Drilling Well

Problems

1. Abstract
Oil and gas industry is experiencing a revolutionary improvement in the
past few decades. Petroleum engineers have harnessed technology to
improve oil and gas industry by all means to ensure an efficient, safe and
cost effective operations, starting from exploration, passing by drilling,
production treatment and refining. This paper concerns drilling operations
which is a very critical stage as it is obstructed by many challenges that
require precision, knowledge and wisdom to be carefully dealt with.
Problems encountered during drilling are discussed with particulars in
order to give a better understanding to the complications involved with
the operation. And for progress, more effective solutions should be
offered using latest technological methods.
In this paper, we're discussing the most occurring and common drilling
problems, mentioning their reasons, conventional practices to solve and
prevent them. Later, mentioning how Nano-technology has evolved to
serve oil and gas industry in the means of drilling by using a Nano-based
drilling fluid that could eliminate causes and foundations of these
problems in order to achieve an efficient drilling operation.

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Contents
1.Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..1
2.Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….4
3. Drilling well problems...................................................5
3.1 Pipe sticking....................................................................................................................5
Differential pressure pipe sticking....................................................................................5
Mechanical pipe sticking...................................................................................................7
Field practices to free a stuck pipe.................................................................................10
3.2 Loss of circulation.........................................................................................................13
3.3 Hole deviation...............................................................................................................15
3.4 Drill pipe failures...........................................................................................................16
3.5 Borehole instability.......................................................................................................19
Principles of borehole instability....................................................................................19
Borehole instability origins.............................................................................................20
Borehole instability types...............................................................................................20
Pressures at the interface...............................................................................................21
Instability of shale...........................................................................................................22
Borehole instability prevention......................................................................................22
3.6 Mud contamination......................................................................................................23
Common Contaminants, Sources, and Treatments........................................................23
3.7 Hole cleaning................................................................................................................27
Problems associated with poor hole cleaning.................................................................27
Factors effecting hole cleaning.......................................................................................28
3.8 Drilling induced formation damage..............................................................................30
Damage mechanisms......................................................................................................30
3.9 Hydrogen sulfide bearing zones....................................................................................32
4. Drilling
fluid and its role in preventing/mitigating drilling problems 33
4.1 Drilling fluid functions, properties and types................................................................33
4.2 Additives.......................................................................................................................35
4.3 Conventional drilling fluid limitations...........................................................................37
References..............................................................................................................................38

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List of figures
FIGURE 1- DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE PIPE STICKING..............................................................................................5
FIGURE 2 MECHANICAL PIPE STICKING 1.................................................................................................7
FIGURE 3 MECHANICAL PIPE STICKING 2...........................................................................................................8
FIGURE 4 MECHANICAL PIPE STICKING 3.................................................................................................9
FIGURE 5 FISHING TOOLS.......................................................................................................................11
FIGURE 6 LOSS OF CIRCULATION...........................................................................................................14
FIGURE 7 HOLE DEVIATION...................................................................................................................15
FIGURE 8 DRILL PIPE FAILURE, TWIST OFF............................................................................................16
FIGURE 9 DRILL PIPE FAILURE, BURST..................................................................................................17
FIGURE 10 DRILL PIPE FAILURE, FATIGUE.............................................................................................17
FIGURE 11 BOREHOLE INSTABILITY TYPES............................................................................................19
FIGURE 12 HOLE CLEANING – PIPE ECCENTRICITY PERCENTAGE AND FLUID VELOCITY PROFILE....................................29

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 2. Introduction
Drilling operation is the first and the most costly phase in petroleum
industry as, according to API (1991), it represents nearly one fourth of the
total oil-field expenditure and its efficiency is mandatory as it will affect
the whole investment technically and financially. An efficient, well-
designed and well-operated drill job must ensure maximum safety for
operating engineers and workers, minimum damage for the formation,
lowest costs and shortest time for the operations.
Drilling operation maybe subjected to multiple factors that consequently
cause major or minor drilling problems which could expose the crew to
hazards and danger, cause pollution to the environment, cause damage to
the tools and equipment or simply cause non-productive time (NPT).
While there are various reasons for drilling problems, mostly they are
linked to the drilling fluid which its characteristics and its optimization
can help in preventing/mitigating several problems that could encounter
during drilling saving a lot of money and avoiding or decreasing NPT.
Average cost of drilling fluids in well drilling will range between 15%
and 18% of the total drilling cost. Drilling fluids have witnessed a major
evolution since its use in the first drilling process in USA. Its revolution
from a simple water and clay mixture to more complex combination of
various types of organic and inorganic additives has enhanced fluid's
rheological properties and filtration capabilities (Ahmed Noah, Reduction
of Formation Damage and Fluid Loss using Nano-sized
Silica Drilling Fluids, 2014).

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 3. Drilling well problems

3.1 Pipe sticking

Pipe sticking is one of the most common problems faced during drilling
that causes a lot of nonproductive time (NPT). Pipe is considered stuck if
it cannot be freed and dragged out of hole without damaging the pipe or
surpassing the maximum allowed hook load (Azar, 2006). Basically,
there are two types of pipe sticking.
Differential pressure pipe sticking
In this event, a portion of the drill pipe becomes embedded in the mud
cake. This happens when there is high pressure difference between
wellbore and formation pressures.

The pull force, Fp, required to free the stuck pipe is a function of the
differential pressure, Δp; The coefficient of friction, f; And the area of
contact, Ac, between the pipe and mudcake surfaces.

Lep is the length of the permeable zone, Dop is the outside diameter of
the pipe, Dh is the diameter of the hole, and hmc is the mudcake
thickness.
Several parameters will promote differential pressure stuck pipe, this
include;
 High differential pressure
 Thick mud cake
 Low lubricity mud cake
 Excessive embedded pipe length in
mud cake
 Shape of drill collars
Indicators of differential pressure sticking
are;
 Increase in torque and drag forces
 Inability to reciprocate drill string
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  Uninterrupted drilling fluid circulation Figure 1- Differential pressure pipe sticking

Several precautions are considered during

drilling operation in order to decrease the possibility of sticking. Methods
of applying these precautions can vary depending on the type of the
drilling fluid, wellbore features and the degree of sticking (Bonar
MARBUN, 2016). They include;
 Maintain lowest continues fluid loss
 Keep up the lowest solid content in the mud system or removing all
solids if applicable
 Using lowest differential pressure
 Adjusting the drilling fluid in order to yield a smooth mud cake
 If possible, keep the drill trig rotating all the time
And, if the event of sticking is already presented, we can free the pipe by
different methods that include
 Oil-spotting around the stuck section of the drill string
 Washing over the stuck pipe
 Reducing mud hydrostatic pressure
(This can be done by dilution, gasifying with nitrogen or placing a packer
above the stuck point)

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Mechanical pipe sticking
Three different causes can lead to mechanical pipe sticking. For every
cause there are different reasons, indicators and solutions to mitigate the
problem (Santoso Effendi 2011).
i. Inadequate removal of drilling cuttings
Inadequate removal of drilling cutting can cause cutting to
accumulate in the annular space at the bottom of the wellbore
resulting in a stuck pipe. In directional drilling, cutting may settle
on the low side of the well.

Figure 2 Mechanical pipe sticking 1

Increasing torque and drag forces and increase in circulating drill pipe
pressure are the indicators for mechanical pipe sticking caused by
cuttings accumulation. This problem could be mitigated by rotating and
reciprocating the drill string and increasing the flow rate without
exceeding the maximum allowed equivalent circulating density (ECD).

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 ii. Borehole instabilities
In some cases, drilling through critical formations could lead to pipe
sticking. Unstable wellbore may collapse, cave or slough (flow inward).
These event mostly occur in plastic shale or salt sections or when using
too low mud weight.

Figure 3 Mechanical pipe sticking 2

Indicators are;
 Rise in drill pipe circulating pressure
 Increase in torque
 No fluid return to surface
Preventions of mechanical sticking caused by wellbore instabilities is
done by strengthening the wellbore and using a proper mud system that is
compatible with the formation mechanically and chemically.
In case of hole narrowing, if it is a result of plastic shale, increasing mud
weight would solve the problem. And if it is a reason of salt section,
circulating fresh water is the solution.

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iii. Key seating
In directional drilling, the drillstring rotating with side force (lateral
force) acting on it will cause a small hole into the side of the wall
(groove). These grooves are found at doglegs or in unnoticed ledges near
washouts.

Figure 4 Mechanical pipe sticking 3

Fl is the lateral force, T is the tension in the drillstring just above the key-
seat area, and ϴdl is the abrupt change in hole angle (commonly referred
to as dogleg angle)
Key seating is not a very common event, but it is indicated when several
stand of pipe are pulled out normally, then suddenly the pipe is stuck.
Using a stiff BHAs will minimize the occurrence of doglegs. But if the
problem is already found, the solution is to back off below the key-seat
section and going back into the hole with an opener to drill out the key
section. A fishing operation is needed later to retrieve the fish.

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The operating company have the decision on how long to attempt to free
the stuck pipe or backing off and side track as it is considered an
economical issue.
Field practices to free a stuck pipe

Primary actions to free a stuck pipe (Rabia, 2001)

 Pump mud with maximum flow rate without exceeding the
maximum allowable ECD.
 Apply highest torque on drill string and work it down to the depth
of sticking to increase the chance to free the pipe.
 Release the weight of string to increase the down weight.
 Jar down with maximum trip load while using torque, as jarring
down is more effective in freeing the pipe than jarring up.
 Reducing mud hydrostatic pressure would be an option is the
problem still exists.
 Process and procedure of freeing a pipe takes a while so personnel
must be patient.
After the string have been freed, hole cleaning must be assured and mud
properties should be adjusted in order to prevent the reoccurring of the
problem (Bonar MARBUN, 2016).

Fishing operation
Numerous problem may arise during drilling a well. Whether drill string
sticking or breaks and drops to the bottom of the borehole or other
accidents including tools that may fall from into the well from the rig.
Those tools and equipment are called fish and mostly it is not possible to
drill through it. In this incidence, fishing is necessary to retrieve it.

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 Figure 5 Fishing tools
With the intention of doing a fishing operation, drilling must be stopped
and special fishing tools are applied. Every tool is specified to perform a
certain job or retrieve a certain type of fish. Most of fishing tools are
attached to the end of a fishing string which is similar to drill pipe and
lowered down the hole.
Fishing tools
1. Spear;
 Fits within the pipe then clasps the pipe from the inside, carry it
up to the rig.
2. Overshoot
 Surrounds the pipe then clasps the pipe from the outer side,
carry it up to the rig.
3. Washover pipe
 Tool with a wider diameter than that of the fish
 It has a cutting surface at its tip that toils the fish to a smooth
surface
 Drilling fluid is pumped to remove fragments
 Another tool is lowered to pick up the rest of fish
4. Junk mill and boot basket
 Junk mill is lowered into the wellbore and grinds the fish into
smaller pieces

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  Boot basket is later lowered and drilling fluid is being pumped
to circulate the grinded fragments from the bottom and raise
them into the boot basket
 The boot basket is raisin to the surface carrying the grinded fish
parts
5. Tapered mill reamer
 Used to recover collapsed casing parts and irregular fish shapes
6. Permanent and magnetic magnets for magnetic fish
7. Wireline spear
 Uses hooks and barb to clasp broken wire line
8. Explosives
 Break fish into smaller pieces to be retrieved by boot basket

9. Impression block
Helps professionals determining the suitable tool for the fishing job by
giving an impression about the fish
Fishing operation may need up to days to be successfully completed
resulting in a lot of nonproductive time (NPT) and additional costs for the
operator. However, some contractors offer fishing insurance so that the
operator is not responsible for the additional fees.

Spotting fluids (Spotting Fluids to Free Stuck Pipe, 2016)

In worse cases of differential pressure sticking, puling and working the
string may not be effective to free it. That’s when spotting fluids are used
to eliminate the reasons of sticking in the mud cake.
Spotting fluids are designed to break down mud cake in order to weaken
the bond between cake and pipe (reduce contact area and embedded
length), hence reducing its severity.
Severity of sticking increases by time so it is important to make actions as
soon as possible after the occurrence. Noting that spotting take up to 12
hours to effectively diminish.

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 3.2 Loss of circulation
Loss of circulation is the undesirable flow of portion or whole mud into
the formation. There are two types of circulation loss (Azar, 2006) , it's
either;
1. Partial loss, at which only portion of the mud flow into the
formation and the rest flows to the surface.
2. Total loss, at which the whole mud flows into the formation with
no return to the surface.
Loss of circulation is definitely a wide problem as its severity could
initiate other problems like
1. Formation damage
2. Wellbore instability
3. Insufficient hole cleaning
4. Extra costs
Despite, it is an option to continue the operation while losing fluids, what
is called Blind Drilling. Blind drilling is only acceptable if;
1. Fluid is clear water
2. Formation above thief zone is mechanically stable
3. No production
4. Economically feasible and safe
Lost circulation zones, referred as thief zones, are located at
1. Inherently fractured formations, the fractures are found in it before
drilling and usually developed during composition or as a result of
earth quakes.
2. Cavernous formations, caving could be inherent or new
phenomenon as a result of well bore instability. Cavernous
formation are often limestone. In this formation the circulation loss
is quick, total and most difficult to seal.
3. High permeability formations, as shallow sand with permeability
greater than 10 darcies.
4. Induced fractured formation, fractures may be induced as result of
excessive downhole pressure. Induced fractures here are mostly
horizontal at shallow depths and vertical in depths greater than
25,000 ft.

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Prevention of circulation loss
 Maintaining proper mud weight
 Minimize annular-friction pressure losses during drilling and
tripping in
 Sufficient hole cleaning
 Avoiding restrictions in the annular space
 Setting casing to protect upper weaker sections of the formation
 Updating log and drilling data periodically for pore pressure and
fracture gradients
If thief zones are foreseen, loss of circulation materials are used.

Figure 6 Loss of circulation

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 3.3 Hole deviation
Hole deviation is defined as the unintentional departure of the path of the
drill bit from the preselected one (Robert F. Mitchell 2006). Several
factors are responsible for the deviation including;
 Heterogeneity of the formation
 Bottom hole assembly characteristics
 Stabilizers
 Weight on bit
 Hole inclination angle
 Drill bit type and design
 Hydraulics of the bit
 Improper hole cleaning

Figure 7 Hole deviation

One of major causes of hole deviation is BHA buckling, as buckling it
misaligns the axis of drill bit with that of the intended hole path.
Henceforth the deviation.
BHA is a flexible, elastic structure that may buckles under compressive
forces. So considering its stiffness and length would manage the buckling
behavior. In addition to installing stabilizers with the right number and
outer diameter.

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 3.4 Drill pipe failures
Drill pipe failure is a serious problem that is commonly encounter during
drilling. Its main root may develop initially as a result of improper
storing, transporting or installing (Ludivine Laurent, IADC - Drill String,
2012).

Figure 8 Drill pipe failure, Twist off

Drillpipe failures has four categories;
1. Twistoff; which is a result of the induced shear stress caused by
extreme torques that may surpass the material’s maximum shear
stress. It’s not very common in vertical drilling but it could found
in extended reach and directional drilling as torques may exceed
80,000 Ib-ft.
2. Prating; caused by induced tensile stresses that exceeds the
material’s ultimate tensile stress. Its conditions arises when there’s
an over pull on a stuck pipe in addition to the effective weight of
suspended string above the stuck point.

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 3. Burst and collapse; a very rare failure case that is a result of very
high mud weight and complete loss of circulation. The high
differential pressure between the pipe and the annulus may cause
the pipe to burst.

Figure 9 Drill pipe failure, Burst

4. Fatigue; fatigue is the initiation of micro cracks and their
propagation into macro cracks as a consequence of constant
application of applied stresses. Corrosion is another factor that
exhibit fatigue failure as it weakens the structure and reduce its
ability to withstand applied forces and stresses.

Figure 10 Drill pipe failure, Fatigue

Drill pipe failure is the most common and expensive type of encountered
drilling problems, specially while drilling deep well and in HPHT
drilling. The combination of different stresses and the resultant forces
applied on a drill pipe could cause the failure. The improper selection of
the used materials and equipment is another factor, In addition to the
contributed formation to be drilled and its characteristics.

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Pipe failure could not be totally prevented, so in order to decrease the
hazards of pipe failure of any means, these steps should be strictly
followed;
1. The proper selection of drill string components depending on the
applied stresses and formation characteristics
2. Proper storing of equipment and safety checks before every use
3. Fatigue failures can be alleviated by reducing induced cyclic
stresses to the minimum and assuring a noncorrosive atmosphere
during drilling
4. Cyclic stresses can be mitigated by controlling dogleg harshness
and drill string vibrations
5. Corrosion may be avoided by using corrosive scavengers, proper
insulation in corrosive environments and monitoring the mud pH
6. The appropriate handling and inspection of the components of drill
string on a routine basis are the best remedy to prevent failures

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 3.5 Borehole instability
(Rabia, 2001)Discussed borehole instability and its parameters indicating
that it is geo-mechanical issue that is related to hydraulic and chemical
factors. Borehole instability in petroleum is well defined as the
undesirable condition of an open hole interval that does not maintain its
gauge size, shape or structural integrity, consequently driving the drilling
operation into major problems and difficulties that will lead to additional
costs and nonproductive time which increases with its severity.

Figure 11 Borehole instability types

Principles of borehole instability
Before drilling, the drilled formation somehow have an equilibrium state
between the rock strength and the in-situ stresses applied on it whether
vertically from the overburden pressure or horizontally from the
confining. However, drilling process disturbs this balance and weaken the
mechanical stability. Furthermore introducing foreign fluids as drilling
fluid will start an interaction with the formation rock and fluids (Larry W.
Lake, 2006).

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Borehole instability origins
Three origins for wellbore instability
1. Mechanical failure
Resulted from the disturbance of in-situ stresses, typically
proportional to mud weight and its hydrostatic pressure.
Mechanical failure is either compressive failure caused by shear
stresses as a result of too low mud weight (collapse, slough) or
tensile failure caused by normal stresses as a result of too high mud
weight (fracturing).
2. Erosion
Caused by friction done by drilling fluid on the wall of the
wellbore.
3. Chemical
Resulted from the interaction between borehole fluids with
formation rock and fluids which has an impact on the mechanical
strength of the wellbore.

Borehole instability types

1. Hole closure (narrowing)

Hole closure is a time-dependent process that decreases the
wellbore’s diameter. Hole closure generally occurs in plastic
flowing shale and salt section with plastic behavior.
Problems associated with hole closure are;
 Increase in torque and drag
 Difficulty in casing landing
 Potential pipe sticking
2. Hole enlargement (washouts)
Washouts are the unintentional increase in wellbore’s diameter.

Hole enlargement causes are;

 Hydraulic erosion by drilling fluid circulation
 Mechanical abrasion of drill string
 Inherently sloughing shale

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 Problems associated are;
 Cementing difficulty
 Hole cleaning difficulty
 Problems with logging operation
 Increase potential of hole deviation
3. Fracturing
High mud weight will introduce high hydrostatic pressure that may
exceed formation’s fracture pressure, henceforth fractures are
induced.
Formation fracturing, depending on its severity, will lead to
circulation loss and a possible kick.

4. Collapse
When drilling fluid’s hydrostatic pressure is too low to maintain
the structural integrity of the drilled hole, well may collapse.
Associated problems are pipe sticking and, in extreme cases, loss
of well is possible.

Pressures at the interface

1. Capillary pressure;
Capillary pressure occurs at the interface of pore throat where the
borehole fluids contacts the native fluids in the reservoir.
High capillary pressure is required to prevent bore hole fluids from
invading shale.
Capillary pressure can be increased by using oil based mud or low polar
mud system that achieves high interfacial tension at the interface.

2. Osmotic pressure
Activity of drilling fluid is a function of its energy level and when its
energy level is different from that of the native fluids; water movement
may develop in either directions across a semi permeable membrane as a
result of the developed osmotic pressure.

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Adding electrolytes to the drilling fluid will decrease the water movement
as it decrease the difference in energy levels between both fluids.
3. Pressure diffusion
It’s the change in pressure near the wellbore caused by the compression
of native pore fluids due to borehole fluids pressure and osmotic pressure.
4. Positive differential pressure
Borehole fluids invasion into formation is occurred as a result of high
differential pressure between wellbore fluid pressure and formation
pressure. Higher wellbore fluid pressures will increase the invasion.
Instability of shale
Shale is the most common formation introduced to instability as it is the
most altered by the drilling fluid hydraulically and chemically.
In mechanical means, as any other formation type, instability of the
wellbore maybe introduced if the mud density does not bring the
rehabilitated stresses to their original state, though it needs more
precision than other formation types.
While in chemical instabilities, the chemical incompatibility of drilling
fluid with reservoir rock and fluids may affect the mechanical strength in
the skin around the wellbore.
Borehole instability prevention
Expecting a total prevention of borehole instability is unrealistic as
reinstating physical and chemical in-situ conditions of formation is
impossible.
However, problems of borehole instabilities could be avoided by sticking
to upright field practices, including;
1. Proper mud weight selection and maintenance
2. Proper hydraulics to control ECD
3. Proper hole trajectory selection
4. Using drilling fluids that are compatible with the formation
In addition to;
1. Minimizing time spent with an open hole
2. Using decent learning curve figured from the off-set data

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 3. Monitoring trend change in torque, circulating pressure, drag, fill
in during tripping.

3.6 Mud contamination

Mud contamination is the unwanted alteration in mud properties, like

density, viscosity and filtration, as a result of an alien material entering
the mud system. Water-based mud is more subjected to contamination
(Darley, 1991). Contamination is resulted either from over treatment for
drilling fluid or from materials entering the system during drilling.

Common Contaminants, Sources, and Treatments

There are different tyes of materials that can alter mud properties, they
are;
1. Carbonate/bicarbonate
2. Cement
3. Calcium sulphate
4. Salt

Carbonate/Bicarbonate
Carbonate and bicarbonate ions form one of the most unrecognized
forms of contaminants as its gradual development will result in increasing
yield point and gel strength. It might be falsely diagnosed as increased
solids but the use of thinners will have no effect in treatment.

Source of carbonates
Various sources could afford carbonates for contamination such as
 Thermal degradation of organics present in mud
 Drilling carbonate rich formations
 Carbon dioxide
 Overtreatment with sodium bicarbonate

Diagnosis
Carbonates contamination is detected by mud alkalinity analysis which is
carried out on routine basis. Analysis outcomes are in the form of Pf to
Mf ratio.
Pm, Pf and Mf are values indicating the alkalinity of drilling mud and the
following is meaning of each value (Andy Philips, 2012).

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Pm
Pm stands for “phenolphthalein end point of the mud” and it specifies
extents of Potassium Hydroxide (KOH), caustic soda and cement in the
water base mud. The Pm states to the amount of acid needed to decrease
the pH of mud to 8.3. The Pm test comprises the effect of both dissolved
and non-dissolved alkalis and salts in drilling fluid.
Pf
Pf stands for the phenolphthalein alkalinity of the mud filtrate. Pf is
unlike the Pm as it tests the effect of only dissolved bases and salts.
However, Pm includes the effect of both dissolved and non-dissolved
alkalies and salts in drilling mud.
Mf
Mf stands for the methyl orange alkalinity end point of mud filtrate and
the definition of the methyl orange alkalinity is the amount acid used to
reduce the pH to 4.3. According to the API test, Pm, Pf and Mf are
shown in a daily mud report and all the figures are reported in cubic
centimeters of 0.02N sulfuric acid per cubic centimeter of drilling fluid
sample.
Pf and Mf are based on the mud filtrate tests that will help people know
about ions in the drilling mud.

There are three cases regarding Pf and Mf.

 First case: Pf and Mf are similar in value to each other. It indicates
that the ions (hydroxyl ions) are the main contributor to the mud
alkalinity.
 Second case: If Pf is low but the Mf is high, it indicates that
bicarbonate ions are in the mud.
 Third case: if both figures (Pf and Mf) are high, it means that
carbonate ions are in the mud system.

Treatment
Add caustic soda to increase pH to the range 9.5 to 10, later add lime and
gypsum to overcome contamination.

Cement contamination

Cement is the most occurring type of contamination as it is found in

every drilling process. Calcium hydroxide is the source of contamination
and it may cause higher fluid loss, higher PH and thickening of bentonite
based drilling fluid (flocculation of the bentonite clay).
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Pre-treatment level determines the severity of the problem as following;
 Lignosulphocate high treated system, viscosity will drop as clay
will not be dispersed rather it will be flocculated state.
 In polymer treated mud system, precipitation of polymers will
occur due to the increase of pH and calcium concentration caused
by the contamination.

Sources of contamination
 Drilling green cement rich section
 Adopting poor placement job

Diagnosis
Main indications will be
 Higher pH
 Increased calcium concentration

Treatment
 Pretreating mud with sodium bicarbonate with concentration of 1.0
lb/bbl
 In severe cases of contamination, we use sodium bicarbonate at
rate of 0.15 lb/bbl for each 100 ppm calcium.
 In some cases it's economically beneficial to displace contaminated
mud with new mud. This is familiar when drilling formation which
contains high quantities of cement.
 Using sea water to drill cement section is offshore rigs could be an
option as well as using formation water in onshore sites.

Calcium sulphate
Flocculation of bentonite based mud will be resulted from the
contamination causing an increase in fluid penetration to the formation
and increasing yield point.

Sources of contamination
Mostly while drilling Anhydrite

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Diagnosis
 Increase in calcium filtration
 Decreased pH

Treatment
 Add soda ash with rate 0.116lb/bbl for every 100ppm calcium
 Lignosulphonate treatment might be needed to control viscosity
and filtration.

Salt

High salt content in bentonite based fluid may cause high gel strength and
fluid loss
Polymer systems can overcome salt contamination. However, polymer
concentration will depend on that of salt.

Sources of salt
 Salt dome
 Salt water aquifers
Diagnosis
Increased chlorides
Decreased pH

Treatment
In most cases, the only treatment for salt contamination is dilution with
water.

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 3.7 Hole cleaning
Inadequate hole cleaning during drilling has a high potential of causing
problems that will lead to large amount of additional costs and increase
NPT. It was demonstrated that a well with an inclination angle varies
from 30 to 60° from vertical presents difficulties in removing drilled
cuttings which are not observed in vertical wells (Rabia, 2001). Several
factors and parameters should be implemented to assure an efficient hole
cleaning.
Problems associated with poor hole cleaning
 Increasing torque and drag forces
 Low ROP
 Higher hydrostatic pressure
 Fracturing
 Mechanical pipe sticking
 Difficulties in logging, cementing and in casing landing

Most related problem associated with inadequate hole cleaning is

excessive torque and drag forces that does not allow achieving require
target in horizontal drilling and decreases ROP.
Hole cleaning in extend reach drilling operations
Proper selection of drilling mud and its maintenance is mandatory for a
successful drilling operation in extended reach wells. In order to bypass
formation damage and protect well integrity in extended reach wells
(Cameron, C. 2001), several challenges should be managed including;
• Maintain lowest differential pressure.
• Reducing torque and drag forces.
• Sticking to ECD.
• Handling well bore instabilities.
• Proper hole cleaning.

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To overcome hole cleaning problems, the following parameters should be
well managed;
 Annular velocities
 Drilling-fluid viscosity
 Pipe-rotation speed
 Pipe eccentricity

Factors effecting hole cleaning

i. Annular-fluid velocity
Flow rate is the most responsible for the efficiency of removing cuttings
as increasing it will always be more effectual. However, flow rate
intensity is restricted by;
 Maximum allowable ECD
 Vulnerability of hydraulic erosion to open-hole sections
 Rig hydraulic power

ii. Hole inclination angle

It was proven that increasing inclination angle of well from zero to 67°
from horizontal increases the flow rate requirements, then it slightly
decrease heading for horizontal. Moreover, at angles ranges between 25°
to 45°, sudden stop in circulation can cause cuttings to settle towards the
bottom and mechanical pipe sticking maybe evolved.

iii. Drillstring rotation

Whirling motion caused by rotation of drillstring plays a role in hole
cleaning enhancement. This motion causes a mechanical agitation to the
cuttings bed settled at the lower side of directional well allowing it to be
exposed to higher fluid velocities at the upper side of the hole. Level of
enhancement due to whirling motion is highly dependent on cuttings size,
mud rheology, flow rate, pipe rotation and its dynamic behavior.

P a g e | 28
Pipe rotation is not always beneficial as it causes cyclic stresses that may
accelerate pipe failure. In addition, in narrow holes, high speed pipe
rotation will increase annular friction pressure loses leading to higher
ECD.

iv. Hole/pipe eccentricity

Due to gravity, pipe tends to rest on the lower side of hole in inclined
sections of well. This slims the gap in the annulus lower section, reducing
the fluid's velocity and impedes transportation of cuttings to the surface.
This impact is mostly unavoidable.

Figure 12 Hole cleaning – pipe eccentricity percentage and fluid velocity profile

v. Rate of penetration
Higher rate of penetration will always produce larger amount of cuttings.
Hence, a higher flow rate is needed to assure adequate hole cleaning. If
that is not obtainable, reducing ROP is a must to avoid cuttings
accumulation and associated problems of mechanical pipe sticking or
excessive torque and drag.

vi. Mud properties

Density and viscosity are the two mud properties that have a direct effect
on hole cleaning. Never the less, density cannot be adjusted to serve for
hole cleaning as its purpose is to stabilize the mechanical structure of well
and prevent invasion of formation fluids into wellbore. Excessive mud
density will effect ROP and may cause fractures. Viscosity is modified to

P a g e | 29
be capable of suspending weighting materials added and can be adjusted
to serve hoe cleaning in vertical wells.

vii. Cuttings characteristics

Dynamic behavior of cuttings is impacted by their shape, size,
distribution and specific gravity. While specific gravity of rocks is mostly
2.6, however, shape and size of cuttings are not controllable.

3.8 Drilling induced formation damage

Formation damage is defined as " The impairment of the unseen by the
inevitable causing an unknown reduction in the unquantifiable " (J.J. azur
, 2006 ). In other words, formation damage spoils the permeability around
the vicinity of the wellbore causing a reduction in the inherent
productivity of the formation. Formation damage has a negative impact
on both drilling and production operations which adversely affect the
economics.
Though formation damage alters rock properties in the near well region
(skin), its effect may extend shallower into the formation.
Damage mechanisms
Drilling induced formation damage could happen with different
mechanisms, it is either mechanical or chemical (Faergestad, 2016).

Mechanical damage
Damage caused by direct interaction between equipment or fluids and
the formation without any chemical alteration. Mechanical damage could
be due to
1. Fine migration: Induced fine grains of clay or sand are forced to
move by high fluid shear rates causing pore throat resulting in reducing
permeability.

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2. External solids entrainment: particles from external source
(wellbore fluids) enters and plugs pore throats.
3. Phase trapping and blocking: wellbore fluids invades formation
and alter water saturation.
4. Glazing and mashing: when drill bit and string cause damage to the
formation at their interface with the formation.
Mainly, fine migration is found in clastic formation due to the high
content of transportable materials. Stabilizers maybe used to reduce their
mobility and limit their movement.

Chemical damage
Clay swelling: hydrophilic materials such as clay happen to expand and
swell when hydrated with low salinity water causing flag in pore throats.
High salinity mud systems are used in such formations containing clay.
Clay deflocculation: sudden changes in pH value or salinity can cause
clay particles to dis-attach from each other as a result of disturbance of
electrostatic forces flocculating then together. Deflocculation is bypassed
by avoiding sudden changes in pH and salinity.
Emulsion and sludges: incompatibility of wellbore and formation fluids
may result in forming sludges that will block pore throats and decrease
permeability.
Wettability alteration: chemical mud additives can play a role in
formation damage as some chemicals, like corrosion inhibitors may alter
rock wettability and change it from water-wet to oil-wet leading to
changing relative permeability of water to oil in order that rock's
permeability to water will increase while that of oil will decrease. Adding
surfactants to drilling fluid can overcome this problem and control
wettability conditions.

P a g e | 31
 3.9 Hydrogen sulfide bearing zones

Hydrogen-sulfide anticipated during drilling operations can involve a

serious consequences for personnel and equipment (J. J. Azar, 2006).
Exposure to a relatively low concentrations of H2S for a short period of
time may cause health problems or even death to personnel in site, in
addition to be very corrosive to equipment in presence of oxygen.
Level of danger of hydrogen-sulfide is dependent on H2S content of
formation fluids, formation pressure and flow rate. These data are
gathered to evaluate the risk and determine the treatment and safety
procedures (Mills, W.G., Malone, M.J., and Graber, K., 2006).
Studies and planning
1. Geological and geographic information of the formation should be
studied with precision in the advance of predicting bearing H2S
zones. Depth, pressure, temperature and field conditions should be
taken into considerations in a precise study.
2. Hydrogen-sulfide scavenger should be included in the mud
program in order to protect drill string and other equipment
expected to be in contact with the corrosive gas in order to protect
them from corrosion and govern its processing before reaching the
surface. Maintaining high pH of mud (10.5-11) is a common
practice for mud treatment against H2S.
3. In kick situations, H2S scavengers are no longer effective to
protect equipment as the hole maybe partially or fully displaced
from drilling fluid and preventing its contact with the equipment.
In this case, equipment should be plated with H2S resistant
materials (zinc plated).
4. Former reaching the gas bearing zones, emergency equipment as
the B.O.B. and degasser must be tested and confirm their
performance.
5. Gas detectors should be periodically checked and maintained.

P a g e | 32
H2S emergency planning
1. If hydrogen-sulfide zone is anticipated during drilling, the
following emergency plan should be considered to maintain safety
and eliminate hazards
2. Informing personnel about risks of being exposed to hydrogen-
sulfide or sulfer-dioxide.
3. Informing personnel about safety procedures and safety equipment
to be used if in danger conditions and aware them with their
responsibilities and duties in such events.
4. Setting evacuation plan
5. Notifying authorities in case of emergency
6. Availability of medical facilities

4. Drilling fluid and its role in

preventing/mitigating drilling problems

4.1 Drilling fluid functions, properties and types

American petroleum institute defined drilling fluid according to its

function as a circulating fluid engaged to control any or all
responsibilities involved in drilling operations in rotary drilling (Awona,
2016). Responsibilities of drilling fluid include (Ludivine Laurent, IADC
Drilling Manual, 2014)

P a g e | 33
•Well cleaning, removing drilled cuttings and circulating them to the
surface;
• Tolerate wellbore's mechanical and chemical stability;
• Drive hydraulic energy to downhole tools and bit;
• Cooling and lubricating drilling bit and string;
• Help gathering more data about the nature of the drilled formation,
formation evaluation;
• Afford a finalized wellbore ready for production;
•Suspend drilled cuttings and weighting materials in the downhole when
circulation is stopped, allowing cuttings to be removed at surface
facilities
• Forming a low permeable, thin and tough filter cake across high
permeability sections of the formation
These present the principal functions of the drilling fluid at which, every
single function, play a non-dispensable role in a successful drilling
operation. A good mud design will have many challenges to achieve its
goal and overcome expected problems and sometimes mitigating it. To
achieve these fundamental functions, drilling fluid should retain a specific
desired rheological properties that will impact its quality and behavior
(Awona, 2016). These properties are
 Mud weight
 Plastic viscosity
 Yield point
 Gel strength
 Low-end rheology
 Mud filtrate and cake
 Resistivity
"Properties of drilling fluid have greatest impact on the quality of drilling
operation and prevent problems during drilling. Undesirable alteration of
mud properties during exposition to wellbore condition is the major
concern of mud engineers. When mud properties change it cannot
perform its functions properly, so it is necessary to control drilling fluid’s
properties continuously and keep them in proper range."

P a g e | 34
Adjusting the rheology, with respect to the formation properties and
drilling plan, will deliver a safe and efficient drilling operation. Designing
an efficient drilling mud is highly crucial for oil and gas formation
requirements (Adel M. Salem 2016).

Challenges encounter during drilling operations in more complicated

types of formations have contributed to the designing of different types of
drilling fluids (Waleed tareq al-sallami, 2015). The primary ingredients of
all drilling fluids are either water, oil or gas. So their general
classification is Oil based mud, Water based mud and Gas based mud.
The selection of the fluid type is dependent on the nature of the formation
to be drilled. Shah et al. (2010) stated that the most used drilling fluid is
water based mud (WBM), this is due to its low cost and availability.
While Oil based mud (OBM) is rather used in shale formation to avoid
shale swelling due to the absorption of water which may lead to a stuck
pipe due. OBM is also used when high lubricity in the wellbore is needed
and in HTHP formations (SPE 2015).
The rate of penetration is impacted by mud density and the properties of
suspended solids (Ludivine Laurent, IADC Drilling Manual, 2014).
Regular periodic tests are necessary to observe and monitor mud
properties. Results of tests are interpreted and treatment is applied to
maintain proper mud properties. This is essential to a successful drilling
program.

4.2 Additives
Different types of mud additives are used to improve the main properties
of the drilling mud. The most common types of additives used in water-
based and oil based muds are (Rabia, 2001);
1) Weighting Materials, such as (Barite, Illmenite, Calcium
Carbonate, and Siderite)
 Also called densifers, they are solid material which will
increase mud weight when dissolved in water. Mostly
weighting materials are insoluble in water so a viscosfier is

P a g e | 35
 used to support their suspension in water. Most common
viscosfier is clay.
2) Viscosifiers, such as (CMC, HEC, Xanthan gum)
 Suspending drilled cutting and weighting material in a
drilling fluid is a function of viscosity which is, if not
sufficient, will cause all solids to settle to the bottom shortly
after the circulation is stopped. There are many solids than
can be added to oil or water to increase its viscosity till
reaching the desired value.
3) Filtration Control Materials (PAC and CMC)
 They are compounds added to drilling mud to reduce amount
of fluid lost to the formation due to differential pressure
between wellbore pressure and formation pressure.
Bentonite, polymers and thinners can work as filtration
control agents.
4) Rheology Control Materials (Thinners)
 Added to drilling fluid when the control of gel strength and
viscosity of the fluid cannot be achieved by adjusting
viscosfier's concentrations. Thinners/ deflocculates cause a
change is the interaction between solid or dissolved salts in a
manner that will reduce the viscosity of the fluid.
5) Alkalinity and pH Control Materials (NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2,
NaHCO3 and Mg(OH)2)
 Substances which are used to achieve a particular pH value
and maintain alkalinity of water based mud. Usually a pH
value of 10.
6) Lost Circulation Control Materials (Flakes (mica and cellophane),
Granular (nutshells, calcium carbonate and salt), and Fibrous (glass
fibre, wood fibre and animal fibre)
7) Lubricating Materials (oil (diesel, mineral, animal, or vegetable
oils), surfactants, graphite, asphalt, gilsonite, polymer and glass
beads)
 Used to reduce friction between drillstring and wellbore.
Hencem reducing torque and drag.
8) Shale Stabilizing Materials (high molecular weight polymers,
hydrocarbons, potassium and calcium salts (e.g. KCl) and glycols)
 Shale stabilizing can be achieved by preventing water
contacting open shale sections. Shale stabilizing materials

P a g e | 36
 either encapsulates shale or neutralizes its charge so that the
water will not adhere or filtrate it.

4.3 Conventional drilling fluid limitations

In spite of different additives added to the traditional drilling fluid to
improve it performance, it still faces several challenges that limits its
ability to do the required duties and achieve a safe job (Waleed tareq al-
sallami, 2015).
There are still limitations during use these traditional drilling fluids in
spite of the chemicals added to improve the drilling fluid performance.
The main limitations of water based drilling fluids are: the ability of
WBM to dissolve salts which may result in an unwanted jump in density.
Moreover, the WBM is capable of interfering with the flow of gas and oil
through porous media. Other limitations are the ability of WBM to
promote the disintegration and dispersion of clays and the inability of
WBM to drill through water sensitive shale. As well as the ability of
WBM to corrode iron such as drill pipes, drill collars and drill bits
(Mellot, 2008). Just like water based mud, oil-based drilling fluids have
limitations such as the fluids are very expensive from several aspects, as
the constituents of this type of mud are very expensive and the high cost
of treatment cuttings and disposal of it (Oakley et al., 1991). On the other
hand, this type is not favourable to the surroundings because their
disposal may result in the pollution of water bearing aquifers, pollution of
lands, and the decimation of the coral reefs. Furthermore; this type of
fluids is unsuitable for use in dry gas reservoirs (Apaleke et al., 2012).

P a g e | 37
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D.B. Bennion, F. T. (2010). Mechanisms of Formation Damage and Permeability Impairment.

D.B. Bennion, F. T. (2011). D.B. Bennion, F.B. Thomas, D.W. Bennion and R.F. Bietz.

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Kanjirakat Anoop a, R. S.-J. (2013). Rheology of mineral oil-SiO2 nanofluids at high pressure
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Kasiralvalad*, E. (2014). The great potential of nanomaterials in drilling & drilling fluid
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Ludivine Laurent, M. L. (2014). IADC Drilling Manual.

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Mills, W. M. (2006). Hydrogen Sulfide Drilling.

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INDUSTRY.

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Sayyadnejad, M. A., Ghaffarian, H. R., & Saeidi, M. (2008). Removal of hydrogen sulfide by
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