management frame security.

The IEEE 802.11ad standard adds a "fast session transfer" feature, enabling the wireless
devices to seamlessly make transition between the legacy 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands and the 60
GHzfrequencyband.TheIEEE802.11acstandard,stillunderdevelopmentisexpectedtoprovide a
multi-station WLAN throughput of at least 1 Gbps and a single link throughput of at least 500
Mbps.

TheIEEE802.11aextensionemploysanumberofchannelsrangingfrom36-161depending
onthefrequencyband(5.15-5.825GHz)althoughit workswithafixedchannel centrefrequency
of5GHz.Thereare12nonoverlappingchannelsinthefrequencybandfortheIEEEstandardin the U.S.
and 19 non-overlapping channels in Europe. In contrast, there areonly3 out 14non- overlapping
in case of 802.11b [2]. IEEE 802.11n uses overlapping channels with channel
bandwidth20and40MHz[19].The20MHzchannelbandwidthis incorporatedinevery802.11n
device, the 40MHz channel is optional.
Peer to Peer (P2P) WLAN links can be established with the help of directional antennas for
afewkmranges.AtypicalWLANAccessPoint(AP)usesomnidirectionalantennaswitharange of30-
50m(indoors)and100m(outdoors).Thisrangeisgreatlyaffectedbytheobstacles between
theAPandtheSTA.IEEE802.11asufferfromincreasedrangeandattenuationcomparedtoIEEE
802.11b/gnetworks,because itoperateson the higher frequency rangeof 5MHz.Useofsectored
antennas insteadof omnidirectionalantennasincreasestheaggregate WLANdata rateinagiven area
to 2-3 times .

MediumAccess Control(MAC)Layer
IEEE 802.11 uses a contention based scheme known as Distributed Coordinated Function
(DCF).InthismethodtheSTAlinkedwiththeAPscanstheairinterfaceforchannelavailability.
Iftheinterfaceisidle,theSTAsendsitdatatothedestination throughtheAP.If howevertheair
interfaceisbusyormorethanoneSTAtriestoaccessthesameAP;acollisionoccurs.TheIEEE
802.11 uses a Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) to avoid the
collisions. IEEE 802.11 uses another MAC technique known as Point Coordination Function
(PCF) [18]. This mechanism is divided in to two parts. In the first part, the AP scans all its STA
in a round robin fashion and checks to see if any of the STAs has any packets to send. If any of
the STAs is not polled during the current period, it will be queued up for polling during the next
polling period. The scanned part uses the contention based scheme and it same as DCF.
 Moreover, due to polling mechanism in PCF the aggregate throughput of an IEEE 802.11
network decreases. DCFis the default MAC technique used in the IEEE 802.11 standard. While
the standard includes both the MAC techniques, PCF is included in the Wi-fi alliance standard
and hence not quite as popular as DCF[17]. In both the MAC techniques an automatic response
requestmechanismisusedinthismethod.Anydeviceinthenetworkreceivingdatawillsendan
acknowledgement signal (ACK) back to the sender. In case the receiver receives a corrupt data
packet, it issues a NAK (Negative Acknowledgement) and the sender resends the data packet.
ThereisaroundtripdelayasthesenderhastowaitfortheACKtotransmitthenextdatapacket in the
queue.
RequesttoSend/CleartoSend(RTS/CTS)
In the contention based scheme called DCFif more than two STAs simultaneously try to access
the air interface, a collision occurs. To avoid such collision CSMA/CA may result in incorrect
mediuminformation. This is called Hidden NodeProblemin which collision in thesomepartof the
network cannot be detected [15]. If any two STAs cannot directly communicate, the AP invokes
a RTS/CTS mechanism. For each transmission, the source STA issues a RTS message.
ThedestinationSTArepliestothisbysendingaCTSmessage.UponreceivingtheCTSmessage, the
source STA starts its data transmission. The medium is assumed to be in use given in the
message when they receive RTS and/or CTS message. In PCF using RTS/CTS reduces the
networkthroughput.

Authentication&Encryption
SecurityisalsohandledintheMAClayer.ToavoidunauthorizedaccessfromotherSTAs,several
encryptionmethodshavebeenused.OneofearlierencryptionmechanismwasWired Equivalent
Piracy (WEP). But the encryption method had security vulnerabilities and the Wi-fi Alliance
developed another encryption technique named Wi-Fi protection Access (WPA).
The IEEE 802.11i standard incorporated an enhanced version of WPA (WPA2) [20]. IEEE
802.11ialsoaddressedsecurity issuesassociated withauthenticationmethodslikeopenstandard
andsharedkeyauthenticationandincorporatedIEEE802.1Xauthenticationmethodwhichisnow
usedinallthelaterversionsofIEEE802 familystandards.Inthismethod,userscanauthenticate their
identities by a RADIUS or diameter server.

ManagementFrame
The current 802.11 standards define "frame" types for use in management and control of
wireless links. The TGw implemented the IEEE 802.11w standard to implement the Protected
Management Frames. The TGw is still working on improving the IEEE 802.11 MAC layer.
Security can be enhanced by providing data confidentiality of management frames. These
extensions will have interactions with IEEE 802.11r as well as IEEE 802.11u
Advantagesofwirelesslocalareanetwork(WLAN):

 It’sareliablesortofcommunication.

 AsWLANreducesphysicalwiressoit’saversatilewayofcommunication.

 WLANalsoreducesthevalueofownership.

 It’seasiertofeatureorremoveworkstation.

 Itprovideshighratethankstosmallareacoverage.

 You’llalsomoveworkstationwhilemaintainingtheconnectivity.

 Forpropagation,thesunshineofsightisn’trequired.

 The direction of connectivity are often anywhere i.e. you’ll connect devices in any direction unless it’s
within the range of access point.

 Easyinstallationandyouwouldlikedon’tneedextracablesforinstallation.

 WLAN are often useful in disasters situation e.g. earthquake and fire. WIreless network can connect
people in any disaster
 it’seconomicalduetothetinyareaaccess.

 Theamount of power it requires is more as it uses transmitter; therefore, the battery life of laptops
can be affected
Disadvantagesofwirelesslocalareanetwork(WLAN):

 WLANrequireslicense.

 it’salimitedareatohide.

 The Government agenciescan control the flow of signals of WLAN and can also limit itif required.
this will affect data transfer from connected devices to the web.

 Iftheamountofconnecteddevicesincreasesthendatatransferratedecreases.

 WLANusesfrequencywhichmayinterferewithotherdeviceswhichusefrequency.

 Ifthere’srainorthunderthencommunicationmayinterfere.

 DuetoLowsecurityasattackerscangetaccesstothetransmitteddata.

 Signalscouldalsobesufferingfromtheenvironmentascomparedtousingfiberoptics.

 TheradiationofWLANareoftenharmfultotheenvironment
 Wlanisexpensivethanwiresandhubsasitaccesspoints.

 Signalscangetfromnearestsignalsbyaccesspoints.

 it’srequiredtovarythenetworkcardandaccesspointwhenstandardchanges.

 LANcableremainsrequiredwhichactsbecausethebackboneoftheWLAN
 LowdatatransferratethanwiredconnectionbecauseWLANusesfrequency.
 Chancesoferrorsarehigh.

 Communicationisn’tsecureandmaybeaccessedbyunauthorizedusers

WirelessNetworkTopology
Wirelessnetworktopology—logicaltopology.
Wirelessnetworktopologyshows howthecomputers connecteachotherwhenthereisnophysicalconnection. The
computers communicate each using the wireless devices.
ThissamplewascreatedinConceptDrawDIAGRAMdiagrammingandvectordrawingsoftwareusing the
Wireless Networks solutionfrom Computer and Networks area of ConceptDraw Solution Park.

Example1.WirelessNetwork Topology
ThissampleshowstheWirelessnetworktopology.
The infrastructure wireless network topology is a hub and spoke topology. It is also named “one to
many”topology.Thereisasinglecentralwirelessaccesspoint(WAP)inthe infrastructurewireless network
topology.
Theadhocwirelessnetworktopology isa“manyto many”topology.Thereisnocentralaccesspoint, every
computer of the network communicates directly with other computer in the ad hoc wireless network
topology.
Using the predesigned objects, templates and samples of the Computer and Networks Solution for
ConceptDrawDIAGRAMyoucancreateyourownprofessionalComputerNetworkDiagramsquick and
easy.
The Computer Network Diagrams produced with ConceptDraw DIAGRAM are vector graphic
documentsand areavailableforreviewing,modifying,andconvertingtoavarietyofformats(image, HTML,
PDF file, MS PowerPoint Presentation, Adobe Flash or MS Visio).
professional-looking:Buildingplans,Homeplans,Housedesigns,Floorplans,Homeinteriordesigns,
Furniture and equipment layouts.
wirelessLANsIEEE802.11standard

wirelessLANsIEEE802.11standard, popularlyknownas WiFi,lays downthe architectureand specifications of

wireless LANs (WLANs). WiFi or WLAN uses high frequency radio waves for connecting the nodes.
ThereareseveralstandardsofIEEE802.11WLANs.Theprominentamongthemare802.11,802.11a,802.11b,
802.11g, 802.11n and 802.11p. All the standards use carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance
(CSMA/CA). Also, they have support for both centralised base station based as well as ad hoc networks.

IEEE802.11
IEEE 802.11 was the original version released in 1997. It provided 1 Mbps or 2 Mbps data rate in the 2.4 GHz
bandandusedeitherfrequency-hoppingspreadspectrum(FHSS)ordirect-sequencespreadspectrum(DSSS). It is
obsolete now.

IEEE802.11a
802.11a was published in 1999 as a modification to 802.11, with orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
(OFDM) based air interface in physical layer instead of FHSS or DSSS of 802.11. It provides a maximum data
rate of 54 Mbps operating in the 5 GHz band. Besides it provides error correcting code. As 2.4 GHz band is
crowded, relatively sparsely used 5 GHz imparts additional advantage to 802.11a.

Furtheramendmentsto802.11aare802.11ac,802.11ad,802.11af,802.11ah,802.11ai,802.11ajetc.

IEEE802.11b
802.11b is a direct extension of the original 802.11 standard that appeared in early 2000. It uses the same
modulationtechniqueas802.11,i.e.DSSSandoperatesinthe2.4GHzband.Ithasahigherdatarateof11
Mbpsascomparedto2Mbpsof802.11, duetowhichitwas rapidlyadoptedinwirelessLANs.However,since
2.4 GHz band is pretty crowded, 802.11b devices faces interference from other devices.
Furtheramendmentsto802.11bare802.11ba,802.11bb, 802.11bc,802.11bdand802.11be.

IEEE802.11g
802.11gwasindorsedin2003.Itoperatesinthe2.4GHzband(asin802.11b)andprovidesaaveragethroughput of 22
Mbps. It uses OFDM technique (as in 802.11a). It is fully backward compatible with 802.11b. 802.11g devices
also faces interference from other devices operating in 2.4 GHz band.

IEEE802.11n
802.11n was approved and published in 2009 that operates on both the 2.4 GHz and the 5 GHz bands. It has
variabledataraterangingfrom54Mbpsto600Mbps.Itprovidesamarkedimprovementoverpreviousstandards
802.11byincorporatingmultiple-inputmultiple-outputantennas(MIMOantennas).

IEEE802.11p
802.11 is an amendment for including wireless access in vehicular environments (WAVE) to support Intelligent
Transportation Systems (ITS). They include network communications between vehicles moving at high speed
and the environment. They have a data rate of 27 Mbps and operate in 5.9 GHz band.
IEEE802.11standard, popularlyknownas WiFi,lays downthe architecture andspecifications ofwirelessLANs
(WLANs). WiFi or WLAN uses high frequency radio waves instead of cables for connecting the devices in LAN.
Users connected by WLANs can move around within the area of network coverage.
The 802.11 MAC sublayer provides an abstraction of the physical layer to the logical link control sublayer and
upper layers of the OSI network. It is responsible for encapsulating frames and describing frame formats.

IEEE802.11MEDIUMACCESSCONTROL

MACSublayerframeofIEEE802.11
Themainfieldsofaframe ofwirelessLANsaslaid down byIEEE802.11are−

 FrameControl−Itisa2bytesstartingfieldcomposedof11subfields.Itcontainscontrolinformationof the frame.

 Duration−Itisa2-bytefieldthatspecifiesthetimeperiodforwhichtheframeanditsacknowledgement occupy
the channel.
 Addressfields−Therearethree6-byteaddressfieldscontainingaddressesofsource,immediate
destination and final endpoint respectively.
 Sequence−Ita2bytesfieldthatstorestheframenumbers.
 Data−Thisisavariablesizedfieldcarriesthedatafromtheupperlayers.Themaximumsizeofdata field is
2312 bytes.
 CheckSequence−Itisa4-bytefieldcontainingerrordetectioninformation.
 AvoidanceofCollisionsby802.11MACSublayer
Inwirelesssystems,themethodofcollisiondetectiondoesnotwork.Itusesaprotocolcalledcarriersense multiple
access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA).
ThemethodofCSMA/CAis−

 Whenaframeisready,thetransmittingstationcheckswhether thechannelisidleorbusy.
 Ifthechannelis busy,thestationwaitsuntilthechannel becomesidle.
 Ifthechannelisidle,the stationwaitsfor anInter-framegap(IFG)amount oftimeand then sendsthe frame.
 Aftersendingthe frame,itsetsatimer.
 Thestationthenwaitsforacknowledgement fromthereceiver.Ifitreceives theacknowledgementbefore expiry
of timer, it marks a successful transmission.
 Otherwise,itwaitsforaback-offtimeperiodandrestartsthealgorithm.
Co-ordinationFunctionsin802.11MACSublayer
IEEE802.11MACSublayerusestwoco-ordinationfunctionsforcollisionavoidancebeforetransmission−

 DistributedCoordinationFunction(DCF)−
o ItisamandatoryfunctionusedinCSMA/CA.
o Itisusedindistributedcontention-basedchannel access.
o ItisdeployedinbothInfrastructureBSS(basicservice set)aswellasIndependent BSS.
 PointCoordinationFunction(PCF)−
o Itisanoptionalfunctionusedby802.11MACSublayer.
o Itisusedincentralizedcontention-freechannel access.
o ItisdeployedinInfrastructureBSS only.

IEEE802.16

 IEEE802.16isaseriesofwirelessbroadbandstandardswrittenbytheInstituteofElectrical
andElectronicsEngineers(IEEE).TheIEEEStandardsBoardestablishedaworkinggroupin 1999
to develop standards for broadband for wirelessmetropolitan area networks. The Workgroup
is a unit of the IEEE 802local area networkand metropolitan area
networkstandardscommittee.
  Althoughthe802.16familyofstandardsisofficiallycalledWirelessMANinIEEE,ithasbeen
commercialized under thename"WiMAX" (from"WorldwideInteroperability for Microwave
Access") by the WiMAX Forum industry alliance. The Forum promotes and certifies
compatibility and interoperability of products based on the IEEE 802.16 standards. 
 The802.16e-2005amendmentversionwasannouncedasbeingdeployedaroundtheworldin
2009.[1]The version IEEE 802.16-2009 was amended by IEEE 802.16j-2009.

Standard Description Status

802.16 FixedBroadbandWirelessAccess(10–66GHz) Superseded

802.16.2 Recommendedpracticeforcoexistence Superseded

802.16c Systemprofilesfor10–66GHz Superseded

802.16a PhysicallayerandMACdefinitionsfor2–10GHz Superseded

License-exemptfrequencies
P802.16b Withdrawn
(Project withdrawn)

MaintenanceandSystemprofilesfor2–11GHz (Project
P802.16d Merged
merged into 802.16-2004)

AirInterfaceforFixedBroadbandWirelessAccessSystem (rollup of
802.16 Superseded
802.16–2001, 802.16a, 802.16c and P802.16d)

Coexistencewith2–11GHzand23.5–43.5GHz (Project
P802.16.2a Merged
merged into 802.16.2-2004)

IEEERecommendedPracticeforLocalandmetropolitanareanetworks
Coexistence of Fixed Broadband Wireless Access Systems
802.16.2 Current
(Maintenance and rollup of 802.16.2–2001 and P802.16.2a)
Releasedon2004-March-17.

802.16f ManagementInformationBase(MIB)for802.16-2004 Superseded

802.16-2004/Cor1– Corrections for fixed operations

Superseded
2005 (co-publishedwith802.16e-2005)

802.16e MobileBroadbandWirelessAccess System Superseded

 IEEEStandardforLocalandMetropolitanAreaNetworks:MediaAccess Control
(MAC) Bridges
802.16k Amendment2:BridgingofIEEE802.16 Current
(An amendment to IEEE 802.1D)
Released on 2007-August-14.

802.16g ManagementPlaneProceduresand Services Superseded

MobileManagementInformationBase
P802.16i Merged
(Project merged into 802.16-2009)

Air Interface for Fixed and Mobile Broadband Wireless Access System
802.16-2009 (rollupof802.16–2004,802.16-2004/Cor1,802.16e,802.16f,802.16gand Superseded
P802.16i)

802.16j Multihoprelay Superseded

802.16h ImprovedCoexistenceMechanismsforLicense-ExemptOperation Superseded

AdvancedAirInterfacewithdataratesof100Mbit/smobileand 1Gbit/sfixed. Also

802.16m known as Mobile WiMAX Release 2 or WirelessMAN-Advanced. Superseded[2]
AimingatfulfillingtheITU-RIMT-Advancedrequirementson4Gsystems.

IEEEStandardforAirInterfaceforBroadbandWirelessAccessSystems
Itisarollupof802.16h,802.16jandStd802.16m
802.16-2012 (butexcludingtheWirelessMAN-Advancedradiointerface,whichwasmovedto IEEE Superseded
Std 802.16.1).
Releasedon2012-August-17.

IEEEStandardforWirelessMAN-AdvancedAirInterfaceforBroadband Wireless
802.16.1 Access Systems Current
Releasedon2012-September-07.

IEEE Standard for Air Interface for Broadband Wireless Access Systems
802.16p Amendment1:EnhancementstoSupportMachine-to-MachineApplications Current
Released on 2012-October-08.

IEEEStandardforWirelessMAN-AdvancedAirInterfaceforBroadband Wireless
Access Systems
802.16.1b Current
Amendment1:EnhancementstoSupportMachine-to-MachineApplications
Releasedon2012-October-10.
 IEEEStandardforAirInterfaceforBroadbandWirelessAccessSystems
802.16n Amendment 2: Higher Reliability Networks Current
Approvedon2013-March-06.

IEEEStandardforWirelessMAN-AdvancedAirInterfaceforBroadband Wireless
Access Systems
802.16.1a Current
Amendment2:HigherReliabilityNetworks
Approvedon2013-March-06.

IEEEStandardforAirInterfaceforBroadbandWirelessAccessSystems
802.16-2017 Itisarollupof802.16p,802.16n,802.16qandStd802.16s Released Current
on 2017-September.

WIRELESSPersonalAreaNetworks

Apersonalareanetworkisanetworkconcernedwiththeexchangeofinformation inthevicinityofa person.

Typically, these systems are wireless and involve the transmission of data between devices such as
smartphones, personal computers, tablet computers, etc. The purpose of such a network is usually to
allow either transmission of data or information between such devices or to server as the network that
allows further up link to the Internet. Developments in the area of Personal Area Networks (PANs) are
largely overseen by the IEEE 802.15 working group
Personal Area Network (PAN): It is an interconnection of personal technology devices to
communicate over a short distance, which is less than 33 feet or 10 meters or within the range of an
individualperson,typicallyusingsomeformofwirelesstechnologies.Someofthesetechnologiesare:
●
Bluetooth technology: The idea behind Bluetooth is to embed a low cost transceiver chip in
eachdevice, makingitpossibleforwirelessdevicestobetotallysynchronizedwithouttheuser
havingtoinitiate anyoperation.The chips wouldcommunicateoverapreviouslyunusedradio
frequency at up to 2 Mbps. The overall goal of Bluetooth might be stated as enabling
ubiquitous connectivity between personal technology devices without the use of cabling as
written in Mckeown (2003a).
●
High rate W-PANs: As per standard IEEE 802.15 TG3, launched in 2003, these technologies
usehigherpowerdevices(8dBm)thanregularBluetoothequipment(0dBm) totransmitdata at a
rate of up to 55 Mbps and over a range of up to 55 m Ailisto et al (2003).
●
Low power W-PANs: As per standard IEEE 802.15 TG4, these technologies are particularly
useful for handheld devices since energy consumption for data transmission purposes, and
costs,areextremelylow.Therangeofoperationofupto75 mishigher thancurrentBluetooth
applications, but the data transfer rate is low (250 Kbps) Ailisto et al (2003).

HIPER LAN

HIPERLANisaEuropeanfamilyofstandardsondigitalhighspeedwirelesscommunicationinthe 5.15-
5.3 GHzand the17.1-17.3 GHzspectrumdeveloped by ETSI. The committeeresponsiblefor
HIPERLAN is RES-10 which has been working on the standard since November 1991.
The standard serves to ensure the possible interoperability of different manufacturers' wireless
communicationsequipmentthatoperateinthisspectrum.TheHIPERLANstandardonlydescribesa common
air interface including the physical layer for wireless communications equipment, while
leavingdecisionsonhigherlevelconfigurationsandfunctionsopentotheequipmentmanufacturers.

The choice of frequencies allocated to HIPERLAN was part of the 5-5.30 GHz band being allocated
globally toaviationpurposes.TheAviationindustry onlyusedthe5-5.15GHzfrequency, thusmaking the
5.15-5.30 frequency band accessible to HIPERLAN standards.

HIPERLAN is designed to work without any infrastructure. Two stations may exchange data directly,
without any interaction from a wired (or radio-based) infrastructure. The simplest HIPERLAN thus
consists of two stations. Further, if two HIPERLAN stations are not in radio contact with each other,
theymayuseathirdstation(i.e.thethirdstationmustrelay messagesbetween thetwocommunicating
stations).

Productscompliantto theHIPERLAN5 GHzstandardshallbepossible toimplementonaPCMCIA Type III

card. Thus the standard will enable users to truly take computing power on the road.

TheHIPERLANstandardhasbeendeveloped atthesametimeasthedevelopmentof theSUPERnet standard

in the United States.

HIPERLAN requirements

 Shortrange- 50m
  Lowmobility- 1.4m/s
 Networkswithandwithoutinfrastructure
 Supportisochronous traffic
 audio32kbps,10ns latency
 video2Mbps,100nslatency
 Supportasynchronous traffic
 data10Mbps,immediateaccess

Qualityof service

Performance is one of the most important factors when dealing with wireless LANs. In contrast to
otherradio-basedsystems,datatrafficonalocalareanetworkhasarandomizedburstynature,which may
cause serious problems with respect to throughput.

Manyfactorshavetobetakeninto consideration,whenqualityofserviceistobemeasured.Among these are:

 Thetopographyofthelandscapein general
 Elevationsinthelandscapethatmightcauseshadows,where connectivity isunstableor
impossible.
 Environmentswithmanysignal-reflectionsurfaces
 Environmentswithmanysignal-absorbingsurfaces
 Qualityofthewireless equipment
 Placementofthewirelessequipment
 Numberofstations
 Proximityto installationsthatgenerateelectronicnoise
 andmanymore

The sheer number of factors to take into consideration means, that the physical environment will
alwaysbeafactorintryingtoassestheusefulnessofusingawirelesstechnologylikeHIPERLAN.

Simulationsshow thattheHIPERLANMACcansimultaneously support

 25audiolinks at32kbit/s,10ms delivery

 25audiolinks at16kbit/s,20ms delivery
 1videolinkat2Mbit/s,100ms delivery
 Asynchfiletransferat13.4Mbit/s

New HIPERLAN standards ahead

Asecondsetofstandardshavebeenconstructedfor anewversionofHIPERLAN -HIPERLAN2. The idea

of HIPERLAN2 is to be compatible with ATM.

Thereisalsoundergoingworktoestablishglobalsharingrules.TheWINForumforNII/SUPERNET in the
US aim to support HIPERLAN 1 and HIPERLAN 2. This effort involves interaction between ETSI
RES10, WINForum, ATM Forum.
WirelessLocalLoop(WLL)
Wireless Local Loop (WLL) is a generic word for an access system that connects users to the local
telephone company's switch via wireless links rather than traditional copper cables. This system, also
knownasfixedwirelessaccess (FWA)orfixedradio,providestelephone,facsimile,anddataservices to
business and residential subscribers using analog or digital radio technology.
 WLLsystemsenabletherapiddeploymentofbasicphoneserviceinareaswheregeographyor
telecommunications development makes traditional wireline service prohibitively expensive.
 WLLsystemsareeasyto integratewith amodifiedpublictelephonenetwork(PSTN),andthey can
usually be installed within a month of acquiring equipment, much faster than traditional
wiring,whichcan take months tosetupandyears to increase thecapacitytomeet thegrowing
demand for communication services.
 Analogsystemsformedium-tolow-densityandruralapplicationsareamongWLL's offerings.
 ThereareWLLsystemsbasedonCodeDivisionMultipleAccessforhigh-density,high-growth urban
and suburban settings (CDMA). Telecommunications systems such as TDMA (Time Division
Multiple Access) and GSM (Global System for Mobile) are also available.
  DigitalWLLsystemscanofferhigher-speedfaxanddataservicesinadditiontoprovidingbetter speech
quality than analog systems.
 Existingoperationssupportsystems(OSS)andtransmissionanddistribution systemsarealso
compatible with WLL technology.
Whatarethemostcommonwirelessaccessmethods?
Frequencydivisionmultipleaccess(FDMA),timedivisionmultipleaccess(TDMA),andcode
division multiple access (CDMA) are all used to accomplish WLL (CDMA).
CDMA is the one that is utilized in India. This is a full-fledged mobile phone system. In fact, in
nationsliketheUnitedStatesandKorea,itisthe mostwidelyusedtechnologyformobilephone services.
BenefitsofUsingWLL
WLLsystemsarescalable,allowingoperatorstocontinuetousetheirexistinginfrastructureasthe system
grows. WLL customers use a radio unit connected to the PSTN via a local base station to obtain
phone service.
Atransceiver,powersource, andantennamakeuptheradiounit.ItrunsonACorDCpower,canbe mounted
indoors or out, and usually comes with a battery backup for when the power goes out. The radio unit
connects to the premise's cabling on the customer side, allowing customers to utilize their current
phones, modems, fax machines, and answering machines.
FollowingaresomeofthebenefitsofusingWLL−
 Iteliminates theneedtobuildanetworkconnectionforthefirstorfinalmile.
 Sincenocoppercablesareused,thecostislow.
 Wirelesscommunicationismuchmoresecurebecauseofdigitalencryption technology.
 Itis veryscalablesinceitdoes notrequiretheinstallationofmorewires toscale.